DRAFT NOTES OF SENIOR FIVE SECONDARY CORE

MATHEMATICS

S5 Mathematics teachers team

TL: NTAWIYOBERWA Cyrille (G.S.BUREHE)
Verified by:
ABALIKUMWE Jean de Dieu (G.S.St Aloys RWAMAGANA)

October, 2020
GENERAL PRESENTATION
This year 2020, mathematics teachers organized a hard work to make common
class notes. We tried to make summaries for each of units proposed by the
common CBC Syllabus provided by REB.

This copy is a draft that we provide to teachers so that it should help them at
the time that secondary schools will be reopened, the final copy is still being
under finalization and will be distributed to teachers at the end of all required
works.

This copy is not editable and all works are monitored by a specific team of
mathematics teachers until the final copy would be finished. Any question will
be asked using the given phone and whatsapp number:

ABALIKUMWE Jean de Dieu 0783231831

On Sunday, 11 October, 2020

Contents
UNIT 1: TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE, EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES ....................... 3
1.0.INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1.TRANSFORMATION FORMULAS ........................................................................................................... 9
1.2.TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES ..................................................................... 12
1.3. APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 19
1.4.END OF UNIT 1 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions) ................................................................................ 21
UNIT 2: SEQUENCES (MISMATHEMTICAL INDUCTION) ......................................................... 24
1.0.INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 24
2.1.GENERALITIES ON SEQUENCES ......................................................................................................... 25
2.2.QUADRATIC, ARITHMETIC, HARMONIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES................................. 27
2.3.APPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 38
2.4.END OF UNIT 2 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions) ................................................................................ 40
UNIT 3: LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS ...................................................... 43
3.0. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 43
3.1. GRAPH OF LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ..................................................... 45
3.2. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS ......................................................................... 46
3.3. SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS ............................................................................................. 51
3.4. APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 53
3.5. END OF UNIT 3 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions) ............................................................................... 58
UNIT 4: SOLVING EQUATIONS BY NUMERICAL METHOD ...................................................... 62
4.0. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 62
4.1. LINEAR INTERPOLATION AND EXTRAPOLATION ........................................................................ 63
4.2. LOCATION OF ROOTS ........................................................................................................................... 66
4.3. ITERATIVE METHOD ............................................................................................................................. 69
4.4. END OF UNIT 4 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions) ............................................................................... 73
UNIT5 : TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES ........................................... 74
5.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 74
5.1 GENERALITIES ON TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES ............................. 74
5.2. LIMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION AND THEIR INVERSES .............................................. 84
5.3 DIFFERENTIATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES ....................... 88
5.4.APPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 94
5.5.END OF UNIT ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions) .............................................................................. 97
UNIT 6: VECTOR SPACE OF REAL NUMBERS ................................................................................ 99
6.0. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 99
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 6.1. VECTOR SPACE ℝ𝟑 .............................................................................................................................. 101
6.2. EUCLIDIAN VECTOR SPACE ℝ𝟑 ....................................................................................................... 113
6.3. APPLICATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 120
6.4. END OF UNIT 6 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions) ............................................................................. 124
UNIT 7: MATRICES AND DETERMINANT OF ORDER THREE ...............................................126
7.0. INTRODUCTION. .................................................................................................................................. 126
7.1 SQUARE MATRICES OF ORDER THREE. .......................................................................................... 128
7.2. MATRIX OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATION IN 3D. .......................................................................... 137
7.3 DETERMINANTS OF ORDER THREE. ................................................................................................ 140
7.4 APPLICATIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 148
7.5. END OF UNIT ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions) ................................................................................ 152
UNIT 8: POINTS, STRAIGHT LINES, PLANES AND SPHERE IN 3D .......................................153
8.1. POINTS IN 3 DIMENSIONS .................................................................................................................. 153
8.2. STRAIGHT LINES IN 3 DIMENSIONS ................................................................................................ 156
8.3. PLANES IN 3 DIMENSIONS ................................................................................................................. 168
8.4. SPHERE IN 3 DIMENSIONS ................................................................................................................. 185
8.5. END OF UNIT ACTIVITIES(Practice Questions) ................................................................................. 195
UNIT 9: BIVARIATE STATISTICS ........................................................................................................197
9.0. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 197
9.1. SCATTER DIAGRAM ............................................................................................................................ 201
9.2. COVARIANCE ....................................................................................................................................... 207
9.3. REGRESSION LINES ............................................................................................................................. 210
9.4. COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION ..................................................................................................... 213
9.5. APPLICATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 215
9.6. END OF UNIT 9 ACTIVITIES ............................................................................................................... 217
UNIT 10: CONDITIOANAL PROBABILITY AND BAYES’ THEOREM ...................................220
10.0.INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 220
10.1. TREE DIAGRAM.................................................................................................................................. 224
10.2. INDEPENDENT EVENTS.................................................................................................................... 229
10.3. CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY ......................................................................................................... 230
10.4. BAYES THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS ................................................................................ 233
10.5. END OF UNIT 10 ACTIVITIES (Practice questions) .......................................................................... 234

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UNIT 1: TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE, EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

1.0.INTRODUCTION

(a) Revision on trigonometric functions:

From S4, we have seen that we have two basic trigonometric functions sine, and cosine and others derived
from these basic ones as follows:

sin  1 cos  1 1
tan   cot    sec   cosec 
cos  tan  sin  cos  sin 

Remember that: sin 2   cos2   1 and sec2   tan 2   1

 These relations are applied to prove trigonometric identities.

Moreover, there are rules involving these functions into a triangle:

For a right angled triangle ABC:

A a b
ˆ 
cos B ˆ 
cos A
c c
c b

ˆ  b ˆ  a
sin B sin A
B a C c c

ˆ b
tan B ˆ a
tan A
a b
For any triangle ABC:
A Cosines rule:
ˆ
a 2  b2  c2  2bc cosA

b c
ˆ
b2  a 2  c2  2ac cosB
ˆ
c2  a 2  b2  2ab cosC
C a B
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 Sinus rule:
sin  sin B̂ sin Ĉ a b c
  or  
a b c ˆ
sinA ˆ
sinB ˆ
sinC
Task 1: Individually, prove the following identities:
cos2 x sin2 x (b) tan θ + cotan θ = sec θcosec
(a) − 1+tan2 x = 1 − 2sin2 x
1+tan2 x

Task 2: In pairs, solve the following triangles:

(a) A

The angle BĈA = 300 and the length AC=5m,

xcm Find the length AB if BC=8cm

B C

(b) A
The angle 𝐴𝐵̂ 𝐶 = 580 and 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐵 = 390 .
Find the length AC If AB=12cm.

B C

Task 3: In your groups, respond to the following problems:

1. A six-meter-long ladder learns against a building. If the ladder males an angle of 600 with the ground .
(a) How far up the wall does the ladder reach?
(b) How far from the wall is the base of the ladder?
2. An angle of elevation of a cloud prom the point ℎ meters above the lake is 𝜃 the angle of its reflection in
the lake is 450 . Find the height of the cloud in meters.
3. Linda measures the angle of elevation from a point on the ground to the top of the tree and find it to be
35 degrees. She then walks 20 meters towards the tree and find the angle of elevation from this new
point to the top of the tree to be 45 degrees. Find the height of the tree in meters.
4. Determine the area of the triangle whose : a  4, b  4, C  1200
5. Two weather tracking stations on the equator 127km apart. A weather balloon is located on a bearing of
N 380E from the western station and on the bearing of N 140E from the eastern station. How far is the
balloon from the western station?
6. Two cars leave the same station at the same time, moving along straight tracks that form an angle of 30°.
If one car travels at an average speed of 50 km/hour and the other at an average speed of 60 km/hour,

how far apart are the two cars after two hours?

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 (b) Graphical representation:
Having functions written in the form : f ( x)  a   bx  c   d such that :
 is the trigonometric function, the graphical representation of trigonometric functions depends on the
followings:

a : Amplitude c : Phase constant

b : Coefficient of x d : Shift constant

Amplitude change:
Task 4: Group discussion
On the same graph, make a graphical representation of the following functions
1
a) y  sin x , y  2sin x , y sin x
2
1
b) y  cos x , y  2cos x , y  cos x
2
1
c) y  2cos x , y   cos x
2
 The graphical representation should be done using the Microsoft office excel or other graphing
tools.
a)
y  2sin x y  sin x

1
y sin x
2

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b)
1
y  2cos x y  cos x y cos x
2

c)
1
y  2cos x y   cos x
2

Period changes:
Task 5: Group discussion
On the same graph, make a graphical representation of the following functions:

1
y  sin x , y  sin 2 x , y  sin x
2

Solution:

1
y  sin x y  sin 2 x x y  sin
2
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Horizontal shift changes:
Task 6: Group discussion
On the same graph, make a graphical representation of the following functions:
   
a) y  sin  x   , y  sin  x  
 2  2

 
b) y  cos  x   , y  cos  x   
 4

Solution:

a)

   
y  sin  x   y  sin  x  
 2  2
b)

 
y  cos  x   y  cos  x   
 4

Vertical shift changes

Task 7: (Group discussion)

Make the graphical representation of the following functions:
a) y  2  sin x b) y  3  cos x

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Solution:
a) y  2  sin x

b) y  3  cos x

Task 8: (Group discussion)

1. Sketch the graph of the following functions: y  3sin100t  1

2. What is the phase shift and the amplitude of the function 𝑦 = 3.2cos(1.5(𝑥 − 4𝜋))
3. Given the graphical illustration of a trigonometric functions:

(i) Determine the amplitude, period, horizontal shift and vertical shift.

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1.1.TRANSFORMATION FORMULAS
Transformation formulas are more helpful in trigonometry likewise in mathematics, they transform a given
complicated form to the simple one. These are categorized into the following:

i. Addition formulas: these are formulas describing the trigonometric function value of
the sum/difference of angles.

cosa  a   cos 0  1

We know that cos 2 a  sin 2 a  1 , we can write:

cosa  a   cos 2 a  sin 2 a
 cos a  cos a  sin a  sin a
Analogically, taking two different angles a and b we have:
1. cosa  b  cos a  cos b  sin a  sin b
2. cosa  b  cosa  (b)  cos a  cos b  sin a  sin b

      
3. sin a  b   cos (  a)  b   cos  a  cos b  sin  a  sin b
 2   2   2 
 sin a  cos b  sin b  cos a
4. sina  b  sina  (b)  sin a  cos b  sin b  cos a

Task 9: (Individually),
Determine exact value of:
a) sin150 b) cos 750

Task 10: (Group discussion),

(1) Simplify: 2 sin a sin 4a  2 cos cos 4a
 5
(2) Use addition formula to find the value of sin and tan
12 3
a 1 
(3) If tan A  and tan B  , show that tan( A  b) 
a 1 2a  1 4
(4) Prove that sinn  1A sinn  1A  cosn  1A cosn  1A  cos 2 A

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ii. Basic duplication formulas: Basic duplication formulas are formulas determining the
sinus or cosines of the doubled angle.

