Glasses

Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgrday

has been utilized by humans for thousands of years. It is created
by heating a mixture of silica, soda ash, and limestone until it melts
Glass
into a liquid, which is then shaped and cooled to form solid glass
objects.
is an incredibly versatile and important material that plays a sig-
nificant role in various aspects of our lives. Its unique properties,
Glass
such as transparency, durability, and resistance to chemical reac-
tions, make it indispensable in numerous applications.
The earliest evidence of glass production dates back to
Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) and ancient Egypt. Glass objects
3500 BCE
from this period were made by winding molten glass around a core
made of clay or sand.
The Egyptians developed the technique of glassblowing, which
revolutionized glass production. Glassblowing allowed for the cre-
1500 BCE
ation of more intricate and diverse shapes, leading to the produc-
tion of glass vessels and decorative items.
The Roman Empire became a major center for glass produc-
tion, refining the techniques of glassblowing and glass casting.
Roman glassmakers developed new methods to create colored 1st century BCE
and patterned glass, and glass vessels became highly valued
commodities.
The Islamic Golden Age saw significant advancements in glass
production. Islamic glassmakers introduced new techniques such
9th century CE
as enameling, gilding, and the use of metallic oxides to create
vibrant colors in glass objects.
Venice, Italy emerged as a prominent center for glass production.
The Venetians specialized in producing high-quality glassware,
including intricately designed vessels and mirrors. They also es- 13th century CE
tablished strict regulations to maintain the secrecy of their glass-
making techniques.
The invention of lead crystal glass by English glassmaker George
Ravenscroft brought about a significant advancement in glass
17th century CE
production. Lead crystal glass had improved clarity and brilliance,
making it highly sought after for luxury glassware.
The Industrial Revolution led to the mechanization of glass pro-
duction processes. Glass factories introduced steam-powered
machines for cutting, engraving, and polishing glass. This in- 19th century CE
creased production and reduced costs, making glass more ac-
cessible to the general population.
The development of modern glass technologies expanded the
range of applications for glass. Float glass, invented in the 1950s,
allowed for the production of large, flat glass sheets used in
20th century CE
windows and architectural structures. Tempered glass, laminated
glass, and other safety glass variants were also developed during
this period.
Glass production continues to evolve with advancements in ma-
terials science and manufacturing technologies. New techniques,
such as glass fusion, 3D printing, and the integration of smart
Present day
technologies, are pushing the boundaries of glass production in
various industries, including architecture, automotive, electronics,
and more.
Also known as quartz glass with low expansion and high softening
point. It is a glass made by fusing pure silica without a flux,
Vitreous silica.
and very resistant thermally and chemically. This glass is also
extraordinarily transparent to ultraviolet radiation
The only two-component glasses if commercial importance. Sol-
Alkali Silicates.
uble glasses used only as solutions since they are water-soluble.

1/5
 Glasses
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgrday
Also known as water soluble. Silicate of soda solution, also known
as water glass, is widely consumed as an adhesive for paper in
Silicate of soda solution.
the manufacturer of corrugated paper boxes. Other uses include
fireproofing and egg preservation.
Represents the largest tonnage of glass made today. The
soda-lime-silica glass of such wide applications, for windows,
transparent fixtures and all manner of containers. The products
Lime glass.
do not melt too high and are sufficiently viscous so that they do
not devitrify and yet are too viscous to be workable at reasonable
temperature
The product obtained from lead oxide, silica and alkali for deco-
rative and optical effects. It has great importance in optical work
because of their high index and refraction and high dispersion.
The brilliancy of good "cut glass" is due to high lead-bearing Lead glass.
composition. Large quantities are used also for the construction of
electric light bulbs, neon-sign tubing, radiotrons, because of high
resistance of the glass.
The boric oxide and silica glasses for optical and scientific work.
It has low expansion coefficients, superior resistance to shock,
excellent chemical stability and high electrical resistance. Among
the diversified applications of these glasses are baking dish- Borosilicate glass.
es, laboratory glassware, pipe lines, high-tension insulators, and
washers. The most famous casting of borosilicate glasses in the
200-in disk for the giant telescope at Mt. Palomar.
Includes colored glass, translucent glass, safety and laminated
glass, fiber glass, photosensitive glass, phosphate glass and spe- Special glass.
cialties for chemical uses
May be one of three types Colored Glass
is produced by absorption of certain light frequencies by agents in
solution in the glass. This class can be subdivided as to those in
which the color is due to chemical structural environment or those
in which the color is caused by differences in state of oxidation.
As an example of the former, NiO dissolved in sodium-lead glass
Color
yields a brown color, but in a potash glass it produces a heliotrope.
In the latter, chromium oxides will produce colors ranging from
green to orange depending on the proportions of the basic oxide,
Cr20a, to the acidic oxide and the composition of glass as to
whether it is basic or acidic.
is produced by colloidal particles precipitated within an originally
colorless glass by heat treatment. The classical example is the Color
precipitation of colloidal gold producing gold ruby.
is produced by microscopic or larger particles which may be
colored themselves such as selenium reds used in traffic lights,
Color
lantern globes, etc., or the particles may be colorless, producing
opals.
Clear when molten but become opalescent as the glass is worked
into form, owing to the separation and suspension of minute
particles in the medium which disperse the light passing through Opal or Translucent glasses.
them. They are important commercially as diffusing media in illu-
mination, as containers, and as construction material.
Composite structure consisting of two layers of glass with an
interleaf of plastic, plasticized polyvinyl butyral resin. Another type
is casehardened safety glass, which, with a blow sufficiently hard Safety or Laminated glasses.
to break it, disintegrates into many small pieces without the usual
sharp cutting edges.
It can be span to a yarn, gathered into a mat, made into insulation,
tape, air filters, and a great variety of other products such as pipe Modern Fiber Glass.
with plastic bond.

2/5
 Glasses
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgrday
A glass fiber product with high temperature resistance. Used in
manufacture of laboratory glassware such as crucibles, beakers, High Silica Glass.
evaporators, annealing pans and combustion boats.
It makes possible to print three-dimensional colored photographic
images within glass articles. Photosensitive metals, such as gold,
silver, and copper, and sensitizers either thermos reducing or
optical, are added to conventional silicate glasses containing at
least 5 per cent alkali metal oxide. A blackand-white negative is
placed on the sensitized glass and exposed to ultraviolet light. Photosensitive Glass.
Color variations depend directly on exposure time. Orange and
red colors, characteristic of strong exposures, develop faster than
the purples and blues. The picture is developed by heating the
glass to the annealing temperature or above. The result is a fade
proof photograph resistant to abrasion, heat, moisture, or dirt.
Contains phosphorous pentoxide as a major ingredient wholly
or partially displacing silica. An important property or phosphate
glass is its ability to resist hydrofluoric acid, for example, in fluo-
rinations. Sight glasses for the handling of uranium hexafluoride
Phosphate Glass.
in the separation of uranium isotopes for making atomic bombs
are made from phosphate glass. Phosphate glass is also used in
special optical, ultraviolet, heat-absorbing, and fluorescent glass-
es.
The sand for glass manufacture should be pure quartz. Its iron
content should not exceed 0.045 percent for tableware or 0.015
Sand.
percent for optical glass as iron affects adversely the color of most
glass.
Na2O is principally supplied by dense soda ash Na2CO3. Other
sources are sodium bicarbonate, salt cake, and sodium nitrate.
Soda.
The latter is useful in oxidizing iron and in accelerating and melt-
ing.
The important source for lime, CaO, are limestone and burnt lime
from dolomite CaCO·MgCO3 the latter introducing MgO into the Lime.
batch.
R2O·Al2O3·6SiO2 where R2O represents Na2O and K2O or a
mixture of these two. They have many advantages over most other
materials as a source of aluminum oxide, because they are cheap,
pure, and fusible and are composed entirely of glassforming ox- Feldspars.
ides. Al2O3 itself is used only when cost is a secondary item. The
alumina content serves to lower the melting point of the glass and
to retard devitrification.
Supplies the gas with sodium oxide and boric oxide. There is a
high index borate glass which has a lower dispersion value and
higher refractive index than any glass previously known. This is
valuable as an optical glass. Besides its high fluxing power, borax Borax.
not only lowers the expansion coefficient but increases chemical
durability. Boric acid is used in batches where only a small amount
of alkali is wanted. Its price is about twice that of borax.
Salt cake is said to remove the troublesome scum from tank
furnaces. Carbon should be used with sulfates to reduce them to
sulfites. Arsenic trioxide may be added to facilitate the removal of Salt Cake.
bubbles. Nitrates of either sodium or potassium serve to oxidize
iron and make it less noticeable in the finished glass.
Crushed glass from the imperfect articles, trim or otherwise waste
glass. It facilitates the melting and utilizes a waste. It may be as Cullet.
low as 10 per cent of the charge as high as 80 percent.
Electrocast alumina, zirconia-alumina, mullite, mullite-alumina,
magnesia-alumina, and chrome-alumina combinations are typical
Refractory Blocks.
Of these for glass tanks. Latest practice in regenerators and
recuperators utilizes basic refractories because of the alkali dust.
3/5
 Glasses
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgrday
The production processes may be broken down into four primary
Manufacturing of Glasses.
steps: (1) melting, (2) shaping, (3) annealing, and (4) finishing.
Louvers, Roofs and Skylight Application Glass for Facades
Picture Frames, Partition Glass, Flooring Glass Glass for Interiors
Windows, External Doors Glass for Homes
Around the world, there is a growing trend in the use of glass lou-
vers and screens for commercial buildings and retail storefronts
Louvers.
driven by the increased desire for solar shading and to better
control daylighting and energy efficiency throughout the building.
Roof glazing can safely be used throughout a building roof, re-
ducing the need for artificial lighting, providing a natural source of Roofs and skylights.
daylight while still addressing solar and thermal insulation needs.
When it comes to displaying photographs of your loved ones, or
works of art in an exhibition, the glass plays as an important role Picture frames.
as the frame.
Can be used for interior applications as partitions or divides
Partitions Glass.
throughout a building, bringing natural light into open spaces.
Can safely be used as flooring throughout your home, reducing
the need for artificial lighting and providing a natural source of Flooring Glass.
daylight.
Selecting the right glass for windows in your home is important.
It's not just about how your windows look - it's also about how
Windows.
they perform in terms of solar control, security, sound reduction,
thermal insulation and privacy.
are one of home's fundamental requirements, they are the first
impression of home, and for an inviting experience, many home- External doors
owners choose glass.
In museums, glass displays are used to protect precious artefacts
from damage or distress, while presenting them in the best possi-
Museum showcases and displays.
ble light. But sometimes the glass itself can act as an obstruction
to the view.
Have a double need for thermal insulation: to keep what's inside
warm without any heat loss, using less energy to achieve required
Appliances Hot appliances.
inside temperatures, and to protect the user from any burns from
outside
One of the pioneers and major supplier in the glass and aluminum
industry. Over the years, it has partnered with many global brands
related to everything that glass and aluminum touches. Some of
these brands and companies include AGC Flat Glass Philippines,
Inc., Dowsil (formerly Dow Corning) silicone sealants, ASSA
ABLOY Entrance Systems , KBB Entrance Solutions, Manusa
Automatic Doors, ASSA ABLOY Mechanical and Glass Hardware,
Chain Glass Enterprises, Inc.
Dormakaba Door Control, Doric Window and Door Hardware,
Astariglas Cast Acrylic Sheets and Norbond Acrylic Tapes. CGEI
also offers a wide array of imported glass, aluminum and other
accessories which complement its premium glass products. As
one of the top glass processing companies in the Philippines, we
have been at the forefront of delivering best-in-class product &
solutions to our clients.

