SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Basic Definitions:
1. Energy Bands:
Inside the crystal, each electron has a unique position and not two electrons see exactly the same
pattern of surrounding charges. Because of this, each electron will have different energy level. These
different energy levels with continuous energy variation called energy bands.
OR
Inside the crystal, each electron has a different energy level. These different energy levels with
continuous energy variation called energy bands.
2. Valence Band:
The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is called the valence band.
3. Conduction Band:
The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band.
4. Forbidden energy Band Gap:
The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band is called the energy
band gap (Energy gap: Eg.). It may be large, small or zero, depending upon the material.

Metal Semiconductors Insulators

On the basic of They have very low resistivity (or They have resistivity or They have high
conduction high conductivity) conductivity intermediate resistivity (or low
to metals and insulators conductivity)
On the basis of In metals, either the conduction In this case, a finite but In the case of insulators,
energy bands band is partially filled and the small band gap (Eg < a large band gap (Eg >
valence band is partially empty or 3eV) exists. Because of 3eV). There are no
the conduction and valence bands the small band gap, at electrons in the
overlap. room temperature some conduction band and the
When there is overlap, electrons electrons from valence energy gap is so large
from valence band can easily band can acquire enough that electrons cannot be
move onto the conduction band to cross the energy gap excited from the
making large no. of electrons and enter the conduction valence band to the
available for electrical band. conduction band due to
conduction. These electrons (though thermal excitation.
When the valence band is small in number) can Therefore, no electrical
partially empty, e.s from its move in the conduction conduction is possible.
lower level can move to higher band. Hence the
level making conduction possible. resistance of
Therefore, the resistance of such semiconductors is not as
materials is low or the high as that of the
conductivity is high. insulators.
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
Definition:
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form (free from all impurities) is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Germanium and silicon are the commonly used semiconductors.
* Let us take the common case of Si and Ge. We know that Si and Ge have four valence electrons. In
its crystalline structure, every Si or Ge atom tends to share one of its four valence electrons with
each of its four nearest neighbour atoms, and also to take share of one electron from each neighbour.
Such a situation arises at low temperature.

An intrinsic semiconductor at:

 * As the temperature increases, more thermal energy becomes available to these and the electrons
may break – away (become free electrons contributing to conduction).
The neighbourhood, from which the free electron (with charge – e) has come out leaves a vacancy
with an effective charge (+e). This vacancy with the effective positive electronic charge is called a
hole.
The hole behaves as an apparent free particle with effective positive charge.
* In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons (ne) is equal to the number of hole (nh).
i.e., ne = nh = ni
where ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.
* Under the action of an electric field, the free electron moves completely independently as conduction
electron giving rise to an electron current (Ie) and the holes move towards negative potential giving
the hole current (Ih).
Thus, the total current (I) is the sum of the electron current (Ie) and the hole current (Ih)
i.e., I = Ie + Ih
Note: Apart from the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, a simultaneous process of
recombination occurs in which the electrons recombine with the holes.
At equilibrium the rate of generation is equal to the rate of recombination of charge carriers. The
recombination occurs due to an electron colliding with a hole.
Limitations of Intrinsic Semiconductor:
(i) The number of intrinsic charge carries (holes and electrons) is very small. Hence, these are low
conducting materials.
(ii) Not enough flexibility is available in controlling the number of intrinsic charge carriers as they are
thermally generated.
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
Definitions:
(i) Extrinsic semiconductor:
When a small amount of a suitable impurity is added to the pure semiconductor, the conductivity of
the semiconductor increases. Such materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity
semiconductors.
Or
A semiconductor doped with a suitable impurity, so as to possess conductivity much higher than the
semiconductor in pure form is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
(ii) Doping:
 The process of addition of a desirable impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor to increase its
conductivity is called doping.
(iii) Dopants:
The impurity atoms added to an intrinsic semiconductors to increase its conductivity are called
dopants.
Necessary Conditions for Doping:
The dopant has to be such that it does not distort the original pure semiconductor lattice. In other
words, the sizes of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms should be nearly the same.
There are two types of Dopants used in Doping the Tetravalent Si or Ge:
(i) Pentavalent (valency 5): Like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorus (P) etc
(ii) Trivalent (valency 3): Like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (AI) etc.