1. sin 2a  sin a  cos a  sin a  cos a  2 sin a  cos a

2. cos 2a  cos a  cos a  sin a  sin a  cos 2 a  sin 2 a

Task 11: In pairs,

(1) Express cos4x in function of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 only

(2) Express sin4x in function of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
(3) Evaluate exactly 2sin150 cos150

(4) Prove that 2  2  2  2 cos 8 x  2 cos x

Linearization formulas: Linearization formulas are formulas that work for changing the product to sum.

Task 12: Group discussion

Use the sum/difference of addition formulas to deduce formulas that:

cos a cos b 
1
cosa  b  cosa  b
2

sin a sin b 
1
cosa  b  cosa  b
2

sin a cos b 
1
sina  b  sina  b
2

sin b cos a 
1
sina  b  sina  b
2
Taking a  b , we get, from:
The basic linearization formulas:

1  cos 2a 1  cos 2a
cos 2 a  or cos a 
2 2

1  cos 2a 1  cos 2a
sin 2 a  or sin a 
2 2

These are called half angle formulas

Other method of demonstrating half angle formulas

We know that cos 2 a  sin 2 a  cos 2a and cos 2 a  sin 2 a  1

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 1  cos 2a
 Adding these two equations we get: cos 2 a 
2
1  cos 2a
 Subtracting the two equations we get: sin 2 a 
2
sin 2a
 Also tan a 
1  cos 2a

iii. Simpson’s formulas: These are formulas used to transform a sum into a
product form.

Let x  a  b and y  a  b , we have:

x y x y
a and b  into linearization formulas, and rearranging:
2 2
x y x y
1. cos x  cos y  2 cos cos
2 2

x y x y
2. cos y  cos x  2sin sin
2 2
x y yx
cos x  cos y  2sin sin
2 2
x y x y
3. sin x  sin y  2 sin cos
2 2
x y x y
4. sin x  sin y  2 sin cos
2 2

Task 13: Individually,

(a) Change from product to sum

i. sin 2 x cos3x ii. cos x cos5x iii. sin x sin 5x
(b) Change from sum to product:
i. sin x  sin 5x ii. sin 2 x  sin 7 x iii. cos 2 A  cos3A

(c) Without using calculator find the value of cos150

7 A A A
(d) If cos A  , find the value of cos , sin and tan
25 2 2 2
0
1 10 10
(e) Find the value of cos 22 , sin 22 and tan 22
2 2 2

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Task 14: Group discussion

Prove the following identities :

Hint: Use Simpson’s and linearization formulas

sin 5x−2 sin 3x+sinx
(a) = tan x
cos5x−cos x
1
(b) sin 100 sin 500 sin 700 = 8
π π
(c) sec( 4 + x) sec( 4 − x) = 2 sec 2x

1.2.TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

Trigonometric equations
Trigonometric equations are the equations involving trigonometric functions we will use inverse trigonometric

functions to get the required angle. The inverse trigonometric functions are sin 1 or arcsin , cos 1 or arccos
and tan 1 or arctan .

(a) Resolution of trigonometric equation involving sine and cosine

Let consider the equation of the form sin𝑥 , the resolution of the equation is used to find out the angle "𝜃" such
that the sine of 𝜃 is equal to”𝑥” .Thus, using the trigonometric circle.
(i) If sine of angle is positive, angle is located in 1st or 2nd quadrant.

we get the solution as follow:

x1 = θ + 2kπ
sinx = b, {
x2= π − θ + 2kπ
(ii) If sine of angle is negative, angle is in 3rd or 4th quadrant.
x1 = π + θ
We get the solution as follow: sinx = b, {
x2 = 2π − θ
(iii) If cosine of angle is negative, angle is in 2nd or 3rd quadrant.
x1 = π − θ
cosx = b , {
x2 = π + θ
(iv) If cosine of angle is positive, angle is in 1st or 4th quadrant. We get:
𝑥1 = 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 𝑏, {
𝑥2 = −𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋

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Task15: Group discussion

Solve the following equations related to trigonometry

1 √3
(i) sinx = 2 (v) cosx = − 2
−√2 1
(ii) sinx = (vi) sinx =
2 √2

(iii) cosx =
√3 (vii) secx = 2
2
√2
(iv) cosx = − 2

Expected answers:

(i) θ is an acute angle and 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱 is equal to a posive number implies that 𝑥 lies in 1st or 2nd quadrant
𝜋 𝜋
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝑥1 = 6 + 2𝑘𝜋
As sin𝜃 = 2 , 𝜃=𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (2) , sinx={ 𝜋 { 5𝜋 principle solutions are:
sin(𝜋 − 6 ) + 2𝑘𝜋 𝑥2 = + 2𝑘𝜋
6

𝜋 5𝜋
𝑎𝑛𝑑
6 6

𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
And the general solutions are: 6 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 2𝑘𝜋, k∈ 𝑍
6
π
√2 π
x1 = π + 4 5π 7π
(ii) As sinθ = ,θ = then { π x1 = and x2 =
2 4 x2 = 2π − 4 4 4

𝜋
√3 𝜋
𝑥1 = 6
(iii) As 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ,𝜃 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 { 11𝜋
2 6
𝑥2 = 6
𝜋
√2 √2 𝜋
𝑥1 = 𝜋 − 4 3𝜋 5𝜋
(iv) As cos𝜃 = ,𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( 2 ), 𝜃= { 𝜋 , 𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 =
2 4 𝑥2 = 𝜋 + 4 4 4

√3 √3 π
(v) cosx = − is negative , 𝑥 lies in the 2nd or 3rd quadrant. Here cosθ = , θ = 6,
2 2
π π
cosx= cos (π − 6 ) or cos(π + 6 )
5π 7π 5π 7π
cosx = cos or cos Thus, x = or x =
6 6 6 6
1
(vi) sinx = is positive, x lies the 1st or 2nd quadrant.
√2
π
1 π
x1 = π 3π
4
Here sinθ = , θ= { π x1 = and x2 =
√2 4 x2 = π + 4 4 4

1 1
(vii) secx = 2, =2 cosx = 2 is positive, thus 𝑥 lies in 1st or 4th quadrant cosθ = 1/2
cosx

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 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
𝜃 = 3 𝑥1 = 3 𝑜𝑟𝑥2 = − 3 𝑜𝑟2𝜋 − 3 = 3

(b) Resolution of equation involving tangent

(i) If tangent of angle is positive, angle is in 1st or 3rd quadrant.

We get:
𝑥 =𝜃
tanx = c, { 1
𝑥2 = 𝜋 + 𝜃
(ii) If tangent of angle is negative, angle is in 2nd or 3rd quadrant.

We get:
𝑥1 = 𝜋 − 𝜃
tanx = c , {
𝑥2 = 2𝜋 − 𝜃

Task 12: (Individually), Solve the following

(i) tanx = 1
(ii) tanx = −√3

Expected answer
π
π
x1 = 4
(i) Since tanθ = 1, θ = { 5π
4
x2 = 4
𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
𝑥1 = 𝜋 − 3 𝑥1 =
3
(ii) Since tan𝜃 = √3 𝜃 = 3 , then { 𝜋 ,{ 5𝜋
𝑥2 = 2𝜋 − 3 𝑥2 = 3

Task 13: (Group discussion) Solve the following equations

(a) 2cos 2 x − 5 sin x + 1 = 0 (h) cos 3x = sin (x − 4 )

π

1
(b) cos 𝑥 cos 300 − sin 𝑥 sin 300 = 2
(i) 2 cos 2 x  5 sin x  1  0
(c) cos(𝜃 + 600 ) = sin 𝜃 (j) sin 2 x  sin x  2  0
(d) sin2 x + sin xcos x = 0 (k) cos 2  sin x cos x  0
(e) sin 3x = sinx
(l) 2 cos 2 x  cos x  1  0
(f) sinx − sin3x + sin2x − sin4x = 0
(m)
π
(g) sin2x = cos (x − 3 ) (n) tan3 x  3 tan x

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 (c)The solution of equations reducible to the form 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐧𝐱 = 𝐤, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐧𝐱 = 𝐤 and 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐧𝐱 = 𝐛, 𝐟𝐨𝐫|𝒌| ≤
𝟏 and b∈ 𝑹.

For the trigonometric equations reducible to the form sin nx = k sin nx = k, cos nx = k and tan nx = b
remember to divide the period by 𝑛 while computing the general solutions.

Task 14: (Group discussion) Solve in the set of real numbers:

(i) cos2x = √3/2
(ii) sin3x + sin5x = 0
(iii) tan3x = 1
(iv) sin x/3 = −√3/2
(v) sin3x = 1/2 for x ∈ [0,2π]

Expected answers
√3 √3 π
(i) cos2x = is positive as cosθ = θ=
2 2 6
8x 2x
(ii) Sin3x + sin5x = 0 transform into product sin3x + sin5x = 2sin cos(− 2 ) = 2sin4xcosx therefore:
2

sin3x + sin5x = 0 = 2sin4xcosx = 0

Sin4xcosx = 0, sin4x = 0 or cosx = 0 ,
kπ
sin4x = 0 since sine is zero at 0 and π, we can write 4x = kπ, x = , kϵZ
4
π 3π π
cosx = 0 since cosine is zero at 2 and we can write x = 2 + kπ , kϵZ
2

kπ
then, x = {π 4 , kϵZ
+ kπ
2
π π
+ 2kπ + kπ
6 12
2x = { π π , x={ π
− 6 + 2kπ or 2π − 6 + 2kπ − 12 + kπ

𝜋 𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
(iii) Since tan(3x) = 1, 3𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) ⇒ 3𝑥 = 4 + 2𝑘𝜋 ⟹ 𝑥 = 12 + 3
8x 2x
transform into product sin3x + sin5x = 2sin cos(− 2 ) = 2sin4xcosx therefore: sin3x + sin5x = 0 =
2

2sin4xcosx = 0
Sin4xcosx = 0, sin4x = 0 or cosx = 0 , sin4x = 0 since sine is zero at 0 and π, we can write 4x = kπ, x =
kπ
, kϵZ
4