A major processor and distributor of Tempered Glass, Laminated

Glass, Frosted Glass and Bevelled Glass. As one of the leading
Tempered Glass processing company in the Philippines, RGC
has strategically invested on top-of-the-line glass machines to Richmond Top Glass Works Corp.
serve the non-stop, growing demands of the architectural and
construction industry and our customers. These machines allow
RGC to offer a complete solution to all your glass and aluminum
4/5
 Glasses
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgrday
requirement. Whether for your home, your office or place of busi-
ness, for your own use, and even for your customers.
A leader in the glass industry was established in 1952 as a
manufacturer and leading importer, supplier and processor of high
quality glass products. Through the years, SFMC has maintained
sets of highly technical equipment that allowed the company to
fabricate almost any type of glass with different designs and spec-
ification. The production takes place in an industrial establishment,
San Francisco Mirror Corporation
with state-of-the-art drilling and edging machines which enables
the company to provide high production levels due to enhanced
technologies in this particular department. Years later, adjacent
warehouses were established to accommodate a large number
of supplies in terms of glass materials and other related items in
order to meet the increasing market demand.
The implications of asbestos on human health were only recently
brought to light a few decades ago. Before the information reached
the public, most workers in glass factories used asbestos heatre-
sistant mittens to protect their hands from hot surfaces. Fur-
thermore, asbestos was used in the construction of many glass
factories, some of which continue to be in use to this day. Although
the substance is no longer commercialized for these purposes, an Exposure to Asbestos and Dangerous Chemicals.
uninformed glass production employee may inadvertently come
across an old pair of gloves and expose themselves and their col-
leagues to airborne asbestos fibers. Other dangerous chemicals
that may be inhaled during the manufacturing of glass include
silica dust, mono-nitrogen oxides, as well as carbon mono- and
dioxide.
Glass production workers perform a variety of tasks in the prox-
imity of furnaces and hot surfaces. Especially due to fatigue, but
also due to lack of proper training, employees may suffer first-,
second-, and even third-degree burns by coming in contact with Burns.
the latter. Thermal burns, which are some of the most common
injuries in this sector, usually result from contact with flames,
steam, hot surfaces, or hot liquids.
Glass manufacturing plants are extremely noisy work environ-
ments, particularly due to the nature of the machineries used
in the process. Although some progress is being made in the
High Levels of Noise.
development of quieter equipment, noise cancelling earphones
and muffles continue to be the most effective way to prevent
hearing issues and even hearing loss.
Glass production requires meticulous and repetitive work, which
may force employees into awkward or uncomfortable positions for
extended periods of time. Poorly adjusted work tables and inap- Ergonomic Hazards.
propriate ergonomics can lead to re-occurring injuries, circulatory
issues, pulled muscles, and other problems.

5/5
 Ceramics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgu27c
This is the process of creating ceramic objects from natural raw
materials such as clay, quartz, and feldspar. The process involves
shaping the raw materials into a desired form, then firing them at Ceramics Production
high temperatures to create a hard, durable material that can be
used for a variety of purposes.
have been produced for thousands of years and are used in a wide
range of applications, from decorative pieces to functional objects Ceramics
like kitchenware and industrial components.
The earliest known ceramic objects, small figurines and ani-
mal-shaped vessels, were produced by early human cultures
24,000 BCE
during the Paleolithic period. These early ceramics were typically
made from clay and fired at low temperatures.
In ancient China, the Neolithic period saw the emergence of
pottery production. Simple earthenware vessels were created
10,000 BCE
by hand-coiling or molding clay, which were then fired in open
bonfires or pit kilns.
The people of the Indus Valley Civilization (in present-day In-
dia and Pakistan) developed advanced techniques for ceramic
production. They produced high-quality pottery with sophisticated 4000 BCE
shapes and intricate designs, often using a potter's wheel for
shaping the clay.
The Egyptians mastered the art of pottery making, using the
potter's wheel and kilns for firing their ceramics. They produced a
2500 BCE
wide range of vessels, including amphorae, bowls, and jars, which
were used for storage, transportation, and ceremonial purposes.
The Mycenaeans in ancient Greece made significant advance-
ments in ceramic production. They developed black-figure and
red-figure pottery techniques, which involved decorating ceramic
1500 BCE
vessels with intricate painted designs. This period also saw the
production of elaborate pottery forms, such as kraters and am-
phorae.
Ancient Greece witnessed the development of fine ceramic ware
known as Attic pottery. The Athenian potters perfected the red-fig-
500 BCE
ure and black-figure painting techniques, creating exquisite vases
and vessels that depicted mythological scenes and everyday life.
The Han Dynasty in China marked a golden age for ceramics
production. Chinese potters developed advanced techniques like
200 BCE
celadon glazing and porcelain production, creating highly valued
ceramics that were exported to various parts of the world.
Islamic ceramic production flourished during the Islamic Golden
Age. The Islamic world produced exquisite ceramics with intricate
designs, often featuring calligraphy, geometric patterns, and floral 7th century CE
motifs. Techniques like lustreware and underglaze painting were
highly prized.
The Song Dynasty in China is renowned for its achievements
in ceramic production. The Song potters developed new glazing
techniques, such as Jian ware (known for its oil-spot glaze) and 12th century CE
Ru ware (known for its delicate blue-green glaze), which are highly
coveted by collectors today.
The Italian Renaissance saw a revival of interest in classical
Greek and Roman ceramic forms. Italian potters experimented
15th century CE
with new techniques, including maiolica, which involved decorat-
ing pottery with vibrant, tin-glazed designs.
The Industrial Revolution brought significant advancements to
ceramic production. Steam-powered machinery and mechanized
18th century CE
processes were introduced, enabling mass production of ceram-
ics. Fine bone china was developed in England during this period.