n – type Semiconductor:
* When an atom of + 5 valency element occupies the position of an atom in the crystal lattice of Si,
four of its electrons bond with the four silicon neighbours while the fifth remains very weakly bound
to its parent atom.
* This is because the four electrons participating in bonding are seen as part of the effective core of the
atom by the fifth electron. As a result, the ionization energy required to set this electron free is very
small and even at room temperature, it will be free to move in the lattice of the semiconductor.
* Thus, the pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and hence is known as
donor impurity.
* The number of electrons made available for conduction by dopant atoms depends strongly upon the
doping level and independent of any increase in ambient temperature.
On the other hand, the number of free electrons (with an equal number of holes) generated by Si
atoms, increases weakly with temperature.
* In a doped semiconductor, the total number of conduction electrons (ne) is due to the electrons
contributed by donors and those generated intrinsically, while the total no, of holes (n h) is only due
to the holes from the intrinsic source. But the rate of recombination of holes would increase due to
the increase in the number of electrons. As a result, the number of holes would get reduced further.

p – type Semiconductor:
This is obtained when Si or Ge is dopped with a trivalent impurity like Al, B, In etc.
The dopant has one valence electron less than Si or Ge and, therefore, this atom can form covalent
bonds with neighbouring three Si atoms but does not have any electron to offer to the fourth Si atom. So, the
bond between the fourth neighbour and the trivalent atom has a vacancy or hole.
* To hold the dopant atom tightly within Si or Ge, some of the outer bound electrons in the
neighbourhood may jump to fill this vacancy, leaving a vacancy or hole at its own site. Thus, the
hole is available for conduction.
* The trivalent foreign atom becomes effectively negativity charged when it shares with electron with
neighbouring Si atom.
Therefore, the dopant atom of p-type material can be treated as core of one negative charge along
with its associated hole.
* The holes are both due to acceptor atoms as well as intrinsically generated while the source of
conduction electrons is only intrinsic generation. Thus, holes are the majority carriers and
electrons are minority carriers.
Here, nh >>ne.
Description on the Basis of Energy Bands:
(i) n-Type Semiconductor
* The donor energy level ED is slightly below the bottom EC of the conduction band and electrons from
this level can go to the conduction band with very small supply of energy.
* At room temperature, most of the donor atoms get ionized but very few Si atoms get ionized. So, the
conduction band will have most electrons coming from the donor impurities.

(ii) p – Type Semiconductor:

* The acceptor energy level EA is slightly above the top EV of the valence bond.
* With very small supply of energy, an electron from the valence band can jump to the level E A and
ionize the acceptor negatively. Or we can say that with very small supply of energy, hole from E A
sinks down into valence band.
* At room temperature, most of the acceptor atoms get ionized leaving holes in the valence bond.
Thus, at room temperature, the density of holes in the valence band is predominantly due to impurity
in the extrinsic semiconductor.
Note:
From after doping the crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality as the charge of additional
charge carriers is just equal and opposite to that of the ionized cores in the lattice.
The e and hole concentration in thermal equilibrium is always given by:
nenh = ni2
p – n Junction:
Definition:
The device obtained by growing a p-type semiconductor over a n-type semiconductor or vice-versa
is called a p-n-junction. It is also called a junction diode.
OR
A p – n junction is an atomic layer of separation between a p-type and an n-type semiconductor.

p – n Junction Formation:
Two processes occur during the formation of a p – n junction.