15 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 π 3π π
cosx = 0 since cosine is zero at 2 and we can write x = 2 + kπ , kϵZ
2

kπ
then, x = {π 4 kϵZ
+ kπ
2

(c) Solving the equations of the form 𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱 + 𝐛𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐱 = 𝐜

Here we follow the steps below:

Step I: divide each side by 𝑎,

𝑏
Step II: Let tan 𝛼 = 𝑎,

𝑏 sin 𝛼
Step III: Replace 𝑎 by cos 𝛼 multiply each side by cos 𝛼 then use the addition formula

Task 15: In pairs, Solve 3sinx + √3cosx = 3

Expected answer:
√3
Since 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑏 = √3, and 𝑐 = 3 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + cos 𝑥 =1
3

√3 𝜋
then tan 𝛼 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛼 =
3 6
𝜋
sin
sin 𝑥 + 6
𝜋 cos 𝑥 = 1
cos
6

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
⇒ sin 𝑥 cos 6 + sin 6 cos 𝑥 = cos 6

𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 √3 𝜋
+ 2𝑘𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋
3
⇒ sin(𝑥 + 6 ) = ⇒ 𝑥+6= {2𝜋 ⇒ 𝑥 = {𝜋6 ∀𝑘 ∈ ℤ
2 + 2𝑘𝜋
+ 2𝑘𝜋 2
3

Trigonometric inequalities
When solving inequalities, first replace the inequality sign with equal sign and then solve. Find all
nonequivalent angles in [0,2𝜋]replace these angles on a trigonometric circle. They will divide the circle into two
arcs. Choose the arcs containing the angles corresponding to the given inequality

Task 16: Group discussion

Solve the following inequalities and represent graphically

1 1
(a) sinx < 2 and sinx > 2
√2
(b) Solve cosx ≥ for x ∈ [0,2π]
2

16 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 1 1
(c) sin2x ≤ 2 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 ≥ 2

(d) sinx + sin3x < −sin2x

(e) tanx + cotx < −4 for x ∈ [0, π]

Expected answers:
π
1
+ 2kπ 1 π 5π
6
(a) sinx < 2 , 𝑥 = {5kπ solution for sinx < 2 is xϵ ]0 + 2kπ, 6 + 2kπ[ U ] 6 + 2kπ, 2π +
+ 2kπ
6
π 5π
2kπ[ or xϵ ]2kπ, 6 + 2kπ[ U ] 6 + 2kπ, 2π(1 + k)π[ , kϵZ

1 π 5π
Solution for sinx > 2 , x ∈ ] 6 + 2kπ, + 2kπ[ , kϵZ
6

√2 π
(b) cosx ≥ , x = ±4
2

Since, we are given the condition 𝑥 ∈ [0,2𝜋].The angle (– 𝜋)/4 we will be replaced by its positive equivalent
7π
angle in the given interval which is .
4

π 7π
Thus, xϵ [0, ] U [ , 2kπ]
4 4
−𝜋 𝜋
If the condition was not given the answer should be 𝑥 ∈ [ 4 + 2𝑘𝜋, 4 + 2𝑘𝜋]

17 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 1 1
(c) sin2x ≤ 2 and sin2x ≥ 2

𝜋 𝜋
1
+ 2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑘𝜋
6 12
sin 2𝑥=2 , 2𝑥 = {5𝜋 , 𝑥= {5𝜋
+ 2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑘𝜋
6 12

As it can be seen, there are more than two values in the interval [0,2𝜋]. To see them substitute k with different
integers starting with 0:
𝜋 𝜋 13𝜋 𝜋 25𝜋
12
+𝜋 = + 2𝜋 =
{12
12 12 12
K=0 x={5𝜋 , 𝑘 = 1𝑥 = {5𝜋 17𝜋 , 𝑘=2 𝑥= 5𝜋 29 𝑡
12
+𝜋 = + 2𝜋 = 12
12 12 1,2
𝜋 5𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
Hence the values that fall in the interval [0,2π]are , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑
12 12 12 12

SIGN TABLE
X 𝜋 5𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
0 2𝜋
12 12 12 12

1 _ __ 0 + ++ 0 __ __ 0 +++++0 __ __ __ __ __ _ __
Sin2x-2

Therefore, the solution the given inequality for:

1 π 5π 13π 17π
 Sin2x = 2 , that is x ∈ [2kπ, 12 + 2kπ] U [ 12 + 2kπ, + 2kπ] U [ 12 + 2kπ, 2π(1 + k)] , kϵZ
12
1
 For sin2x ≥ 2 that is
π 5π 13π 17
x∈[ + 2kπ, + 2kπ] U [ + 2kπ, + 2kπ] , kϵ𝑍
12 12 12 12
sinx cosx sinxsinx+cosxcosx+4cosxsinx
(d) tanx + cotx < −4,cosx + sinx + 4 < 0, < 0,
cosxsinx

1 + 2(2cosxsinx) 1 + 2sin2x 2(1 + 2sin2x)

< 0, < 0, <0
2cosxsinx sin2x sin2x
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
1
− 6 + 2𝑘𝜋 − 12 + 𝑘𝜋
Case1: 1+2sin2x=0, sin2x=-2 , 2𝑥 = { 7𝜋 , 𝑥={ 7𝜋 we need the vaues in interval [0,2𝜋]
+ 2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑘𝜋
6 12

𝜋 11𝜋 23𝜋
− 7𝜋 11𝜋
K=0 x={ 7𝜋12 , 𝑘 = 1 𝑥 = {19𝜋
12 12
, 𝑘 = 2 𝑥 = {31𝜋 𝑤𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 12
12 12 12

18 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Case2:

sin2x = 0, x = kπ/2, k = 0 x = 0, k = 1 x = π/2, k = 2 x = π, k = 3 x = 3π/2 we take 0, π/2 and π

but for these values, there is no solution since they make the denominator to be zero.

Sign table
𝜋 7𝜋 11𝜋
X 0 𝜋
2 12 12

1+2sin2x + + + + + 0 __ __ __ __ 0 + + + + + + +

Sin2x 0+ + + + 0 __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ 0

1 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 II + + + + +II __ __ __ __ 0 + + + + + + 0 __ __ __ __ __ 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

𝝅 𝟕𝝅 𝟏𝟏𝝅
Thus, x∈ ] 𝟐 , 𝟏𝟐 [ 𝑼 ] 𝟏𝟐 , 𝝅[

1.3. APPLICATIONS
Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M)

The distance of the object moving in simple harmonic motion from the origin is at time t is given by
d  A cos t or d  sin t

2
Where a  Amplitude of the motion,   Angular velocity,   and T  Time period.
T
NOTE: if the body doesn’t start in the origin the equation is d  A sint    or d  A cost    and  is
called the phase angle of the motion.

Task 17: Individually,

(1) If the instantaneous voltage in a current is given by the equation E = 204sin3680t, where E is expressed
in volts and 𝑡 is expressed in seconds, find E if t = 0.27 seconds
(2) The horizontal displacement d of the end of a pendulum is d = Ksin2πt. Find K if d = 12centimeters
and t = 3.25seconds.

19 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Expected answers:

(a) E = 204sin3680t, E = 204sin(3680 × 0.27), E = 204sin993.6. hence,

E = 154volts
12
(b) 𝑑 = 𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑡, 12 = ksin(2 × 3.143.25), 12=ksi20.42, k=𝑠𝑖𝑛20.42 . 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑘 = 12

Refraction of light
In optics, the degree of bending of the light’s path depends on the angle that the incident beam of light makes
with the surface and on the ratio between the refractive indices of the two media (Snell’s law). If the light is
traveling from a rarer region (lower n) to a denser region (higher n) it will bend towards the normal but if it is
traveling from a denser region(higher) to a rarer region (lower n), it will bend away from the normal.
Snell’s law states that: 𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐

Task 17: In pairs,

(1) Light travels from air into an optical fiber with an index of refraction of 1.44
a. In which direction does the light bend?
b. If the angle of incidence on the end of the fiber is 220 , what is the angle of refraction inside the fiber?
c. Sketch the path of light as it changes media.
(2) A ray of light is incident through glass, with refractive index 152, on n interface separating glass and water
with refractive index 1.32. What is the angle of refraction if the angle of incidence of the ray in glass is250 ?
(3) A ray of light is incident on a water-glass boundary at an angle of 41 . Calculate the angle
of refraction r, if the refractive indices of water and glass are 1.33 and 1.50 respectively.

Expected answers:
(1) (a) Since the light is traveling from a rarer region (lower n) to a denser region (higher), it will bend towards
the normal.
(b) We will identify air as medium2.
𝑛1 = 1.00(𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟), 𝑛2 = 1.44 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝜃1 = 220 , 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2, 𝑠𝑖𝑛22 = 1.44𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

20 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝟐
sin𝜽𝟐 = , 𝜽𝟐 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟐𝟔), ( 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 ),
𝟏.𝟒𝟒

(c) The path of the light is shown in the figure below:


n1 =1.00 θ2 =15
o
θ1 =22 n2 =1.44

(2) Let the needed angle but use Snell’s law to write:1.52sin25=1,32sint,
1.52sin25 1.52sin25
sint = , t = sin−1 ( ) . ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡 = 29.10
1.32 1.32

(3) From Snell’s low 𝑛1 sin 𝑖̂= 𝑛2 sin 𝑟̂ ,

⟹ 1.33 sin 410 = 1.50 sin 𝑟̂

1.33𝑠𝑖𝑛41
⟹ 𝑟̂ =𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) = 35.50
1.50

1.4.END OF UNIT 1 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions)

(1) Multiply and simplify

(a) sin x  cos xsin x  cos x
(b) cos y sin ysec y  csc y 
(2) Assume that a particle’s position on the x − axis is given by x = 3cost + 4sin t , where x is measured in
π
meters and t is measured in seconds. Find the particle’s position when t = 0, t = and t = π
2
2 cos 𝑥−1
(3) Solve the following inequalities: < 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
2 cos 𝑥+1

(4) A weight is attached to a spring and reaches its equilibrium position ( x = 0). It is then set in motion
𝜋 3𝜋
resulting in a displacement of x =10cost. Find the spring’s displacement when t = 0, t = 4 and t = 4

(5) A mass of 0.5 kg oscillates on the end of a spring on a horizontal surface with negligible friction
according to the equation y = Acos(wt). The graph of F vs. x for this motion is shown below.

21 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
The last data point corresponds to the maximum displacement of the mass.
Determine the:
(a) Angular frequency ω of the oscillation,
(b) Frequency f of oscillation,
(c) Amplitude of oscillation,
(d) Displacement from equilibrium position (x = 0) at a time of 2 s.