1/4
 Ceramics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgu27c
Modern ceramic production saw the rise of studio pottery and art
ceramics. Artists and craftsmen explored new forms, glazes, and
firing techniques, pushing the boundaries of ceramics as a medi-
um for artistic expression. Industrial ceramics also continued to 20th century CE
advance, with the development of specialized ceramics for various
applications, including electrical insulators, refractory materials,
and aerospace components
making the common ceramic products are (1) clay, (2) feldspar,
Raw Materials of Ceramics
and (3) sand
There are number of mineral species called clay minerals but
the most important are kaolinite Al2O3·2SiO2·2H2O; beidellite,
Al2O3·3SiO2·H2O; montmorillonite, Al2O3·4SiO2·H2O and hal-
loysite, Al2O3·2SiO2·3H2O. From a ceramic viewpoint clays are
Clay
plastic and moldable when sufficiently finely pulverized and wet,
rigid when dry, and vitreous when fired at a suitably high temper-
ature. Upon these properties depend the manufacturing proce-
dures.
There are three common types of feldspar: potash feldspar,
K2O ·Al2O3·6SiO2; soda feldspar, Na2O·Al2O3·6SiO2; and lime
feldspar CaO·Al2O3·6SiO2, all of which are used in ceramic prod-
Feldspar.
ucts to some extent. The first is the most common. Feldspar is of
great importance as a fluxing constituent in ceramic formulas. It
may exist in the clay as mined, or it may be added as needed.
The third main ceramic constituent is sand or flint. For the
light-colored ceramic products, sand with a low iron content Sand.
should be chosen.
Dehydration, Cacination, Oxidation, Silicate Formation Unit Processes of Ceramic
Chinaware, earthenware, pottery, porcelain, stoneware, vitreous
ware, and vitreous ware are all included in the white wares cat-
egory. These are comprised of certain types of clay that have
been combined with a range of fluxes in variable proportions, then
baked in a kiln at temperatures ranging from 1200 to 1500 degrees White wares.
Celsius to harden them. In white wares, the degree to which they
are vitrified may range from earthenware to vitrified china because
of differences in the quantities and types of fluxes used in their
production.
There are three string of production which are the wet process
porcelain, dry process porcelain, and the cast porcelain. Firstly,
the wet process porcelain which is used for the production of
fine-grained, and highly glazed insulators for high-voltage service.
Then, dry process porcelain that is used for the rapid production
Porcelain.
of more open-textured low-voltage fragments. Lastly, the cast
porcelain where it is required for the production of pieces that
are too large or complex for the other two methods. These three
processes utilize the same primary materials, with significant
differences in the curing and molding or shaping stages.
This is an essential aspect of whiteware production in general and
Glazing
tableware production in particular.
This is a thin coating of glass that is melted onto the surface of the
Glaze
more or less porous ceramic ware.
Brick, which includes both common and face brick, is one of the
most significant clay-based products. Clays from three categories
Building Brick
are used as basic materials: (1) red burning clay, (2) white burning
clay, and (3) buff burning clay, which is typically a refractory.
These are produced through one of three methods: soft-mud,
Bricks
stiff-mud, or dry-press.
The standard procedures for the production of refractories con-
sist of the following five physical operations and five chemical
2/4
 Ceramics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgu27c
processes: (1) grinding and screening, (2) mixing, (3) pressing or
molding and repressing, (4) drying, and (5) burning or vitrifying Production of Refractories
the material.
Include chinaware, earthenware, pottery, porcelain, stoneware,
and vitreous ware. These are based on selected grades of clay
Whitewares.
bonded together with varying amounts of fluxes and heated to a
moderately high temperature in a kiln (1200 to 1500°C.).
"a porous non-translucent ware with a soft glaze." This is used
extensively for pottery tableware and decorative objects. This is
Earthenware.
sometimes called semivitreous dinnerware and is one of the old-
est materials used in pottery.
"a commercially vitrified translucent ware with a medium glaze
which resists scratching to a greater or less degree." It has an Chinaware.
abrasion resistance coated with a medium glaze.
"a thoroughly vitrified, translucent ware with a hard glaze which
resists scratching to the maximum degree." It comes from a re-
Porcelain.
fined clay which is fired at very high temperatures of approximately
1,200-1,450°C
This is closely related to porcelain. This is made from a particular
clay which is fired at a higher temperature of 1,200°C until it made Stoneware.
glass-like.
This is one of the oldest human technologies. A piece must be a
Pottery.
fired ceramic ware that contains clay when formed.
is one of the most widely used ceramic raw materials. It is found
in great abundance and popular because of the ease with which Clay
products are made.
are mainly two kinds - structural products (bricks, tiles, sewer
Clay products
pipes) and whitewares (porcelain, chinaware, pottery, etc.).
These are described by their capacity to withstand high temper-
atures without melting or decomposing, and their inertness in se-
vere environments. Thermal insulation is also an important func-
tion of refractories. Refractories' embrace those materials which
are used to withstand the effect of thermal, chemical, and physical
Refractories
effects that are met with in furnace procedures. Refractories are
sold in the form of firebrick, silica brick, magnesite brick, chromite
brick, magnesite-chromite brick, silicon carbide refractories, zir-
conia refractories, aluminum silicate products, olivine products,
and others
are a familiar group of ceramics - containers, windows, mirrors,
lenses, etc. They are non-crystalline silicates containing other
Glasses
oxides, usually CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3 which influence the
glass properties and its color.
Originally established in 1988. As a top company in White Clay
Production industry. It specializes in mining siruma (White Clay)
silica ore & Bicol Kaolin. It is headquartered in Brgy. Mabulo,
Naga City, Camarines Sur and its major products are Siruma Siruma Minerals Corp.
Clay(silica) 86% SiO2, High Grade SIruma Silica Clay/Ore 98%
SiO2, Siruma Kaolin, Bicol Kaolin, etc. We have been supplying
the local ceramic industry in the Philippines for about 36 years
Mariwasa Siam Ceramics, Inc.,
This is a Philippine tile manufacturing company based in Taguig,
Metro Manila, Philippines. This is the leading tile manufacturer and
brand in the Philippines. Its main plant is situated in Santo Tomas,
Batangas. Founded in March 1966, it is one of the pioneers in the
Philippine ceramic tile industry.
specializes in manufacturing glaze floor and wall tiles. Established
in 1997, its manufacturing facility is located in Quezon road, San
3/4
 Ceramics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgu27c
Isidro, San Simon, Pampanga. With its Italian superior technology
supported by Taiwan technical experts, every tile produced as- Formosa Ceramic Tiles Mfg. Corp
sures every customer quality and beauty in their homes.
It is locates in 1607 Gregorio Araneta Ave, Quezon City, 1100
Metro Manila. Since 1988, it has been a reference point in the
Italian porcelain tile arena for vendors, construction firms, design-
ers and architects. Caesar Ceramics design activities have the
Caesar Ceramics Tiles Corporation
purpose of creating ceramic surfaces that work towards the best in
terms of technical performance and aesthetics. According to them,
their ceramic products are solutions for architecture, an invaluable
tool for technicians, architects and designers.
It aims to lead the way in making ceramic arts more accessible
to Filipinos through quality ceramic work and effective teaching
services for all skill levels. They are working on building a thriving
Tahanan Pottery Shop & Studio
pottery community that will continuously inspire and challenge
each other for the development and promotion of Philippine Ce-
ramic Arts.