(i) Diffusion
(ii) Drift
Diffusion:
* In an n-type semiconductor,
 concentration   concentration 
  
 of electrons   of holes 
* Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor
 concentration   concentration 
  
 of hole   of electrons 
* During the formation of p-n junction, and due to the concentration gradient across p – and n – sides,
holes diffuse from p – side to n – side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n – side to p- side
(n → p) .
* The motion of charge carriers give rise to diffusion current across the junction.
▪ When an electron diffuses from n → p , it leaves behind an ionized donor on n-side.
This ionized donor (positive charge) is immobile as it is bounded to the surrounding atoms.
As the electrons continue to diffuse from n → p , a layer of positive charge (or positive space –
charge region) on n-side of the junction is developed.
▪ Similarly, when a hole diffuses from p → n due to the concentration gradient, it leaves behind a
ionized acceptor (negative charge) which is immobile.
As the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge (or negative gradient, it leaves behind an
ionized acceptor (negative charge) which is immobile.
As the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge (or negative space – charge region) on
the p-side of the junction is developed.
▪ This space charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion region as the
electrons and holes taking part in the initial movement across the junction depleted the region of its
free charges.
Drift:
* Due to the positive space charge region on n-side of the junction and negative space charge region
on p-side of the junction an electric field directed from positive charge towards negative charge
develops.
* Due to the field, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-side of the
junction moves to p-side.
* The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift.
Thus, a drift current, which is opposite in direction to the diffusion current starts.
* Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small.
As the diffusion process continues, the space charge regions on either side of the junction extend,
thus increasing the electric field strength and hence drift current.
This process continues until the diffusion current equals the drift current. Thus a p-n junction is
formed.
Note: In a p-n junction under equilibrium, there is no net currant.
Barrier Potential:
* The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electrons by the p-region causes a difference
of potential across the junction of the two regions.
* The polarity of this potential is such as to oppose further flow of carriers so that a condition of
equilibrium exists.
* Since this potential tends to prevent the movement of electron from the n-region into the p-region, it
is often called a barrier potential.
Semiconductor Diode:
A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for
the application of an external voltage. It is two – terminal device.

p-n junction Diode under forward Bias:

The p-n junction diode is said to be forward bias if p-side of the junction connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative terminal i.e., the direction of the applied voltage (V) is
opposite to the built in potential (V0).
Consequences:
* The depletion layer width decreases.
* The barrier height is reduced. The effective barrier height under forward bias is (V0 – V)
* Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion region and reach p-side (where
they are minority carriers).
Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction and reach the n-side (where they are minority
carriers.)
This process under forward bias is known as minority carrier injection.
* At the junction boundary, on each side, the minority carrier concentration increases significantly
compared to the locations far from the junction.
* Due to this concentration gradient, the injected electrons on p-side diffuse from the junction edge of
p-side to the other end of p-side.
* Likewise, the injected holes on n-side diffuse from the junction edge of n-side to the other end of n-
side.
* The motion of charged carriers on either side gives rise to current.
The total diode forward current is sum of hole diffusion current and conventional current due to
electron diffusion. The magnitude of this current is usually in mA.
* The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region and the voltage drop across n-side and
p-side is negligible (this is because resistance of depletion region : a region where there are no
charges : is very high as compared to n and p sides).
p-n junction diode under reverse bias:
A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and p-side to the negative terminal i.e., the direction of the applied voltage is same as the direction of
barrier potential. Here also applied voltage drops across depletion region.
Consequences:
* The depletion region widens.
* The barrier height increases. The effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V)
* This suppress the flow of electrons from n → p and holes from p → n . Thus, diffusion current,
decreases enormously compared to the diode under forward bias.
* The electric field direction of the junction in such that if electrons on p-side in their random motion
come close to the junction, they will be swept to its majority zone.
This drift of carriers gives rise to current.
* The drift current is quite low (of the order of a few μA) because it is due to the motion of carriers
from their minority side to their majority side across the junction.
* The diode reverse current is not very much dependent on the applied voltage. Even a small voltage is
sufficient sweep the minority carriers from one side of the junction to other side of junction.
* The current is not limited by the magnitude of the applied voltage but is limited due to the
concentration of the minority carrier on either side of the junction.
V-I Characteristics of p-n junction diode:
Dynamic Resistance:
It is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage ∆ V to a small change in current ∆I.
V
rd =
I
Forward Characteristics: The graph showing the variation of current flowing through the diode with the
voltage across it when it is forward biased, is called as forward characteristics.
* In forward bias, the current increases very slowly, almost negligibly, till the voltage across the diode
crosses a certain value.
* After the characteristics voltage, the diode current increases significantly (exponentially) even for a
very small increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut in
voltage.