(6) An object oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the x axis. Its position varies with time

according to the equation x  4.00m cos(t  ) . Where t is in seconds and the angles in the
4
parentheses are in radians.
a. Determine the amplitude, frequency, and period of the motion.
b. Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the object at any time t.
c. Using the results of part (b), determine the position, velocity, and acceleration of the object at t = 1.00 s.
d. Determine the maximum speed and maximum acceleration of the object.
e. Find the displacement of the object between t = 0 and t = 1.00 s.
(7) Prove the following identities
1  sin x sin x  1
(a)   4 sec x tan x
1  sin x 1  sin x
1  cos 2 x
(b)  2 csc 2 x  1
sin 2 x
(8) In a two dimensional system given two straight lines l1  y  m1 x  b1 and l2  y  m2 x  b2 , the slopes

m1 and m2 are the tangents to angles 1 and  2 that the two lines form with positive direction of the

22 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 abscissa axis respectively.
(a) Determine the formula that should be used to get an angle to get angle  between the two lines
(b) Use the formula in (a) to find the angle between the lines
(i) l1  2 x  3  2 y (ii) l1  3 y  3 x  3
 
 l2  x  y  5  l2  y  3 x  2
(9) The monument cast a shadow 793m long when the angle of elevation of the sun is 350 . How tall is the
monument?
(10) Suppose that you are a civil aviation pilot at the point A of the horizontal truck(runway), you notice that
you have to divert at an angle of 210 around a group of the clouds. After x distance (at point B) from
the truck again you divert to intercept the initial truck about an angle 350 at point C of the truck. The
distance from A to C is 70km
(a) Determine the travelled distance from A to B.
(b) Find the area covered by the triangle ABC.
(c) How long does the airplane rise from the initial truck?
(11) Two radar stations 2.7km apart are trucking an airplane. The distance between an airplane and the
station A is 7.4km , the distance between the station B and the plane is 6.9km . What is the angle of
elevation from the station A to the plane?
(12) Solve in IR :
(a) cos 4 x  2 (c) 2 sin x  4 sin cos x  0
 3  (d) 3 cos x  sin x  0
(b) sin 2 x  cos x  
 2 
(e) sin 3x  cos 3x  2
(13) Change from sum to product:
a) cos 4 x  cos 3x b) sin x  sin 2 x  sin 3x  sin 4 x c) cos 2 x  cos 5x
(14) Using trigonometric circle with radius r , show that the circle should parametrically be describes by:
 x  r cos 

 y  r sin 
(15) Express the following to the half angle: (a) sin  (b) cos  (c) tan 
 2 
(16) Convert   1,  to the rectangular coordinates.
 3 
(17) Convert x 2  y 2  10 to the polar coordinates.

23 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
UNIT 2: SEQUENCES (MISMATHEMTICAL INDUCTION)

1.0.INTRODUCTION
(a) Revision on mathematical induction:

From S4, we have seen natural numbers are the counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

Mathematical induction is a technique for proving a statement /a theorem, or a formula that is asserted about

every natural number.

For example,

1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 𝑛 = ½𝑛(𝑛 + 1).

This asserts that the sum of consecutive numbers from 1 to n is given by the formula on the right. We want to
prove that this will be true for n = 1, n = 2, n = 3, and so on. Now we can test the formula for any given
number, say n = 3:

1 + 2 + 3 = ½· 3· 4 = 6 which is true. It is also true for n = 4:

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = ½· 4· 5 = 10.

But how are we to prove this rule for every value of n?

That is if:
(1) When a statement is true for a natural number n = k, then it will also be true for its successor, n = k + 1
(2) The statement is true for n = 1; then the statement will be true for every natural number n.

Task : In pairs, use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that:

n
nn  1 n3n  1
a) i  b) 1  4  7    3n  2  , n 1
i 1 2 2
n  n  1 2n  1 n2  n  1
2
n n
c) k 2
 d)  k  3

k 1 6 k 1 4

24 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
2.1.GENERALITIES ON SEQUENCES
Definition

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers called terms of the sequence.

For example, ai   a1 , a2 , a3 ,, an , i  1,2,3,......n

we have:
a1 : The first term of the sequence.
a n : The general term of the sequence.
Examples

i)  
The sequence of squares : i 2  1,4,9,, n 2 , (n  1) 2 , 
The general term is a n  n 2

ii) The sequence of natural numbers: IN  0,1,2,3,4,, n,

The general term is a n  n

Classification of sequences

Finite sequences:

A sequence whose number of terms is countable like the sequence 2, 4,8,16,..., 256 .

Infinite sequence:

The sequence whose number of terms is uncountable like a series of natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6..…

Task 1: (Group discussion)

(a) List the first five terms of the sequence {2𝑛 }+∞
𝑛=1

(b) A sequence is defined by

𝑢0 = 1
{𝑢𝑛 }: {
𝑢𝑛+1 = 3𝑢𝑛 + 2

Determine 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 and 𝑢3

Expected answers:

(a) Here, we substitute n =1, 2, 3, 4, 5 into the formula 2n . This gives 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ,... Or,
equivalently, 2, 4,8,16, 32,...

25 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (b) Since u0  1 and un1  3un  2 replace n with 0,1, 2 to obtain u1 , u2 , u3 respectively.

n  0, u01  u1
 u1  3 1  2  5
u1  3u0  2

n  1, u11  u 2
 u2  3  5  2  17
u 2  3u1  2

n  2, u 21  u3
 u3  3 17  2  53
u3  3u 21  2

𝑢1 = 5
Thus, { 2 = 17
𝑢
𝑢3 = 53

Convergent or divergent sequences

Convergent sequence: The sequence is said to be convergent iff : lim a n  L , L  IR We say that the
n 

sequence converges to its limit L .

Divergent sequence: The sequence is said to be divergent if: lim an   We say that the sequence diverges.
n

Task 2: (Group discussion)

𝑛 +∞
(a) Determine whether the sequence {2𝑛+1} converges or diverges.
𝑛=1

(b) Determine whether the sequence {8 − 2𝑛}+∞

𝑛=1 converges or diverges.

Expected answers:

(a) First, we find the limit of this sequence as n tends to infinity

𝑛 𝑛 1 1
lim𝒏→+∞ = lim𝒏→+∞ 1 = lim𝒏→+∞ 1 =
2𝑛+1 𝑛(2+ ) 2+ 2
𝑛 𝑛

𝑛 +∞ 1
Thus, {2𝑛+1} converges to 2
𝑛=1

(b) lim (8 − 2𝑛) = 8 − 2(+∞) = ∞ Thus, {8 − 2𝑛}+∞

𝑛=1 diverges.
𝒏→+∞

Monotonic sequences (increasing and decreasing)

26 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 an 1
The sequence ai is said to be increasing iff : an  an1 i.e an1  an  0 or 1 The
an
an 1
sequence ai is said to be decreasing iff: an  an1 i.e an1  an  0 or 1
an

Task 3: (Individually)

1 2 3 𝑛
(a) Prove that the sequence 2 , 3 , 4 , … 𝑛+1 is an increasing sequence.

(b) Is the sequence 4,4,4,4,4,4……… a monotonic sequence?

Expected answers:

𝑛 𝑛+1
(a) Here, 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛+1 and 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑛+2 Thus, for 𝑛 ≥ 1
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛2 +2𝑛−𝑛2 −2𝑛−1 1
𝑢𝑛 − 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑛+1 - 𝑛+2 = =-(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2) < 0
(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)

Second way:
𝑛+1
an 1 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 (𝑛+1)2
We have to check if  1 i.e 𝑛+2
𝑛 = 𝑛+2 × = >0
an 𝑛 𝑛2 +1
𝑛+1

This proves that the given sequence is increasing.

(c) The given sequence is not monotonic sequence because is neither increasing nor decreasing.
2.2.QUADRATIC, ARITHMETIC, HARMONIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

We have three types of sequence:

 Quadratic sequence
 Arithmetic sequences
 Geometric sequences

2.2.1.Quadratic sequence
Before you begin working on arithmetic and geometric sequence, let us take into consideration about
quadratic sequence.

Definition: A quadratic sequence is a sequence in which the second difference is constant. The
general term of this sequence is

Where

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 a=is the constant term which is equal to the half of the second difference

b= is constant term

c= is a constant term

Task 4: Group discussion

Consider the pattern:

1. Write down the next two terms

2. Determine an expression for the nth terms
3. Show that the sequence will never have a term with a value less than

Expected answer:
1.

2. Begin by identifying the sequence. Since the sequence doesn’t have a common first difference
or a constant ratio, we check to see if the sequence is quadratic.

To find and substitute into

Equation 1

Now substitute

Equation 2

Now solve equation 1 and 2 simultaneously

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3.

This is not true for any values of thus the sequence will not have a term less than

2.2.2.Arithmetic Sequences and Series

An arithmetic sequence or series is a linear number pattern in which the first difference is constant.

The formulae are as follows:

The general formula or nth term of an arithmetic sequence is given by Tn  a1  (n  1)d where 𝒂𝟏 is

the first term and d is the common difference.

Generally, if ap is any pth term of a sequence, then the nth term is given by

Tn  a p  (n  p)d

The sum of the first n-terms of an arithmetic sequence is S n 

n
a1  an  or 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛2 [2𝑎1 − (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2

where 𝒂𝒏 is the last term

Note:
(1) 𝑑 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 and 𝑇1 = 𝑎1 𝑇2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑 𝑇3 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑑 𝑒𝑡𝑐
(2) In some books they use 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , 𝑢4 , 𝑢5 , 𝑢6 , … … to name the terms of the sequence instead of using 𝑻𝒏 or
𝒂𝒏

Task 5: (Group discussion)

(1) The 19th term of an arithmetic sequence is 11, while the 31st term is 5.

(a) Determine the first three terms of the sequence.

(b) Which term of the sequence is equal to ?

(2) Given:
(a) Calculate the sum of the given series.
(b) Hence calculate the sum of the following series

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 (3) If the first and tenth terms of an arithmetic sequence are 3 and 30 respectively, find the fiftieth
term of the sequence.

(4) If the 3rd term and the 8th term of an arithmetic sequence are 5 and 15
respectively, find the common difference.

(5) Calculate the sum of first 100 terms of the sequence 2, 4, 6,8,...

Expected answers:

(1) (a)

(b) Which term of the sequence is equal to ?