4/4
 Pyrotechnics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgvwtj
the earliest explosive discovered by Chinese alchemists, was
formed accidentally during a gold and silver separation process.
Black powder,
Its composition of potassium nitrate, charcoal, and sulfur made it
an effective blasting explosive when introduced in 1627.
He manufactured liquid nitroglycerine, but its transportation posed
significant dangers in 1863. Accidents, including the destruction of
Immanuel Nobel
the Nobel factory in 1864, highlighted the hazards of nitroglycerine
explosions.
His discovery of mercury fulminate in 1864 revolutionized the
initiation process of explosives, replacing black powder for initi-
ating nitroglycerine. To address safety concerns, he introduced Alfred Nobel
an adsorbent clay called Kieselguhr, reducing the sensitivity of
nitroglycerine.
was developed by scientists Schonbein and Bottger. However,
the synthesis process of nitrocellulose was prone to accidents,
resulting in the destruction of manufacturing plants. To enhance Nitrocellulose or Gun Cotton
its stability, various methods such as pulping and washing were
employed.
They improved the properties of dynamite, who added ammonium
nitrate. Although black powder was primarily used in coal mining,
its modifications with cooling agents such as ammonium sulfate
Ohlsson and Norrbin
or paraffin were unsuccessful, leading to disastrous explosions.
These developments paved the way for safer and more efficient
commercial explosives.
emerged as a replacement for dynamite and black powder, meet-
ing the required standards and becoming known as permitted Ammonium nitrate-based explosives
explosives.
It was discovered in 1885 as a suitable replacement for black
powder. It became widely adopted as a primary explosive for mili-
tary purposes, despite issues with shell corrosion in the presence
of water and the high sensitivity of its salts. Tetryl, an odorless Picric acid (trinitrophenol)
synthetic yellow crystal-like solid, was also discovered and used
during World Wars I and II but is no longer manufactured or used
in the United States.
first prepared in 1863, gained widespread use as a high explosive
Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
in military and industrial applications.
a mixture of TNT and ammonium nitrate, facilitated TNT storage. Amatol
initially prepared for medicinal purposes, was later recognized for
RDX
its explosive potential.
a nitrate ester of pentaerythritol, saw significant use during World
PETN
War II, especially when combined with TNT.
were developed to embed explosive crystals in a rubber-like poly-
Polymer bonded explosives (PBXs)
mer, reducing sensitivity and improving safety.
This property of an explosive may be expressed in terms of
specific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the Density.
explosive to the density of water under standard conditions.
Detonation pressure is a function of the detonation velocity and
Detonation And Borehole Pressure.
density of an explosive.
It is a measure of its ability to withstand exposure to water without
deteriorating or losing sensitivity. Sensitivity is the ease with which Water Resistance.
an explosive detonates.
It indicates the nature and quantity of the undesirable gases
Fume Class.
formed during detonation
Shelf-Life. Shelf lives of various products described are listed in
their respective tables. For most explosives' products, a shelf life of
one year is recommended, although satisfactory performance can
1/6
 Pyrotechnics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgvwtj
be expected from most products two, three, and even four years
later.
are approved for use in gas or dust-filled mines by regulatory
bodies such as the U.S. Bureau of Mines or the British Ministry Permissible explosives
of Fuel and Power.
are most sensitive to heat, friction, impact, and shock. They are
capable of transforming a low-energy into a high-intensity shock Primary or initiator explosives
wave.
is a grey-white powder obtained by reacting mercuric nitrate with
Mercury fulminate or mercuric cyanate
alcohol in nitric acid.
is the primary explosive used in military detonators in the United
Lead azide
States and has been intensively studied.
is a potential replacement for lead azide because it can be used
Silver azide
in smaller quantities as an initiator.
also known as 2,4,6-trinitro-soreinate, is an explosive compound
used to start the ignition-to-detonation process in the explosive Lead styphnate
sequence.
is classified as a primary explosive that is a very hazardous
material. An explosion can occur during the preparation that is Tetrazene
based on sodium nitrite and aminoguanidine sulfate.
are usually more difficult to detonate and they differ from primary
explosives in three basic ways: [1] they do not easily go from
Secondary explosives
burning to detonation, [2] Electrostatic ignition is difficult with them
and [3] Secondary ignition requires large shocks.
is still one of the most widely produced nitrate esters. The first
process for the manufacture of nitroglycerine was developed in
France and in England in 1882. It is a very powerful secondary
Nitroglycerine
explosive with a high brisance, that is, the shattering effect. It is
used in dynamite. It provides a source of high energy in propellant
compositions.
is a generic term denoting a family of compounds. Its compositions
used in explosive applications vary from 10 to 13.5 percent of
nitrogen. The thermal stability of nitrocellulose decreases with
increasing nitrogen content. It dissolves in organic solvents to Nitrocellulose
form a gel. The gel is used as a gun propellant, double-rocket
propellant, and gelatine and semi-gelatine commercial blasting
explosives.
also known as 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, has been used in grenade and
mine fillings and has a tendency to form impact-sensitive metal
salts (picrates) with the metal walls of the shells. It is a strong acid, Picric acid
very toxic, and soluble in hot water, alcohol, ether, benzene, and
acetone.
2,4,6-trinitrophenyl methylnitramine was frequently used as a
base charge in blasting caps, as the booster explosive in high-ex- Tetryl
plosive shells, and as an ingredient of binary explosives.
also known as trinitrotoluene remains an important military explo-
sive, particularly in mixtures with ammonium nitrate (NH ). TNT
has the advantages of low manufacturing NO3 costs and cheap
TNT
raw materials, safe handling, low sensitivity to impact and friction,
high explosive power, and also has good chemical and thermal
stability.
also known as picrite (CH), has been used as an industrial explo-
sives but not as a military explosive because of its relatively low
energy contentand difficulty of initiation. Nitroguanidine can also Nitroguanidine
be used in flashes and propellants because of the low heat and
temperature of explosion.

2/6
 Pyrotechnics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgvwtj
is known as one of the most sensitive military high explosives. It
has a great shattering effect. It is not used in its pure form because PETN. Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN)
of its high sensitivity to friction and impact.
cyclonite or cyclotrimethylene trinitramine, is one of the most
powerful explosives. Pure ___ is very sensitive to initiation by RDX,
impact and friction.
octogen, or cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine, is present in four
different crystalline forms in their density and sensitivity. It has
HMX,
similar properties to RDX with respect to the chemical reactivity
and solubility in organic solvents.
are combustible materials that contain, in addition to their com-
ponents, the oxygen needed for their combustion. Propellants Tertiary explosives or propellants
produce large amounts of gas upon combustion.
also referred to as tear agents or tear gases, are chemical com-
pounds that primarily affect the eyes, leading to irritation and the
Lachrymators
production of tears. They are commonly employed in situations
involving the control of riots.
function by irritating the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose,
and respiratory system, resulting in tearing, a sensation of burn- Lachrymators
ing, and difficulty in breathing.
This tear gas is one of the earliest and most extensively used. Chloroacetophenone (CN)
which is also referred to as BBC, is an organic nitrile compound.
It belongs to a group of chemicals characterized by its colorless
to pale yellow liquid form and strong smell. It can cause irritation Bromo benzyl cyanide,
and tearing of the eyes upon exposure. It affects the eye's mucous
membranes, resulting in temporary discomfort and debilitation.
Compared to CN, this tear gas is more potent and is frequently
Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS)
employed by law enforcement agencies.
Derived from chili peppers, this inflammatory lachrymator is wide-
Pepper Spray (OC or Oleoresin Capsicum)
ly used for personal self-defense and by law enforcement.
These respiratory irritants are chemical compounds that primarily
target the respiratory system, leading to irritation and triggering Sternutators
sneezing.
also known as adamsite, is a yellow crystalline solid with a pun-
gent odor. It can be dispersed as a smoke or aerosol. When
exposed to DM, individuals may experience a range of symptoms, Diphenylaminechlorarsine (DM)
including eye and respiratory tract irritation, coughing, sneezing,
chest discomfort, and skin irritation.
is a chemical compound that was primarily used as a chemical
weapon during World War I. Diphenyl chloroarsine is a yellow
Diphenyl chloroarsine (DA or Clark I)
crystalline solid with a strong odor. When released or deployed, it
can cause severe irritation and damage to the respiratory system.
known as choking agents or pulmonary agents, primarily target
the respiratory system, causing significant respiratory distress
and inflicting damage to the lungs. These agents are specifically Lung injurants
created to incapacitate or cause harm to individuals in conflict or
warfare situations.
is a greenish-yellow gas with a pungent odor. It is highly reactive
Chlorine
and can cause severe lung damage when inhaled.
is a colorless gas with a smell similar to freshly cut grass. It was
Phosgene
extensively used as a chemical weapon during World War I.
a reactive and highly toxic compound that has been used as a
chemical warfare agent in the past. It is a colorless to light yellow
liquid with a strong odor. It is formed by the reaction of phosgene Diphosgene
(CG) with chloroform. It is less volatile than phosgene and is
typically used in liquid or aerosol form.
3/6
 Pyrotechnics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgvwtj
also known as trichloronitromethane, is a chemical compound
that has been used as a versatile chemical agent with various
applications, including as a pesticide and as a riot control agent.
Chloropicrin
Chloropicrin is a colorless to yellowish liquid with a pungent odor.
It acts primarily as a severe irritant to the eyes, respiratory system,
and skin.
also known as vesicants or blistering agents, belong to a category
of chemical warfare agents that primarily induce severe blistering
Blister agents
of the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract when exposed. These
agents are highly toxic and pose a significant risk to human health.
derive their name from their capability to generate blisters on the
skin. They typically exist as liquid or volatile compounds that can Vesicants
be disseminated as gases or aerosols.
is a viscous liquid with a color resembling mustard. It is one of the
most well-known vesicants and was used as a chemical weapon Sulfur Mustard
during World War I and in subsequent conflicts.
is a highly toxic liquid with a color ranging from dark brown to
amber. It was used as a chemical weapon primarily during World Lewisite
War I.
are a class of vesicants that contain nitrogen atoms in their chem-
ical structure. They were developed as chemical warfare agents Nitrogen Mustard
but are now primarily used in cancer chemotherapy.
belong to a group of extremely toxic chemical warfare agents that
primarily focus on attacking the nervous system by inhibiting the Nerve gases
activity of cholinesterase enzymes.
also known as GA, is a highly toxic nerve agent and is classified as
a persistent nerve agent due to its stability and long-lasting effects
in the environment. It is a clear, colorless liquid that is odorless
Tabun (GA)
in its pure form. However, it may have a fruity or flowery odor in
impure or degraded samples. It is volatile and can evaporate into
a deadly vapor, making it a significant inhalation hazard.
also known as GB, is a colorless and odorless liquid nerve agent.
It is highly volatile and has the ability to evaporate quickly, forming
a deadly vapor. It belongs to the class of organophosphorus
compounds and is considered one of the most extensively stud-
Sarin
ied nerve agents.It is a volatile liquid that lacks color, odor, and
taste. Its rapid evaporation into a lethal vapor makes it a notable
inhalation hazard. Even in small amounts, sarin is highly toxic and
can cause severe health consequences.
is an extremely toxic nerve agent that bears resemblance to
sarin. It is more persistent and evaporates at a slower rate, thus
presenting a longer-lasting threat in the environment. Soman is
Soman (GD)
a liquid that is typically colorless to amber in appearance. It can
evaporate into a deadly vapor and is extremely toxic even in small
quantities.
also known as GF, is a highly toxic nerve agent is similar to other
nerve agents such as sarin (GB) and soman (GD) in terms of its
chemical structure and mode of action. It is a liquid nerve agent
Cyclosarin
that is typically colorless. It is more volatile and less persistent
compared to other nerve agents, meaning it evaporates more
quickly and has a shorter duration of toxicity in the environment.
is an organophosphorus compound that acts as a potent
cholinesterase inhibitor. It is a chemical substance that has been
studied for its toxicological properties and potential use as a nerve
Diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP)
agent simulant. It is a clear, colorless liquid with a faint fruity odor. It
inhibits the activity of cholinesterase enzymes, which are essential
for the proper functioning of the nervous system.