Reverse Characteristics: The graph showing the variation of current flowing through the diode with the
voltage across it when it is reverse biased,is called as reverse characteristics.
* For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~ μA) and almost remains constant with
change in bias. It is called reverse saturation current.
* A very high reverse bias (break down voltage) i.e., when V = Vbr the current increases sharply. Even
a slight increase in the bias voltage causes large change in the current. (At Breakdown voltage, Si –
Si bond starts breaking, thus large no. of free ‘n’ and ‘h’ s.t. current increases.
Note: The p-n junction diode primarily allows the flow of current only in one direction (forward bias).
The forward bias resistance is low as compared to the reverse bias resistance.
Application of junction Diode as a Rectifier: The device which converts A.C. to D.C. is called as rectifier.
Principle:- The p-n junction diode allows current to pass only when it is forward biased and cuts off when it
is reverse biased.
Half – Wave Rectifier:

A half wave rectifier consists of a transformer, a junction diode D and a load resistance RL. The
primary coil of the transformer is connected to the a.c. mains and the secondary coil is connected in
series with the junction diode D and load resistance RL. The output is taken across load resistance.
Working:- During the positive cycle of input a.c. , the end A is positive and the end B is negative. The diode
D is forward biased and a current I flows through RL. Output voltage across RL is of same wave form
as the positive half wave of the input. During the negative cycle of input a.c. ,the end A is negative
and the end B is positive. The diode D is reverse biased and no current flows through RL. Since the
 voltage across the load appears only during the positive half cycle of input a.c., this process is called
half wave rectification. The frequency of output d.c. is same as frequency of input a.c.
Note: The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode must be sufficiently higher than the peak ac voltage at
the secondary of the transformer to protect the diode from reverse breakdown.
Full – Wave Rectifier:

Construction: It consists of a transformer, two junction diodes D1 and D2 and a load resistance RL. The input
a.c. signal is fed to the primary coil P of the transformer. The secondary is tapped at its central point
which is connected to the n-ends of the two diodes through the load resistance RL.
Working: During positive half cycle of a.c. input, the end A is positive and the end B is negative with
respect to the centre tap. Then diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. So D1
conducts and D2 is cut off. So current flows through the load along the path AD1XYP. During
negative half cycle of a.c. input, the end A is negative and the end B is positive with respect to the
centre tap. Then diode D1 is reverse biased and diode D2 is forward biased . So D2 conducts and D1 is
cut off. So current flows through the load along the path BD2XYP.As during both half cycles of
input a.c.,the current through load RL flows in the same direction X to Y .So we get a pulsating d.c.
voltage across load. This process is called as full wave rectification. The frequency of output d.c. is
twice the the frequency of input a.c.
Capacitor Filters:
* To get steady dc output from the pulsating voltage, normally a capacitor is connected across the
output terminals (parallel to the load RL) . [One can also use an inductor in series with RL for the
purpose.]
* Since these additional circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple and give a pure de voltage, so they are
called filters.

The Role of Capacitor in filtering:

* When the voltage across the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. If there is no external load, it remains
charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output.
* When there is a load, it gets discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins to fall.
* In the next half cycle of rectified output, it again gets charged to the peak value.
* The rate of fall of voltage across the capacitor depends upon the inverse product of capacitor C and
the effective resistance RL used in the circuit and this product is called the time constant.
 As t increases, it takes longer for ‘v’ to fall (discharge) and by the time it states falling, next cycle of
current comes and thus graph is approx const.
To make the time constant large, value of C should be large.
So capacitor input filters use large capacitors.
* The output voltage obtained by using capacitor input filter is nearer to the peak voltage of the
rectified voltage.