(2) (a)

(c) Hence calculate the sum of the following series:

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 (3) 𝑎1 = 3 and 𝑎10 = 30 but Tn  a p  (n  p)d and 𝑝 = 1 and 𝑛 = 10

Therefore 30 = 3 + 10 − 1)𝑑 ⟹ 𝑑 = 3
Now 𝑢50 = 𝑢1 + (50 − 1)𝑑
𝑢50 = 3 + 49𝑑 = 3 + 49 × 3 = 150
(4) Given 𝑢3 = 5 and 𝑢8 = 15
Since Tn  a p  (n  p)d then 15 = 5 + (8 − 3)𝑑, 5𝑑 = 10, 𝑑 = 2

The common difference is 2.

(5) 𝑢1 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 2 , 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢𝑘

𝑢𝑘 = 2 + (𝑘 − 1) × 2 = 2𝑘
𝑘
The 𝑆𝑘 = 2 (2 + 2𝑘), 𝑆𝑘 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)

Arithmetic means

If three or more than three numbers are in arithmetic sequence, then all terms lying between the first and
the last numbers are called arithmetic means. If B is arithmetic mean between A and C,
𝐀+𝐂
then 𝐁 =
𝟐

To insert k terms called arithmetic means between two terms u1 and un is to form an arithmetic
sequence of 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 2 terms whose first term is 𝑎1 and the last term is 𝒂𝒏

Task 6: Group discussion

(1) Insert three arithmetic means between 7 and 23.
(2) Insert five arithmetic means between 2 and 20.
(3) Insert 4 arithmetic means between -3 and 7
(4) Insert 9 arithmetic means between 2 and 32

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 (5) Between 3 and 54, n terms have been inserted in such a way that the ratio of 8𝑡ℎ mean and
3
(𝑛 − 2)𝑡ℎ mean is 5. Find the value of 𝒏

Expected answers:

(1) Here 𝑘 = 3,and then 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 2 = 5 𝑢1 = 7 and 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢5 = 23

Then, 𝑢5 = 𝑢1 + (5 − 1)𝑑 ⟹ 23 = 7 + 4𝑑 ⟹ 𝑑 = 4

Now, insert the terms using 𝑑 = 4 the sequence is 7,11,15,19,23 .

Harmonic sequences

Harmonic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which the reciprocals of the terms are in arithmetic
sequence.
1 1 1
Example of harmonic sequence is 3 ′ 6 ′ 9

If you take the reciprocal of each term from the above harmonic sequence, the sequence will
become 3, 6, 9, ... which is an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of 3.

1 1 1
Another example of harmonic sequence is 6, 3, 2. The reciprocals of each term are 6 ′ 3 ′ 2 which is
1
an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of 6

Remark: To find the term of harmonic sequence, convert the sequence into arithmetic sequence then do
the calculations using the arithmetic formulae. Then take the reciprocal of the answer in arithmetic
sequence to get the correct term in harmonic sequence.

Task 7: (Group discussion)

The 2nd term of a harmonic progression is and 6th term is − 6 . Find the 20th term and nth
1 1
(1) 6

term.

Expected answer:
1 1
In harmonic progression, ℎ2 = 6 and ℎ6 = − 6

Thus, in the corresponding arithmetic progression, 𝑎2 = 6 and𝑎6 = −6 𝑜𝑟 𝑎6 = 𝑎2 + 4𝑑 ⟹ 6 +

4𝑑 = −6 or 𝑑 = −3

1
Hence,𝑎20 = 6 + 18(−3) = −48 , ℎ20 = − 48
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 1
Thus 𝑎𝑛 = 6 + (𝑛 − 2)(−3) = 12 − 3𝑛 ⟹ ℎ𝑛 = − 12−3𝑛

2.2.3.Geometric Sequences and Series

A geometric sequence or series is an exponential number pattern in which the ratio is constant.

The general term formula allows you to determine any specific term of a geometric sequence.

The formulae are as follows:

𝑎1 (1−𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑇
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1 𝑆𝑛 = , where 𝑟 ≠ 1 𝑟 = 𝑇2,
1−𝑟 1

𝑇1 = 𝑎1 , 𝑇2 = 𝑎1 𝑟, 𝑇3 = 𝑎1 𝑟 2

If 𝑎𝑝 is the pth term of the sequence, then the nth term is given by
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒑 𝒓𝒏−𝒑

Geometric series

A geometric series is the sum of geometric sequence terms. We get the nth sum of a geometric sequence as follows:
S n  a1  a1r  a1r 2    a1r n1

rSn  a1r  a1r 2  a1r 3    a1r n

rS n  S n  a1r n  a1


S n r  1  a1 r n  1 

Sn 

a1 r n  1  or S n 

a1 1  r n 
r  1 r 1
1  r  r 1

a1
When, r  1 and n   , we get: S n 
1 r
Task7: (Group discussion)
(1) In a geometric sequence in which all terms are positive, the sixth term is and the eighth
term is . Determine the first term and constant ratio.

(2) If the first and tenth terms of a geometric sequence are 1 and 4, respectively, find the

nineteenth term.
If the 2nd term and the 9th term of a geometric sequence are 2 and ,− 64 respectively. Find the
1
(3)

33 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 common ratio
(4) Find the number of terms in sequence 2, 4,8, 16,..., 256
(5) Find the sum of the first 20 terms of a geometric sequence if the first term is 1 and common ratio
is 2.

Expected answers:
(1) Since T6  3 and T8  27 ,then ar 5  3 and ar 7  27

ar 7 27
   3  r2  3  r  3
ar 5 3

   5
a 3  3a
1

1
 3 4
9

(2) 𝑢1 = 1 and 𝑢1 = 4
1
9
But 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑈𝒑 𝑟 𝑛−𝒑 then 4 = 1𝑟 9 ,𝑟 = √4or 49
1 18
Now, 𝑈19 = 𝑈𝟏 𝑟 19−𝟏 = 1 (49 ) = 16 .Thus, the nineteenth term of the sequence is 16.
1
(3) 𝑢2 = 2 and 𝑢9 = − 64
1 1
Using the general formula: 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑈𝒑 𝑟 𝑛−𝒑 ⇒ 𝑈2 = 𝑈𝟗 𝑟 2−𝟗 ⟹ 2 = − 64 𝑟 −𝟕 ⇔ 128 = − 𝑟 7 ⇔ 𝑟 7 =

1 7 1 1 1
− 128 ⇔ 𝑟 = √− 128 ⇒ 𝑟 = − 2 .The common ratio is 𝑟 = − 2

Geometric means

To insert k terms called geometric means between two terms 𝑢1 and 𝑢𝑛 is to form a geometric sequence of
𝑛 = 𝑘 + 2 terms whose first term is 𝑢1 and the last term is 𝑢𝑛 . While there are several methods, we will
use our 𝑛𝑡ℎ term formula 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑈𝟏 𝑟 𝑛−𝟏

As 𝑈𝟏 and 𝑈𝑛 are known, we need to find the common ratio r taking n  k  2 where k is the number
of terms to be inserted.

Note that if three terms are consecutive terms of a geometric sequence, the square of the middle
term is equal to the product of extreme terms. That is, for a geometric sequence 𝑈𝑛−1 , 𝑈𝑛 , 𝑈𝑛+1 , we have
𝒖𝟐𝒏 =𝑼𝒏−𝟏 . 𝑼𝒏+𝟏

Example: 6,12, 24 are consecutive terms of a geometric sequence because

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 𝟏𝟐𝟐 = 𝟔 × 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒

Task 8: (Group discussion)

(1) Find b such that 8, b,18 will be in geometric sequence.

(2) The product of three consecutive numbers in geometric progression is 27. The sum of the first
two and nine times the third is -79. Find the numbers.

(3) Insert three geometric means between 3 and 48.

1
(4) Insert 6 geometric means between 1 and − 128

Expected answers:

(1) 𝑏 2 = 8 × 18 ⇒ 𝑏 = ±√144 = ±12

Thus, 8,12,18 or 8, -12,18 are in geometric sequence.

𝑥
(2) Let the three terms be ,𝑥, 𝑎𝑥 .
𝑎

. 𝑥, 𝑎𝑥 = 27 , 𝑥3 = 27 ⟹ 𝑥 = 3 The sum of the first two and

𝑥
The product of the numbers is 27. So 𝑎
𝑥
nine times the third is -79 : 𝑎 + 𝑥 + 9𝑎𝑥 = −79

3
⟹ 𝑎 + 3 + 27𝑎 = −79

27𝑎2 + 82𝑎 + 3 = 0 ⟹ 𝑎 = 3 or 𝑎 = − 27 The numbers are: −1, 3, −9 𝑜𝑟 − 81, 3, − 9

1 1

(3) Here, 𝑘 = 3 , then n  5, u1  3 and un  u5  48

𝑈5 = 𝑈𝟏 𝑟 𝑛−𝟏 ⟺ 48 = 3𝑟 4 ⟹ 𝑟 = 2

Inserting three terms using common ratio r=2 gives 3, 6,12, 24, 48
1 1 1
(4) Here 𝑘 = 3 then 𝑛 = 5 , u1  3 and =𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢5 = − 128 𝑢8 = 𝑢𝟏 𝑟 𝑛−𝟏 ⟺ − 128 =1𝑟 7 ⟺ − 128
1
1 1 7 1
=𝑟 7 ⟺ 𝑟 7 = − (2)7 ⟺r =[− (2)7 ] = − 2

1
Inserting 6 terms using common ratio 𝑟 = − 2 gives

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
1, − 𝟐, , − 𝟖 , 𝟏𝟔 , − 𝟑𝟐 , 𝟔𝟒 , − 𝟏𝟐𝟖
𝟒

Convergent Geometric Series

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 Consider the following geometric series:

We can work out the sum of progressive terms as follows:

(Start by adding in the first term)

(Then add the first two terms)

(Then add the first three terms)

(Then add the first four terms)

If we continue adding progressive terms, it is clear that the decimal obtained is getting closer and closer to 1.
The series is said to converge to 1. The number to which the series converges is called the sum to infinity of the
series.

There is a useful formula to help us calculate the sum to infinity of a convergent geometric series.

The formula is

If we consider the previous series .

It is clear that and

A geometric series will converge only if the constant ratio is a number between negative one and positive one.

In other words, the sum to infinity for a given geometric series will exist only if If the constant ratio
lies outside this interval, then the series will not converge.

For example, the geometric series will not converge since the sum of the
progressive terms of the series diverges because which lies outside the interval

Task 9: (Group discussion)

(1)

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 (a) Determine the nth term of the series.
(b) For what value(s) of will the series converge?
3
(c) Calculate the sum of the series to infinity if x 
2
(2) Given the geometric progression 16, 12, 9, …. Find the sum to infinity of this sequence.