4/6
 Pyrotechnics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgvwtj
Strontium Salts (Strontium Nitrate, Strontium Carbonate, and
Red
Strontium Sulfate)
Calcium Salts (Calcium Carbonate, Calcium Chloride, and Calci-
Orange
um Sulfate)
Sodium Salts (Sodium Nitrate, Sodium Oxalate, and Cryolite) Yellow
Barium Salts (Barium Nitrate, Barium Carbonate, Barium Chlo-
Green
ride, and Barium Chlorate)
Copper Salts (Copper (I) Chloride, Copper Carbonate, and Cop-
Blue
per Oxide)
Combine Copper and Strontium compounds Purple
white hot Magnesium and Aluminum Silver
Burning metal (Magnesium, Aluminum, and Titanium) White
are used to hold what is essentially the mixture of the firework
together in a paste like mixture. The most commonly used binder
Binders
is known as dextrin, a type of starch which holds the composition
together.
is used as binder with red and green fireworks to enhance their
Paron
color.
The fuel provides the energy necessary for the pyrotechnic reac-
Fuel
tion. Common fuel ingredients include:
A common fuel source in pyrotechnics due to its ability to burn at
Charcoal
high temperatures.
Used as a fuel and also acts as a metal powder for generating
Aluminum
bright, sparkling effects.
Another fuel ingredient that supports combustion and can produce
Sulfur
blue flames.
The oxidizer supplies oxygen to sustain the combustion of the fuel.
Oxidizer
Common oxidizer ingredients include:
One of the most widely used oxidizers in pyrotechnics. Potassium nitrate (saltpeter)
An alternative oxidizer that can be used in place of potassium
Sodium nitrate
nitrate.
Used as an oxidizer in green-colored pyrotechnic compositions. Barium nitrate
These substances help hold the composition together and provide
stability. Common binder materials include dextrin, a carbohydrate Binders
derived from starch.
Pyrotechnics can produce various colors by adding specific
Colorants
chemicals known as colorants.
(e.g., strontium nitrate, strontium carbonate): Red color. Strontium salts
(e.g., barium nitrate, barium carbonate): Green color. Barium salts
(e.g., copper chloride, copper carbonate): Blue or green color. Copper compounds
(e.g., calcium chloride, calcium carbonate): Orange color. Calcium salts
Chemicals such as sulfur or antimony sulfide may be added to
Modifiers
modify the burn rate or enhance specific effects.
was formed in 2008 by a group of local and individual share-
holders who are presently and currently involved in the Philippine
mining and quarry industries. The shareholders' main objective
and concern was to introduce into the Philippine explosive market Mount Rock Powder Corp
another reputable and continuous source of reliable, safe, fresh
and cost efficient hi-explosives and it is blasting accessories for
the use at the mining, quarry and construction industries.

5/6
 Pyrotechnics
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dgvwtj
Organized in September 1996, it started as an explosives compa-
ny wholly-owned by highly-trained Filipino engineers with a wide
range of expertise in the field of explosives application. The com- Consolidated Explosives Group Corporation (CONEX)
pany has a strong vision to become the top mining, construction
and quarrying services contractor in the Philippines.
was established in June 1992 and became the first fireworks man-
ufacturing company duly licensed by the Philippine government
Dragon Fireworks Incorporated (DFI)
to cater to the domestic market. It was established to meet the
growing demand for "safe, quality fireworks".
Established in 1969 by the LEE FAMILY, LF Fireworks is now
a third-generation pyrotechnics company. Its factory is situated
on a twenty thousand square meter lot located in San Ildefonso Leegendary Fireworks Inc.
Bulacan. Its unwavering mission is to produce the best and most
exciting, yet safe, aerial fireworks display shows and products.

6/6
 Textile
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguds8
himself with various textile mill techniques employed in Great
Britain and then made a strategic decision to relocate to the Samuel Slater
American colonies.
The invention of textile mills can be attributed to him. Inspired by
John Kay's creation of the flying shuttle, he recognized the grow-
ing demand for efficient textile production methods. To address
this need, he developed the water-powered spindle, a device that Richard Arkwright
revolutionized the process of spinning cotton and wool into thread.
Building upon this innovation, he went on to establish textile mills
that enabled the mass production of fabrics.
The textile industry is a major contributor to the global economy.
It encompasses a wide range of activities, from raw material pro-
duction to manufacturing, retailing, and distribution. The industry Economic Contribution
generates substantial revenue and contributes to a country's GDP,
export earnings, and foreign exchange reserves.
The textile industry is a significant source of employment, partic-
ularly in developing countries. It provides job opportunities across
various stages of the value chain, including farming, spinning,
weaving, dyeing, printing, garment production, and retail. The Employment Generation
industry employs a large number of workers, both skilled and
unskilled, contributing to poverty alleviation and socioeconomic
development.
products are among the most traded commodities globally. The
industry's products, including fabrics, garments, home textiles,
and technical textiles, are exported and imported on a large
Trade and Exports Textile
scale. Textile trade plays a crucial role in enhancing international
relations, promoting economic cooperation, and driving economic
growth in exporting countries.
Textiles are transformed into fashionable garments and acces-
sories, driving trends, and meeting consumer demand for clothing
and style. The industry collaborates closely with fashion College
Fashion Industry
of Engineering - Department of Chemical Engineering designers,
retailers, and brands to create diverse and innovative products
that shape the fashion landscape.
hold significant social and cultural value. They are intertwined with
traditions, heritage, and identity, reflecting the cultural diversity of
communities around the world. Textile craftsmanship, indigenous Social and Cultural Significance Textiles
weaving techniques, and traditional clothing are important ele-
ments of cultural heritage and tourism.
from the cellulose fibres surrounding the cotton seed (Genus
Gossypium). With good natural durability, and is absorbent, mak- Cotton
ing it usable across varying humidity levels.
from the cellulose fibres inside the stems of the flax (Linum usi-
tatissimum) plant. Considered to be the strongest natural fibre,
Linen
and is absorbent. Is also a luxury due to its characteristic texture
and lustre.
This fibre, while synthetic, is created from the dissolution of
processed plant cellulose in alkali, then spinning the produced
viscose back into cellulose. Has a soft handle and aesthetic lus- Rayon
tre, but is very absorbent, hence for uses that occur in varying
humidity levels, it is often blended with other fibre
from the fleece of sheep (Ovis aries). It is sensitive to UV light,
but is known to be flame-retardant, anti-static, and temperature Wool
regulating; this is why many winter wear pieces are woollen.
from the cocoons of the mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori). It has
a characteristic sheen, as well as a smooth texture that is not
Silk
slippery, which makes it a luxury. Silk is also durable, and its fibres
are strong, except when wet.
1/4
 Textile
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguds8
strong, stable, non-absorbent fibres, which can be manufactured
with a wide range of properties, from fine sheen to heavy uphol- Acrylic fibres
stery
Can be made for specific applications, with a wide range of prop-
erties. It is strong and stable, but weak to UV exposure. Commonly Nylon
blended with other fibres for upholstery uses.
Non-absorbent, abrasion resistant, and good durability, can also
be manufactured for different applications, with a wide range of Polyester fibres
properties.
Generally used for outdoor applications, with its characteristic
resistance to colour fading, colorfastness, and excellent durability. Polypropylene fibres/Olefin
This fibre is made from petrochemical olefins.
Preparatory, Spinning, Weaving, Finishing Manufacturing Process of Textiles
This refers to the processes undergone to create/harvest the
fibres, and prepare them for spinning. This spans processes like
Preparatory Stages
cleaning, scutching, carding (separating fibres from each other
and lining them up), and combing.
this refers to the step in which individual fibres are twisted into
bobbins to form yarn. This is done via a spinning machine, and
Spinning
spinning oils are sometimes added to the fibres in the process in
order to improve fibre cohesion and strengthen the fibre.
this refers to the process of creating a fabric by interlacing two
distinct sets of yarns at right angles together. This is usually
done through a loom. While handlooms and early industrial looms
Weaving
utilised a shuttle to bring the warp (the horizontal yarn) through
the wefts (the verticals), modern automatic looms utilise air jets
or water jets instead.
Aside from weaving, yarns can also be knitted, that is, the process
of interlacing loops of yarn together. Machine knitting can be clas-
sified into two: weft knitting (in a similar process to hand knitting), Knitting
or warp knitting (interlacing vertical loops instead of horizontal
parallel loops).
Fabrics can also be made by adding solvents, adhesives, and or
binders to yarns, making a fabric that is reinforced with more than Non-woven fabric making
mechanical strength.
Woven or knitted fabric isn't usually ready for use fresh from the
loom or knitting machine. Some finishing processes are usually
performed, including desizing, scouring (final cleaning), bleach-
ing, mercerising (swelling via caustic), sanforizing (shrinking), Finishing processes
dyeing, and printing. Processes that improve technical qualities
such as flame retardation or anti-pilling properties are also per-
formed at this stage.
Throughout history, textiles have played a crucial role in facilitating
the transportation of both individuals and goods. Textile ropes
and sails, for instance, have been indispensable in enabling the
movement of ships across vast bodies of water. Moreover, the Transport Textiles
advancement of aviation, characterized by the introduction of bal-
loons, zeppelins, and early airplane prototypes, owes a significant
debt to the utilization of textiles.
They find widespread application in traditional contexts, encom-
passing wound care products, diapers, braces, prostheses and
orthoses, wipes, breathing masks, bedding, covers, ropes, belts,
Medical and Hygiene Textiles
and more. The advent of innovative textile products has the po-
tential to greatly enhance the effectiveness of medical treatments
while simultaneously improving patient comfort.
They are involved in processes such as the separation and purifi-
cation of industrial products, the cleaning of gases and effluents,
2/4
 Textile
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguds8
the transportation of materials between different stages of pro-
duction, the movement and rotation of machinery, the absorption
Industrial Products and Components
of dirt and oil, and serving as substrates for coated products like
abrasive sheets.
Technical textiles find extensive applications in the food production
industry, as well as in the fishing sector where they are utilized
as nets, ropes, and lines. In agriculture and horticulture, technical Agrotextiles (Agriculture, Horticulture, and Fishing)
textiles play a vital role in various covering, protection, and con-
tainment applications.
All woven, nonwoven, and knitted textile products utilized primarily
by the civil engineering sector to provide a variety of services like
support, filtration, drainage, and separation at or below ground
Geotextiles
level. Construction of buildings, bridges, dams, roads, trains, and
trails, as well as the development of embankments, cuts, dykes,
and sub-sea coastal engineering projects.
Traditionally restricted to interior adornment, textiles are now
increasingly being incorporated into these constructions them-
selves. They can take the place of more conventional building
Construction - Building and Roofing
materials like steel and other metals, wood, and plastics because
of their improved strength-to-weight ratio, durability, flexibility, in-
sulating and absorption properties, and fire and heat resistance
In a lot of bedding and sleeping bags, hollow fibers with great
insulating qualities are used. Concern over the fire and health risks
Home Textiles
posed by these materials has led to an increase in the usage of
alternative forms of fiber in place of foams in furniture.
Fiber, yarn, and textiles are utilized as technical components
during the manufacture of clothes in the textile and apparel in-
dustries. These clothing elements include insulation, wadding and
interlinings, and sewing threads. It should be emphasized that Clothing Components
the clothing component does not cover protective clothing or
apparel, nor does it cover the primary outer and lining materials
of garments
Technical textiles have important applications in packaging and
containment, including the production of sacks and bags, which
Packaging and Containmen
are historically made of cotton, flax, and jute but are increasingly
made of polypropylene
The applications of textiles for sport and leisure are extremely di-
verse, ranging from sportswear to boat covers, tents, or high-per-
formance composite There are great opportunities for the use
of technical textiles in the sports and leisure market as perfor-
mance clothing and footwear. This is because end-user safety and Sport and Leisure
performance standards are continuously being raised. Sailcloth,
balloon and paraglide materials, and parachutes are some of the
other very apparent applications of technical textiles in sports and
leisure
The main barrier separating and safeguarding the human body
from its surroundings is the skin. It also serves as a vital mecha-
nism for the exchange of substance (such as water and gases)
Protective and Safety Clothing
and energy (such as heat) between the body and the outside
world. Humans have long utilized clothing as an extra layer of
protection on top of their natural skin
another natural fiber, also poses environmental concerns due to
its contribution to global warming, water usage, and the release
of greenhouse gases. On the other hand, fibers like linen, hemp, Silk
and nettle require fewer pesticides, water, and fertilizers, making
them relatively more sustainable choices
a synthetic fiber made from fossil fuels, is non-biodegradable and
releases microplastic fibers during washing, which have detri- Polyester
mental effects on the environment and end up in the oceans. De-
3/4
 Textile
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguds8
spite its water-saving and low-maintenance properties, polyester's
environmental impact remains a concern.
such as rayon, are derived from wood pulp and offer biodegrad-
ability and renewability. However, their production requires signif-
icant amounts of water, pesticides, and slow-growing cellulose.
Manmade Cellulosics (MMCs)
Research is ongoing to explore alternative materials like cotton
linter, pineapple leaves, cupro, and lyocell, which offer innovative
and sustainable options compared to rayon.
It has grown to be the largest textile mill in the Philippines with a
production capacity of 25,560 TPA a worsted spinning capability,
its own captive power plant of 24.8 MW and employs nearly 1,500
people. The business has won numerous awards including the
Indo Phil Textile Mills
Philippine Quality Award for 'commitment to quality', and is the first
textile company in the Philippines to receive several management
certification systems including ISO 9001:2008; ISO 14001:2004;
OHSAS 18001:2007 and Oeko Tex 100.
it has investments in Island King Aquaventure Corporation, an
aquaculture company, and SRTC Development Corporation, as Filsyn Corporation
real estate company.
Its contribution to the Philippine economy is roughly 5 million
pesos per year. The players are Echo Group, Capiz Pina Weavers, Cottage Industry
Iloilo Handloom Group, and backyard weavers

4/4
 Pharmaceutical
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguv9r
consists of drug manufacturers, biotechnology companies, and
the distribution and wholesale companies that handle the prod-
ucts produced. Companies making related products, such as
vitamins, other health supplements, or diagnostic substances, Pharmaceuticals industry
are also included. The majority of the revenues in the industry
come from drug companies that make prescription, generic, and
over-the-counter drugs for medical or veterinary use.
substance used in the diagnosis, treatment, or prevention of dis-
Pharmaceutical
ease and for restoring, correcting, or modifying organic functions
are special preparations used in modern and traditional medicine,
and are essential for preventing and treating diseases and pro- Pharmaceutical
tecting public health.
produces synthetic chemicals used for human medication or vet-
erinary applications in order to cure, prevent, or alleviate the
symptoms of illness. It is estimated that approximately 3000 differ-
ent substances are used as pharmaceutical ingredients, includ- Pharmaceutical industry
ing antibiotics, painkillers, antidepressants, adrenergic receptor
blockers, antidiabetics, contraceptives, lipid regulators, and impo-
tence drugs.
The American pharmaceutical industry had made a modest be-
ginning in 1786, but the synthetic organic chemicals ether and 1786
chloroform were not used for anesthesia until the 1840s.
The first integrated industrial synthetic organic manufacturing op-
Three Years After the End of the Civil War
eration was established in the United States.
The groundwork for modern pharmaceutical research began with
1881
the establishment of a scientific division of Eli Lilly & Co.
Developments of insulin, liver extract, and the barbiturates 1890s
Sulfa drugs and vitamins were added to many product lines 1930
Blood plasma, new antimalarials, and the development of peni-
After World War II
cillin resulted from the demands of war.
The spectacular surge of new products: steroid hormones tran-
After World War II
quilizers, vaccines, and broad- and medium-spectrum antibiotics.
Saw the exciting development of gene splicing to produce new
1970s
forms of living materials.
The isolation and purification of compounds, chemical synthesis,
Modern Era
and computer aided drug design
The unification of research in the 20th century in fields such as
chemistry and physiology increased the understanding of basic Modern Era
drug-discovery processes.
The first law in the United States regulating drugs. But this act did
Food and Drug Act of 1906
not require advanced testing of new drugs
the use of ethylene glycol as a vehicle for sulfanilamide caused
more than one hundred deaths and led to the 1938 amendment 1937
of the FD&C Act
are those dispensed to the public by a licensed pharmacist upon
the written order: prescription of a licensed doctor, dentist, or
Prescription drugs
veterinarian and include drugs deemed to be unsafe to be used
indiscriminately
are offered for sale by pharmacists or other vendors without a
OTC drugs
prescription
virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin, or analogous product
applicable to the prevention, treatment, or cure of diseases or Biologic Products
injuries to man.