Expected answer:
(a)

(b)

3
(c) Calculate the sum of the series to infinity if x 
2
2
3
2 8 
    72
a 8x 2
S  
1 r 1 x 13
1  
2 22
Sigma Notation
Sigma means sum of, for example means the sum of the five terms in the sequence n+1. We
determine the number of terms in this sequence by subtracting the number at the bottom, 2, from the
number at the top, 6, and as seen below. There are 5 terms in the sequence.

Task 10: (Group discussion)

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 From the question we can see that the sequence is arithmetic and further more we have the last term
𝒏
therefore, we can use the formula 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟐 (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 ) to calculate the sum:

(b) Write the following series in sigma notation:

The series is arithmetic. There are also 6 terms in the series.

We can determine the general term as follows:

6
We can now write the series in sigma notation as follows:  2k  1
n1

2.3.APPLICATIONS
There are many applications of sequences such as calculation of interest portion of monthly payment, population
growth, half-life and decay in radioactivity.

kt
 r
The compound interest formula is : A  P1   , and The simple interest formula is 𝐈 = 𝐏𝐫𝐭
 k

where P= The principal amount T= time in years, r= annual rate, k= number of period per year.

Note: the common terms used to name different number of periods are:

Name Number of periods(k)

Annually 1

Tertiary 3

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 Quarterly 4

Monthly 12

Weekly 52

Daily 365

Continuously 𝐀 = 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐭

Task 11: (In pairs), discuss the following questions

(1) A child building a tower with blocks uses 15 for the bottom row. Each row has 2 fewer blocks than the
previous row.
Suppose that there are 8 rows in the tower.

a) How many blocks are used for the top row?

b) What is the total number of blocks in the tower?

(2) An insect population is growing in such a way that each new generation is 1.5 times as large as the
previous generation. Suppose there are 100 insects in the first generation.

a) How many will there be in the fifth generation?

b) What will be the total number of insects in the five generations?

(3) If Linda deposits $1300 in a bank at 7% interest compounded annually, how much will be in the bank 17
years later?
(4) A mine worker discovers an ore sample containing 500 mg of radioactive material. It is discovered that
the radioactive material has a half-life of 1 day. Find the amount of radioactive material in the sample at
the beginning of the 7th day.
(5) Find the accumulated value of $15,000 at 5% per year for 18 years using simple interest.

39 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Expected answers
(1)

a) The number of blocks in each row forms an arithmetic sequence with u1 =15 and d = −2 n = 8,
u8 = u1 +(8−1)(−2) . There is just one block in the top row.
b) Here we must find the sum of the terms of the arithmetic sequence formed with u1 =15, n = 8, u8 =1

(2) (a) Here 𝑎1 = 100, and common ration 𝑟 = 1.5 then 𝑎5 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎5 = 100(1.5)5−1 = 50.6.25

(c) Since S n 
 
a1 r n  1
or S n 

a1 1  r n  then 𝑆5 =
100(1−1.55 )
= 1318.75
r  1 r 1
1  r  r 1 1−1.5

kt
 r
(3) P =1300, r = 7% = 0.07, k =1 and since A  P1  
 k
117
 0.07 
A  13001    4106.46
 1 

2.4.END OF UNIT 2 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions)

Question 1
Consider the sequence

(a)Determine the 100th term.

(b) Determine the sum of the first 100 terms.

Question 2
The 13th and 7th terms of an arithmetic sequence are 15 and 51 respectively.

Which term of the sequence is equal to

Question 3
In a geometric sequence, the 6th term is 243 and the 3rd term is 72.

Determine:

(a) The constant ratio.

(b) The sum of the first10terms.

Question 4

Consider the sequence: .

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 (a) If the pattern continues in the same way, write down the next TWO
terms in the sequence.
(b) Calculate the sum of the first 50 terms of the sequence.

Question 5

(a) Determine if :

(b) Prove
that:
∑𝑛𝑘=3(2𝑘 − 1)𝑛 = 𝑛3 − 4𝑛

Question 6
Consider the series

(a) For which values of will the series converge?

(a) If , calculate the sum to infinity of this series.

Question 7
A sequence of squares, each having side 1, is drawn as shown below. The first square is shaded, and
the length of the side of each shaded square is half the length of the side of the shaded square in the
previous diagram.

(a) Determine the area of the unshaded region in DIAGRAM 7.

(b) What is the sum of the areas of the unshaded regions on the first seven squares?
41 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Question 8

2
A plant grows 1,5 m in 1st year. Its growth each year thereafter, is of its growth in the previous
3
year. What is the greatest height it can reach?

Question 9

A mathematical child negotiates a new pocket money deal with her unsuspecting father in which she
receives 1 pound on the first day of the month, 2 pounds on the second day, 4 pounds on the third day, 8
pounds on the fourth day, 16 pounds on the fifth day, until the end of the month. How much would the
child receive during the course of a month of 30 days? (Give your answer to the nearest million
pounds).

42 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
UNIT 3: LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

3.0. INTRODUCTION
In S4, we have seen decimal logarithm,

 The logarithm of a positive number, in base 10, is its power of 10, this means that log 10X = x . For
instance:
(A) 100 = 102, we write log10 100 = 2 or log 100 = 2
(B) 0.001 = 10–3, we write log10 (0.001) = −3 or log (0.001) = –3
 In algebraic form, A = 10logA for any A > 0.
Note: If no base is indicated we assume that it is base 10

 Properties of logarithms

For all positive real numbers x and b, b  0, and , b  1, y  log b x if and only if x  b y

If x, y, and , a are positive real numbers, a  1 and n is any real number, then

i) log a xy  log a x  log a y

x
ii) log a    log a x  log a y
 y
iii) log a x n  n log a x

1
iv) log a     log a y , since log a 1  0
 y
v) log a a  1

1
vi) log bn x  log b x
n
vii) (log a x)  log a x   log a x 2  (log a x)2

 Change of base formula

log a x
(i) log b x  . This means, it is possible to express the logarithm of x to the base b in terms of
log a b
logarithms to some other base a.
1
(ii) log b x 
log x b

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 Basic rules for exponents

For 𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 0 , 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼𝑅

(a) 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 (e)
𝟏
𝒏
𝒂𝒏 = √𝒂
(b) 𝑎𝑚 : 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 𝒎
𝒏
(f) 𝒂 𝒏 = √𝒂𝒎
(c) (𝒂𝒎 )𝒏 = (𝒂)𝒎×𝒏
(g) 𝒂𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒃
𝟏
(d) (𝒂)−𝒏 = (𝒂)𝒏 (h) If 𝑐 = log 𝑎 𝑏  b  a c
Task1: Individually,
(1) Write 26=64 in logarithmic form.
(2) Write log 𝑚 𝑏 = 𝑐 in exponential form
(3) Write as a single logarithm in the form log a, 𝑎𝜖ℝ,
(a) 3 log 5 – 2 log 4
(b) 3 log 4 + 6
(4) Write an expression equivalent to log 𝑦 = 3 − 2 log 𝑥 without using logarithms.
𝑥3
(5) Express log 𝑎 (𝑦 2 𝑧) in terms of log 𝑎 𝑥, log 𝑎 𝑦 and log 𝑎 𝑧

Expected answers:

(1) 26=64 gives 6 = log 2 64

(2) log 𝑚 𝑏 = 𝑐 gives 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑏
125
(3) (a) 3 log 5 – 2 log 4 ⇔ log 53 − log 42 = log ( 16 )

(6) 3 log 4 + 6 ⇔ log 43 + 6 log 10 = log 64 + log 106 = log 64000000

Task 2: Group discussion,

log 4
(1) Simplify log 2 without using a calculator

(2) Write an expression equivalent to log 𝑦 = 3 − 2 log 𝑥 without using logarithms.

𝑥3
(3) Express log 𝑎 (𝑦 2 𝑧) in terms of log 𝑎 𝑥, log 𝑎 𝑦 and log 𝑎 𝑧

(4) If 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 , find a linear expression connecting log 𝑥 and log 𝑦.

44 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(5) Calculate to 3 significant figures, the value of log 2 10
(6) Prove the following:
1 (b) log 2,000 = 4 – log 5
(a) log ( ) = −5 log 2
32
2
(7) Find the numerical value of log 3 √9

3.1. GRAPH OF LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

To obtain the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 we introduce a new function called logarithm and write and 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦

which is read “x is logarithm of y in base a” where 𝑎 > 0 and different from 1,

The graph of a logarithmic function is found by reflecting the graph of the corresponding exponential function in

the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Task 3: In pairs,

In the same Cartesian plane, sketch the curve of the function f ( x)  3x for  2  x  2 and its inverse f 1 ( x)

with the first bisector.

Expected answer:

Table of coordinates of f ( x)  3x

𝑥 −2 −1.6 −1.2 −0.8 −0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2

𝑦 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.4 3.7 5.8 9.0

Table of coordinates of f 1 ( x)

𝑥 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.4 3.7 5.8 9.0

𝑦 −2 −1.6 −1.2 −0.8 −0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2

45 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Sketching the curve

Task4: Group discussion

Sketch the curve of the functions
x
1
1) f ( x)    , for ,3  x  3
2
x
1
2) f ( x)    , for ,2  x  2
 3
3) f ( x)  2 x , for ,2  x  3

3.2. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

(a) Solving logarithmic equations
To solve equation containing logarithmic and exponential expressions, we simply need to use properties relating
logarithms and exponents. Moreover, we are requested to follow general instructions for solving equations.

Task 5: (Individually),
Solve the following logarithmic equations

(i) log 7 x  2 Solution: from, y  log a x  x  a y  7 2  x  x  49

1 1 1
(ii) log 2    y from, y  log a x  x  a y , then log 2    y  2 y 
 16   16  16

 2 y  24  y  4

(iii) log b 81  4 ? From the expression y  log a x  x  a y then

 b4  81  b4  34  b  3
(iv) log 3 3x  8  2 ? 3x  8  52  3x  8  25  3x  33  x  11

46 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Task 6: (In pairs),
Solve the following logarithmic equation

(a) logx  2  logx  1  1

(b) log 2 x  log 2 x  3  2

 
(c) log 3 x  1  5

(d) 3 log x  log 8

(e) logx  3  log 3  log 12 ,

2 log x y  1
(f) Solve the following equation , 
 xy  64

Expected answer:

(a) logx  2  logx  1  1  logx  2x  1  1  logx 2  x  2  1

 
 x 2  x  2  101  x 2  x  12  0  x  4x  3  0

 x  4x  3  0  x  3, or, x  4 to be rejected!