1/7
 Pharmaceutical
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguv9r
arise from the action of microorganisms, and they are used for
prophylaxis, treatment, and diagnosis of infections and allergic Biologic Products
diseases.
Used for prophylaxis, treatment purposes, and for diagnosis of
Biologic Products
infections and allergic diseases.
man-made form of a hormone (insulin) that is produced in the
body. Lantus (insulin glargine) used to improve blood sugar control Lantus (insulin glargine)
in adults and children with diabetes mellitus.
is a type of medication known as a monoclonal antibody. With
rheumatoid arthritis, Humira prevents inflammatory processes Humira (adalumimab)
that lead to joint inflammation, damage, and pain.
messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine. This type of vaccine uses a
genetic code called RNA to make your body's cells produce the Pfizer
coronavirus' specific spike protein
used in medicine may be divided into the major classes of corti-
coids, anabolic androgens, progestational hormones, and estro- Steroids
genic hormones.
type of anti-inflammatory drug. They are typically used to treat
rheumatologic diseases, like rheumatoid arthritis, lupus or vas- Corticoid
culitis
include natural androgens such as male sex hormone testos-
terone or could be synthetic to mimic the action of the endogenous Anabolic Androgens
male hormone.
secreted by the corpus luteum of the ovary and by the placenta
and that helps to prepare the uterus for implantation of the fertil- Progestational Hormones
ized ovum and to maintain pregnancy.
associated with the female reproductive organs and is responsible
Estrogenic Hormones
for developing female sexual characteristics
are organic substances present in minute amounts in natural
foodstuffs. Having too little of any particular vitamin may increase Vitamins
the risk of developing certain health issues.
• Chemical names: retinol, retinal, and "the four carotenoids,"
including beta carotene. • It is fat-soluble. • Function: It is essential
for eye health. • Deficiency: This may cause night blindness and
keratomalacia, which causes the clear front layer of the eye to
Vitamin A
grow dry and cloudy. • Good sources: These include liver, cod liver
oil, carrots, broccoli, sweet potatoes, butter, kale, spinach, pump-
kins, collard greens, some cheeses, eggs, apricots, cantaloupe
melon, and milk.
• Chemical name: thiamine. • It is water-soluble. • Function: It is
essential for producing various enzymes that help break down
blood sugar. • Deficiency: This may cause beriberi and Wer-
Vitamin B1
nicke-Korsakoff syndrome. • Good sources: These include yeast,
pork, cereal grains, sunflower seeds, brown rice, whole grain rye,
asparagus, kale, cauliflower, potatoes, oranges, liver, and eggs.
• Chemical name: riboflavin. • It is water-soluble. • Function: It is
essential for the growth and development of body cells and helps
metabolize food. • Deficiency: Symptoms include inflammation of
Vitamin B2
the lips and fissures in the mouth. • Good sources: These include
asparagus, bananas, persimmons, okra, chard, cottage cheese,
milk, yogurt, meat, eggs, fish, and green beans

• Chemical names: niacin, niacinamide. • It is water-soluble. •

Function: The body needs niacin for the cells to grow and work
correctly. • Deficiency: Low levels result in a health issue called Vitamin B3
pellagra, which causes diarrhea, skin changes, and intestinal
upset. • Good sources: Examples include chicken, beef, tuna,

2/7
 Pharmaceutical
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguv9r
salmon, milk, eggs, tomatoes, leafy vegetables, broccoli, carrots,
nuts and seeds, tofu, and lentils.
• Chemical name: pantothenic acid. • It is water-soluble. • Function:
It is necessary for producing energy and hormones. • Deficiency:
Symptoms include paresthesia, or "pins and needles." • Good Vitamin B5
sources: These include meats, whole grains, broccoli, avocados,
and yogurt.
• Chemical names: pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal. • It is
water-soluble. • Function: It is vital for the formation of red blood
cells. • Deficiency: Low levels may lead to anemia and peripheral Vitamin B6
neuropathy. • Good sources: These include chickpeas, beef liver,
bananas, squash, and nuts.
• Chemical name: biotin. • It is water-soluble. • Function: It enables
the body to metabolize proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. It also
contributes to keratin, a structural protein in the skin, hair, and
Vitamin B7
nails. • Deficiency: Low levels may cause dermatitis or inflamma-
tion of the intestines. • Good sources: These include egg yolk, liver,
broccoli, spinach, and cheese.
• Chemical names: folic acid, folinic acid. • It is water-soluble. •
Functions: It is essential for making DNA and RNA. • Deficiency:
During pregnancy, this can affect the fetus's nervous system.
Doctors recommend folic acid supplements before and during Vitamin B9
pregnancy. • Good sources: These include leafy vegetables, peas,
legumes, liver, some fortified grain products, and sunflower seeds.
Also, several fruits have moderate amounts.
• Chemical names: cyanocobalamin, hydroxocobalamin, methyl-
cobalamin. • It is water-soluble. • Function: It is essential for a
healthy nervous system. • Deficiency: Low levels may lead to
neurological problems and some types of anemia. • Good sources:
Vitamin B12
Examples include fish, shellfish, meat, poultry, eggs, milk and
other dairy products, fortified cereals, fortified soy products, and
fortified nutritional yeast. • Doctors may recommend that people
with vegan diets take B12 supplements.
• Chemical name: ascorbic acid. • It is water-soluble. • Function:
It contributes to collagen production, wound healing, and bone
formation. It also strengthens blood vessels, supports the immune
system, helps the body absorb iron, and acts as an antioxidant.
Vitamin C
• Deficiency: This may result in scurvy, which causes bleeding
gums, a loss of teeth, and poor tissue growth and wound healing.
• Good sources: These include fruit and vegetables, but cooking
destroys vitamin C.
• Chemical names: ergocalciferol, cholecalciferol. • It is fat-soluble.
• Function: It is necessary for the healthy mineralization of bone. •
Deficiency: This may cause rickets and osteomalacia, or softening
Vitamin D
of the bones. • Good sources: Exposure to UVB rays from the sun
or other sources causes the body to produce vitamin D. Fatty fish,
eggs, beef liver, and mushrooms also contain the vitamin
Vitamin E • Chemical names: tocopherol, tocotrienol. • It is fat-sol-
uble. • Function: Its antioxidant activity helps prevent oxidative
stress, an issue that increases the risk of widespread inflammation
and various diseases. • Deficiency: This is rare, but it may cause
hemolytic anemia in newborns. This condition destroys blood cells.
• Good sources: These include wheat germ, kiwis, almonds, eggs,
nuts, leafy greens, and vegetable oils.
Vitamin K • Chemical names: phylloquinone, menaquinone. • It is
fat-soluble. • Function: It is necessary for blood clotting. • Deficien-
cy: Low levels may cause an unusual susceptibility to bleeding,
or bleeding diathesis • Good sources: These include natto, leafy
greens, pumpkins, figs, and parsley.

3/7
 Pharmaceutical
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguv9r
This company is the most prominent and leading pharmaceutical
and healthcare company in the Philippines, developing, manufac-
United Laboratories (Unilab)
turing, and marketing over 300 prescription, over-the-counter, and
personal care brands.
This pharmaceutical company was founded in 1849 by two recent
German immigrants to the USA, Charles Pfizer, and Charles
Erhart. Both in their mid twenties, the two men set up what was Pfizer
initially a fine chemicals business in a Brooklyn factory, using a
loan from Pfizer's father as capital
In 1888, physician and drug store proprietor Dr. Wallace C. Abbott
began producing accurate, scientifically formulated medications
Abbott Laboratories
with the goal of providing more effective therapies to patients and
the physicians providing their care.
Pharmaceutical business GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), formerly
known as Glaxo Wellcome, is located in Britain and has facilities
GlaxoSmithKline Philippines, Inc.
for research and development in the United States, Belgium, and
China in addition to the United Kingdom.
Albert Boehringer established the company in Ingelheim am
Rhein, Germany, in 1885. One of the biggest pharmaceutical
Boehringer Ingelheim (Philippines), Inc.
firms in the world—and the biggest private one—as of 2018 is
Boehringer Ingelheim
possesses specific usefulness in epilepsy. Like the other barbituric
acid derivatives, it is made from phenylethylmalonic diethyl ester, PHENOBARBITAL USP
which is condensed with urea to form the product.
is sold under the trade name Veronal. It is the oldest of the
BARBITAL
long-acting barbiturates and is derived through diethyl malonate.
This local anesthetic has long been dispensed under the name
novocaine. It is considered to be less toxic than cocaine, and
furthermore does not have the danger of habituation. It is used
frequently in conjunction with a vasoconstrictor like epinephrine to
PROCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE USP
secure a prolonged anesthetic action. It is obtained by first alky-
lating ethylenechlorohydrin with diethylamine, which is condensed
with p nitrobenzoyl chloride and reduced with tin and hydrochloric
acid to obtain procaine.
can be isolated from opium, and for many years the supply from
this source was sufficient to meet the demand for this sedative
and analgesic drug. Currently demand far exceeds the supply
CODEINE NF AND CODEINE PHOSPHATE USP
from this source, but morphine (also obtained from opium, but in
much larger amounts, 9 parts morphine to 1 part codeine) can be
methylated to produce codeine.
a highly substituted guanidine, is sold as Tagamet, and is widely
used as an antiulcer medication. Annual sales are about 8400
CIMETIDINE
million. It acts by blocking the histamine molecules in the stomach
from signaling the stomach to secrete acid.
are xanthine derivatives classified as central nervous stimulants,
but differing markedly in their properties. They can be extracted Caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline
from a number of natural sources.
The chief derivative of salicylic acid that is used as a drug is
the methyl acetyl ester, which is known as aspirin. The sodium
phenolate must be finely divided and exposed to the action of the
SALICYLIC ACID AND DERIVATIVES USP
CO, under pressure and heat. The equipment recommended for
this process is a revolving heated ball mill into which the sodium
phenolate solution is introduced.

sold under the trade name Tylenol, is a widely used analgesic and
antipyretic that is an OTC drug. Combined with codeine it is one ACETAMINOPHEN USP
of the top five prescription drugs. Acetaminophen is prepared by

4/7
 Pharmaceutical
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguv9r
treating p-aminophenol with a mixture of glacial acetic acid and
acetic anhydride.
an analgesic and antipyretic, is the ethyl ether of acetaminophen
ACETOPHENETIDINE USP (PHENACETIN)
and is prepared from p-ethoxyaniline.
is a substituted benzodiazepine made by a complex series of
reactions, one of which involves cyclization. This compound was
introduced, between 1855 and 1960, and today is the most pre-
scribed drug in the United States. It is an antianxiety drug, often
called a tranquilizer. It is prepared by treating p-chloromethyl- DIAZEPAM USP (VALIUM)
aniline with benzoyl chloride and hydroxylamine to produce the
benzophenone oxime. Reaction of the oxime with chloroacetyl
chloride in the presence of sodium hydroxide and subsequent
reduction yields diazepam.
has marked germicidal properties, and a phenol coefficient of
over 50. It is a valued odorless and stainless antiseptic commonly
employed in dilution of 1:1000. It is one of the most efficient
HEXYLRESORCINOL USP (1,3-DIHYDROXY-4-HEXYLBEN-
anthelmintics against hookworm and the like. In the manufacture
ZENE)
of hexylresorcinol, resorcinol and caproic acid are heated with a
condensing agent, such as zinc chloride, and the intermediate
ketone derivative is formed.
is a widely used cathartic, particularly in proprietary drugs. It is
manufactured by adding melted phenol (10 parts) to a cooled
solution of phthalic anhydride (5 parts) in concentrated sulfuric
acid (4 parts) and heating the mixture 10 to 12 h at 120°C. The
hot condensation product is poured into boiling water and boiled PHENOLPHTHALEIN NE
with successive changes of hot water. The condensate is then
dissolved in warm., dilute caustic soda and precipitated with acetic
acid. It may be purified by crystallization from absolute alcohol
after treatment with, and being filtering through, activated carbon.
is used as an anthelmintic in the treatment of infections caused
by pinworms and roundworms. It is also employed by veterinar-
ians against various worms infecting domestic animals, includ-
ing chickens. The U.S. International Trade Commission reported
PIPERAZINE CITRATE USP
production in 1980 of 1.8 X 10° t and a sales value of about
$6.5 million. Piperazine is prepared by the cyclization of ethylene
dibromide with alcoholic ammonia at 100°C. The citrate is formed
in aqueous solution and crystallized out.
This antineuritic vitamin is essential for bodily growth and the
prevention of beriberi. Although thiamine is widely distributed in
many foods, most commercially available quantities are obtained
THIAMINE HYDROCHLORIDE USP, VITAMIN B1
by the condensation of 6- amino-5-bromomethyl-2-methylpyrim-
idine hydrobromide with 5-(hydroxyethyl)-4-methylthiazole, which
results in thiamine chloride hydrochloride.
Riboflavin is a necessary element of all living cells. It is quite stable
except under excessive exposure to light. It is considered to be
the growth factor of the vitamin B complex and is added on a
large scale to bread, flour, and other dietary and pharmaceutical
RIBOFLAVIN USP, VITAMIN B2
preparations. It is also involved in the transfer of oxygen to tissues.
This vitamin is produced as a by product of the butanol-acetone
fermentation of molasses and by synthesis starting with 1,3,4-xy-
lidine, D-ribose, aniline, and alloxan.
Vitamin C is often called the antiscorbutic vitamin. It is also needed
in wound and bone healing and is a factor in resisting infection.
Much of this vitamin is supplied in foods, especially fresh citrus
fruits, tomatoes, and green vegetables. Ascorbic acid in solution ASCORBIC ACID USP, VITAMIN C.
or in foods is unstable, but the contrary is true if it is in dry form
(powder or tablets). All the ascorbic acid used commercially is
synthesized

5/7
 Pharmaceutical
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguv9r
is a synthetic, nonantipyritic, orally effective analgesic, similar
pharmacologically to codeine. "It is approximately equal milligram
to milligram to codeine in analgesic potency, produces no res-
piratory depressions, and has little or no antitussive activity. It is
unique in that it is not a narcotic yet can be substituted for codeine,
Darvon (Lilly)
and is useful in any condition associated with pain. This analgesic
is not analogous chemically to codeine or morphine. It was dis-
covered and synthesized commercially in the Lilly laboratories. Its
synthesis starts with relatively simple chemicals, but many steps
are involved in its manufacture.
In 1976 Librium represented the second largest annual sale of a
prescription medicinal. Librium is a Schedule IV regulated drug as
classified by the Controlled Substances Act. The drug is primarily
used as a short-term remedy to treat anxiety disorders and is
also used to treat symptoms of acute alcohol withdrawal and relax LIBRIUM.
patients before surgery. Librium may be used to treat insomnia,
muscle tension, seizures, and Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS).
The drug directly affects the brain and central nervous system,
producing a sense of calm in the user.
Oral contraceptives are taken daily by millions of women in the
United States and throughout the world. Over 30 different products
are marketed in the United States alone, in dosages that can be a
CONTRACEPTIVES.
combination of drugs, a sequence of drugs, or a single drug. Birth
control pills are a kind of medicine with hormones. Birth control
pills come in a pack, and you take 1 pill every day.
The term antibiotic is a broad one, defined by Waksman as "a
substance produced by microorganisms, which has the capacity
ANTIBIOTICS.
of inhibiting the growth and even of destroying other microorgan-
isms by the action of very small amounts of the antibiotics."
A number of penicillins, differing only in the composition of the
R group, have been isolated from natural media, and hundreds
have been semi-synthesized. Penicillin G USP, with benzyl for R,
generally the most clinically desirable, is the type commercially
'available, usually combined in salt form with procaine or potas- PENICILLIN.
sium. Not only was penicillin the first antibiotic to be produced
for widespread use, but it is important in quantities made and in
general usefulness. It is practically nontoxic and is one of the most
active antimicrobial agents known.
Erythromycin USP is, like penicillin, also isolated by solvent ex-
traction methods. It is an organic base, and extractable with amyl
ERYTHROMYCIN.
acetate or other organic solvents under basic conditions rather
than the acidic ones which favor penicillin extraction.
The commercial method for producing this compound is also
aerobic submerged fermentation. The structure of streptomycin
indicates its highly hydrophilic nature, and it cannot be extract-
ed by normal solvent procedures. Because of the strong-base STREPTOMYCIN.
characteristics of the two substituted guanidine groups, it may
be treated as a cation and removed from the filtered solution by
ion-exchange techniques.
Cephalosporins were marketed in the late 1950s when peni-
cillin-fast organisms became prevalent. Later, chemically modified
CEPHALOSPORINS.
cephalosporins were developed to broaden the scope of their use
and to be used where the originals were losing their effectiveness.
Ether is used for general anesthesia and as a solvent. Ether
and nitrous oxide both anesthetics, are manufactured through
dehydration reactions. The very simple and long used manufac- ETHER USP.
turing procedure for ether has been the dehydration of alcohol
(denatured with ether) by sulfuric acid.

6/7
 Pharmaceutical
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dguv9r
Halogenation, generally chlorination, is used extensively as a
chemical step in the manufacture of various intermediates, such
HALOGENATION
as ethyl chloride or bromide, and homologs employed in the
manufacture of finished pharmaceutical products.
Although alcohol and chlorinated lime were formerly used to make
chloroform, it is now made from acetone and calcium hypochlorite CHLOROFORM USP.
because the reaction is more rapid and the yield is high.
lsoniazid, isonicotinic acid hjdrazide, is the most potent and se-
ISONIAZID USP.
lective of the tuberculostatic antibacterial agents.
are known as niacin and niacinamide in the food industry Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide
is the most stable of all vitamins and is essential to humans and
Niacin
animals for growth and health.
the original member of this class, is a very interesting chem-
ical, long known as an intermediate in the manufacture of an Sulfanilamide
orange-colored dye, Prontosil.
is prepared by treating 2,4,5-trichlorobenzoic acid with chlorosul-
fonic acid, and further treatment with ammonia and furfuryl amine.
Furosemide
This is a very potent diuretic and was the fifth most prescribed
medicine in 1981.
This compound, sold under the trade name Inderal, was the sec-
ond most widely prescribed drug in 1981. It is used as an antiang-
inal and antihypertensive drug and is prepared from 1-naphthol
PROPANOLOL-HCL.
and epichlorohydrin. Subsequent treatment with isopropyl amine
opens the epoxy ring to yield propanolol. Treatment with HCl yields
the hydrochloride.

7/7