(b)  
log 2 x  log 2 x  3  2  log 2 xx  3  2  log 2 x 2  3x  2

x 2  3x  22  x 2  3x  4  0  x  4x  1  0

x  4, or , x  1 to be rejected! The solution is 4.

log 3 x  1  5  x  1  35  x  1  243  x  244

(c)

(d) Condition: x  0
log 8  log8  log8
Method 1: log x   log x  log 10 3   x  10 3
3  
Method 2: 3 log x  log 8  log x 3  log 23  x  2 , S  x  2

(e) logx  3  log 3  log 12 , Condition: x  3  0  x  3

Applying properties of logarithms we have: log 3x  3  log 12  3x  9  12  3x  3  x  1

S  x  1

2 log x y  1 64   64 
(f)  y  2 log x    1
 xy  64 x   x 

47 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 2 2
 64   64   64 
2 log x    1  log x    1     x1 642
 x   x   x   2  x  64  x3
2

x
64
 x3  4096  x  3 4096  16  x  16 and y  4
16
The solution set is x  16, y  4

Task 7: (Group discussion),

Solve the following equations

log x  log 2  2 log y

1) 
x  5 y  2  0
log 2 x  2 log 4 y  4
2) 
 x  12 y  52

2  log 2 (2 x  1)  2 log 2 y

3)  x  y  22

(b)Natural logarithms

Properties of natural logarithms

1) ln( xy )  ln x  ln y

x
2) ln    ln x  ln y
 y
3) ln x n  n ln x
4) ln e x  x ln e
5) ln e  1
6) ln 1  0

Notice: The natural logarithm of negative number does not exist.

Solving natural logarithmic equations

Task 8: (In pairs),

Solve the equations

1) ln x  2 ?  ln x  ln e2  x  e2

 
2) ln x 2  1  0 Condition: x 2  1  0  x 2  1, x  1, or, x  1
48 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
   
ln x 2  1  ln 1  x 2  1  1  x 2  2  0  x   2 . The solution set is  2 , 2 
Task 9: (Group discussion)
In pairs, Solve the following equations

1) ln x  2  ln 2
2) 4 ln x  16
3)  
ln 2 x  3  ln x  4  ln 2 x 2  11

4) ln 2 x  ln x  6  0
5) 3 ln 2 x  2 ln x  1  0

Solve the following simultaneous equations

ln 6  ln x  3  2 ln y
6) 
2 y  x  3
 x  y  3e
7) 
ln x  ln y  2  ln 2
ln xy  7

8)  x
ln  y   1
  
2 ln x  3 ln y  2
9) 
3 ln x  5 ln y  4

Expected answers:

1) 
ln x  2  ln 2  ln x  ln e 2  ln 2  ln x  ln e 2  2 
 ln x  2 ln e 2  x  2e 2
2) 4 ln x  16
3)  
ln 2 x  3  ln x  4  ln 2 x 2  11

ln 2 x  ln x  6  0  ln x   ln x  6  0 . Let ln x  y
2
4)

 y 2  y  6  0   y  3 y  2  0  y  3, or, y  2
When y=-3

When y  3  ln x  3  ln x  ln e 3  x  e 3

5) 3 ln 2 x  2 ln x  1  0

49 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
  1
Let ln x  y  3 y 2  2 y  1  0   y  1 y    0
 3
1
y  1, or , y   . When y  1  ln x  1  x  e
3
1 1
1 1
When y   ln x    ln x  ln e 3  x  e 3
3 3

ln 6 x  18  ln y 2
ln 6  x  3  ln y 2 
ln 6  ln x  3  2 ln y    3 x
 2 y  x  3 y 
(6) 2 y  x  3  2

6 x  18  y 2
3 x 
2

  6 x  18  9  6 x  x 
 1
 3 x  6 x  18  
2

y   2  4
 2
 x 2  18x  81  0   18  4181  324  324  0
2

3  9 12
18  0 x 9 y   6
x1  x2   9  x1  x2  9 When 2 2
2
The solution is x  9, y  6

(7) This is a system containing unknowns x and y . To solve this system we follow the conditions that:

 ln x  y   ln 3e ln x  y   ln 3e  x  y  3e
x  0 and y  0 ,     
ln xy   ln e  ln 2  ln xy   ln 2e  xy  2e
2 2 2

 x  3e  y

Solving by comparison method,  2e 2 : Equal results!
x

 y

2e 2
3e  y   3ey  y 2  2e 2 , ⟺ y 2  3ey  2e 2  0 : Quadratic equation in y .
y

3  9 9
Solving by completing of squares, we get: y 2  2 e  y  e 2  e 2  2e 2  0
2  4 4

9e 2  8e 2  y  2e
2 2
 3   3  e2 3 e
 y  e  , ⟹  y  e   y e 
 2  4  2  4 2 2 y  e
 x  3e  2e  e  x  3e  e  2e
 
For y  2e   2e 2
: Verified!, For y  e   2e 2 : Verified!
x e x  2e

 2e 
 e

50 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Then, S  x1 , y1 , x2 , y 2   e,2e, 2e, e

3.3. SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

A function that can be expressed in the form of f ( x)  b x , b  0, and , b  1, is called an exponential function.

The function f ( x)  e x is called the natural exponential. Equations that contain one or more exponential
expressions are called exponential equations. Some exponential equations can be solved by using algebraic
techniques such as factoring.

Task 10: (Individually),

Solve each exponential equation

1) 2 x  64
2) 25x  5

3) 5x3  1
25
4) 22 x  2 x  6  0

Expected answers:

1) 2 x  64  2 x  26  x  6

5x3  1
 5  2  5  52  x  3  2  x  1
x 3 1 x 3

1) 25 5

25x     5  5  52  2 x 

x 1 1 1 1
5  52 x
2x
2) 2
2 4

3)  
2
22 x  2 x  6  0  2 x  2 x  6  0 Let y  2 x we have y 2  y  6  0 y  3, and , y  2 , when

y  3  2 x  3 impossible. This is to be rejected

When y  2  2 x  2  x  1 Therefore, the solution set is S  1.

Task 11: (Group discussion),

Solve the following exponential equations

1)
1
 9
5 x 7 4)  
2 52 x  5x  6
27
5) 3x  2  42 x 1
2) 32x
 3
x 1
40
6) 42 x 1  27  0
323  8x 12
x
3) 7) 8x  15

51 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Expected answers

1)
1
27
 9
5 x7
 33  32   5 x 7
 33  3
10 x14
 3  10 x  14  10 x  11  x 
11
10
2) 32 x  3x1  4  0 

323  8x12  25 3  

x
 2 3  2
x x12 5x
3 x36 5x
3)  23   3x  36  5 x  9 x  108
3
108
 4 x  108  x   27  x  27
4
4)  
2 52 x  5x  6 Let y  5x , with , y  0 , then 2 y 2  y  6  2 y 2  y  6  0

2 y  3 y  2  0  y   3 , or, y  2 But y  

3
is to be rejected, since y  5 x must be positive. Thus,
2 2
log 2
when, y  2, gives,5x  2  log 5x  log 2  x log 5  log 2 x   0.431 . Therefore, the solution is 0.431.
log 5
5) 3x  2  42 x 1
6) 42 x 1  27  0
7) 8x  15

Solving natural exponential equations

Task 12: (In pairs),

Solve the following equations

1) 2 xe x  4e x  0 7) x 2e2 x  3xe 2 x  4e2 x  0

2) 3e x  e x  2 8)  8e x  2 xe x  0
ex 9) e x  9 xe x  0
3) 5
ex 1 10) e4 x1  1
4)  
e2 x e3 x6  e2 x  0

5) xe x  0
6) 6 x 2e3 x  xe3 x  2e3 x

Expected answers

1). 2 xe  4e  0
x x

2 xe x  4e x  0  2 x  4e x  0  2 x  4  0, or, e x  0

52 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 e x  0 there is no value of x for which e x  0 , and 2 x  4  0  x  2

2). 3e x  e x  2 to eliminate negative exponents, multiply both sides by e x  0 , then we have
3e x (e x )  e x (e x )  2(e x )  3  e2 x  2e x  e2 x  2e x  3  0 , this equation becomes quadratic in e x . Solving

this equation gives e x

 
 3 e x  1  0  e x  3  ln e x  ln 3 x ln e  ln 3  x  ln 3  1.10 or e x  1 reject -1,

since e x  0 for all values of x. The solution is x  ln 3

ex 5
3) x 5  e x  5(e x  1)  e x  5e x  5  e x  5e x  5  4e x  5  e x 
e 1 4

5 5 5
 ln e x  ln( )  x ln e  ln  x  ln( )  0.22 since ln e  1
4 4 4

 
4) e2 x e3 x6  e2 x  0 e2 x e3 x6  e2 x e2 x  0  e2 x3 x6  e2 x2 x  0  e x6  e0  0

e x6  1  0  e x6  1  ln e x6  ln 1  ( x  6) ln e  ln 1  x  6  0

 x  6  0  x  6 Thus, the solution is -6.

5) xe x  0  x  0 or e x  0 but there is no value of x for which e x  0

 
6) 6 x 2e3 x  xe3 x  2e3 x  6 x 2 e 3 x  xe 3 x  2e 3 x  0  e 3 x 6 x 2  x  2  0  e 3 x  0 there is no value of x

 2  1 2 1
for which e 3 x  0 or 6 x 2  x  2  0   x   x    0 x  , or , x 
 3  2 3 2

 2 1
Therefore, the solution set is  , 
 3 2
3.4. APPLICATIONS
(a) Exponential growth model
A population whose rate of increase is proportional to the size of the population at any time obeys a law of the
form P  Ae kt . This is known as exponential growth law.

Task 13: Individually,

According to the United nation data, the world population at the beginning of 1975 was approximately 4 billion
and growing at rate of about 2% per year. Assuming an exponential growth model, estimate the world ‘s
population at the beginning of the year 2020?

Expected answer,

53 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 From P  Ae kt where P is the number of population after a time t. The quantity A is the initial value, k is called
the growth rate, and t is the time. From the given data, A  4billion , k  2%  0.02 , time, t  45 years , since

2020-1975=45. It follows that the world population by the year 2020 is given by P  4e0.0245  4e0.9 billion.

P  42.459603  9.838412billion . Therefore, the world’s population by the year 2020 is approximately 9.8
billion.

Task 14: In groups,

Solve the following problems

1. Suppose that the population of a certain country grows at an annual rate of 2%. If the current population is
3million, a) What will the population be in 10 years? b) How long will it take the population to reach 5million?
2. Suppose that the size of a bacterial culture is given by the function P(t )  P0e kt where the size P(t) is
measured in grams and time t is measured in hours. If the initial value of the bacterial culture is 100, how long will
it take for the culture to double in size?

(b) Exponential decay

A population whose rate of decrease is proportional to the size of the population at any time obeys a law of the
form P  Ae  kt . The negative sign on exponential indicates that the population is decreasing. This is known as
exponential decay.

If a quantity has an exponential growth model, then the time required for it to double in size is called the
doubling time. Similarly, if a quantity has an exponential decay model, then the time required for it to reduce in
value by half is called the halving time. For radioactive elements, halving time is called half-life.

Doubling time and halving time

Doubling and halving times depend only on the growth rate and not on the amount present initially. Doubling
1
time for a quantity with an exponential growth model (k>0) is T  ln 2 and halving time for a quantity with an
k
1
exponential decay model (k<0) is T   ln 2 .
k
Task 15: In pairs,

1.The radioactive element carbon 14 or (C614 ) , has a half-life of 5750 years. If 100 grams of this element are
present initially, how much will be left after 1000 years?

Expected answer:

54 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Radioactive decay obeys a law of the form P(t )  P0e kt , where t is the time, k is the decay constant, P0 is the
initial value and P(t) is the value after a time t.

1 1 1 1
As T   ln 2 , the decay constant is k   ln 2   (ln 2)   (0.693147181)
k T 5750 5750
 k  0.00012 where k is the decay constant.

Radioactive decay obeys a law of the form P(t )  P0e kt . Thus, if we take t=0 to be the present time, then

P0  100 g . Then, the amount of carbon 14 after 1000 years will be:

P(1000)  100e(0.00012)(1000)

P(1000)  100e0.12  100(0.88692)  88.692 since e  2.7182818

Thus, about 88.692 grams of carbon 14, will remain after 1000 years.

Task 16: Group discussion

Solve the followings

1. Suppose that a certain radioactive element has an annual decay rate of 10%. Starting with a 200grams
sample of the element,
(a) How many grams will be left in 3years?
(b) If a particular sample of the element decays to 50 grams after 5years, how big was the original sample?
2. Suppose that a certain radioactive isotope has an annual decay rate of 5%.
(a) How many years will it take for a 100 grams’ sample to decay to 40 grams?
(b) What is the half-life of the element?

(c)Compound interest
kt
 r
The formula for interest that is compounded is A  P1   Where A represents the amount of money after a
 k
certain amount of time.

P is the principle or the amount of money you start with, r is the interest rate and is always represented as a
decimal and t represents the amount of time in year. The quantity 𝑘 is the number of times interest is compounded
in one year.

Note: Below are some terms used in compound interest and their corresponding 𝒌

55 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 𝐈𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐝 ∶ 𝐂𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐤

𝐀𝐧𝐧𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝟏

𝐇𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐨𝐟 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝟐

𝐓𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝟑

𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝟒

𝐌𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐡𝐥𝐲 𝟏𝟐

𝐖𝐞𝐞𝐤𝐥𝐲 𝟓𝟐

𝐃𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐲 𝟑𝟔𝟓

𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐨𝐮𝐬𝐥𝐲 𝐏 = 𝐏𝟎 𝐞𝐫𝐭

Task 17: In pairs

(1) Suppose your parents invest 10000frw in a saving account for a college at the time you are born. The
average interest rate is 4% and is compounded quarterly. How much money will be in the college account when
you are 18 years old?
(2) How long does it take $5000 to grow to $10,000 at 12% compounded continuously?

Expected answer:
nt
 r
(1) We will use the formula, A  P1   and let P=10000, r=0.04, n=4, t=18
 n

nt 4 18
 r  0.04 
A  P1    A  (10000)1    20471
 n  4 

Thus, the amount of money in the college account after 18 years is 20,471 FRW.

(1) Given 𝑃0 = $5000, P(t)= $10,000 and r=12%.

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
If the interest is compounded continuously 𝐏 = 𝐏𝟎 𝐞𝐫𝐭 i.e 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒆𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝒕 ⇔ 𝒆𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝒕
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐥𝐧 𝟐
Then apply 𝑙𝑛 on both side we get ln 2 = 0.12𝑡 ln 𝑒 ⇔ 𝒕 = 𝟎.𝟏𝟐

Task 18: Group discussion

1. If $4000 is borrowed at a rate of 16% interest per year, compounded quarterly, find the amount at the end
of 4years?

56 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 2. If $3000 is borrowed at a rate of 12% interest per year, find the amount due at the end of 5years if the
interest is compounded annually? Monthly?

(d)Richter scale
Magnitude of Earthquake is measured using the Richter Scale. On this scale , the magnitude R of an earthquake
 I 
is given by R  log  where I 0 is a fixed standard intensity of earthquake being measured.
 I0 

Task 19: In pairs,

1. Show that if an earthquake measures R=3 on Richter scale , then intensity is 1000 times the standard, that
is I  1000I 0 ?
2. The Sun Francisco earthquake of 1906 registered R=8.2 on Richter scale. Express its intensity in terms of
the standard intensity?
3. How many times more intense is an earthquake measuring R=8 than one measuring R=4?

Expected answer:

 I  I
(1) If an earthquake measures R=3 on Richter scale , then log   3   103
 I0  I0

 I  103 I 0  I  1000I 0 Therefore, the intensity is 1000times the standard, that is I  1000I 0

 I 
(2) The Sun Francisco earthquake of 1906 registered R=8.2 on Richter scale, it means that log   8.2 or
 I0 
I
 108.2  I  108.2 I 0 which express intensity in terms of the standard intensity.
I0

Task 20: (In groups),

(1) A man deposits 800,000 Frw into his savings account on which interest is 15% per annum. If he makes no
withdrawals, after how many years will his balance exceed 8 million Frw?
(2) Sugar dissolves in water at a rate proportional to the amount still undissolved. If there were 50 kg of sugar
present initially, and at the end of 5 h only 20 kg are left, how much longer it will it take until 90% of the sugar is
dissolved?
(3) The population of a country grows according to the law P  Ae 0.06t where P million is the population at
time t years and A is a constant. Given that at time t=0, the population is 27.3 million, calculate the population
when t=10, and when t=15?

57 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 3.5. END OF UNIT 3 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions)

3.5.1. Solve the following logarithmic equations:

a) log 𝑥 5 = log 5 𝑥

(b) log x  log 3  log 3x f) log 5 x  2 log x 5  3

4 2

 
c) log 3 5x  12  log 3 x  2 g) log 2 x  log 8 x  4

d) log 3 x  log 9 x  3? h) log a x  log a 4  log a 5  log a 12

i) 5 log 3 x  2 log 3 x  3
3
log 4 x  log 4 7 
e) 2

j) log x 5  log 5 x p) 8 log 2 x  9 log x  1  0

q) ln x 2  5
k) e 13e  36  0
4x 2x

r) 106 x  102 x  2  0
 x  y  3e
 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 130
{
ln x  ln y  2  ln 2
s)
l) ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 = ln 63
m) 9 x  2  3x1  27
n) 2 log 2 x  log x 2  3

o) ln 2 x  ln x  6  0
3.5.2. Count on the following
I. Evaluate:
1
a) 4 log 3  2 log 27 9 b) log1001 7  log100111  log100113
3
c) log12 log 9 log 5 log 2 32 e) 3e 
ln x
d) e 2 ln 3 f) ln 3 e

II. Solve in IR

1. 3x2  9 x1  1458 5. 5  3 x1  2  31 x  3  0

2 x 1
x x
1
6. 8 log 2 x  9 log x  1  0
2. 2 9 2
4 2
 3 x4  0
3. 106 x  103 x  2  0 7. 3 ln 2 x  2 ln x  1  0

4. 9 x  3 x  12  0 8. ln x  ln( x 2  2 x  1)  ln 2  0
58 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 9. ln 2 x  ln x  6  0 16. ln x 2  5
10. ln 2 x  9 ln x  1  0 17. ln ln x  1  3
11. 2 ln x  ln( x  5)  ln 3 18. e x  6e  x  5
12. 2 ln( x  3)  ln x  ln 5 19. ln x 3  1
13. ln( x  3)  ln( x  2)  ln( x  11) 20. ln x  1  0
14. e 2 x  2e x  8  0 21. log 3 xlog x 2xlog 2 x y   log x y 2
15. ln x  ln 2  ln 4  ln( x  7)

3.5.3. Solve the following problems related to logarithm and exponential

(1) Find the half-life of a radioactive substance if after 1 year 99.57% of an initial amount still remains.

(2) Scientists who do carbon-14 dating use a figure of 5,700 years for its half-life. Find the age of a sample in
which 10% of the radioactive nuclei originally present have decayed?

(3) If the half-life of radium is 1,690 years, what percentage of the amount present now will be remaining after

a) 100 years b) 1,000 years?

(4) In the first few weeks after birth, a baby gains weight at a rate proportional to its weight. A baby weighing
4kg at birth weighs 4.4 kg after 2 weeks. How much did the baby weigh 5 days after birth?

(5) How much money needs to be invested today at a nominal rate of 4% compounded continuously, in order
that it should grow to in 7 days?

(6) If the purchasing power of the dollar is decreasing at an effective rate of 9% annually, how long will it take
for the purchasing power to be reduced to 25 cents?

(7) Suppose that the bacteria in a colony can grow unchecked, by the law of exponential change. The colony
starts with 1 bacterium and doubles every half hour. How many bacteria will the colony contain at the end of 24
hours?

(8) The number of people cured is proportional to the number that is infected with the disease.

59 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 a) Suppose that in the course of any given year the number of cases of disease is reduced by 20 %. If there are
10,000 cases today, how many years will it take to reduce the number to 1,000?

b) Suppose that in any given year the number of cases can be reduced by 25% instead of 20% .

(i) How long will it take to reduce the number of cases to 1,000?

(ii) How long will it take to eradicate the disease, that is, to reduce the number of cases to less than 1?

(8) A bank pays compound interest on money invested in an account. After n years, a sum of $2,000 will rise
to $2,000𝑥10.08𝑛 .
(a) How much money is in the account after three years?
(b) After how many years will the original $2,000 have nearly doubled?
(9) Kamali’s bike is ill. Its computer controlled ignition system has a virus. The doctor has advised Kamali to
keep the bike warm, in which case the number of germs in the bike will decay exponentially and will be
1000000 × 2−𝑛 after 𝑛 hours.
(a) How many germs will be there after 10 hours?
(b) The bike will be cured when it contains less than one germ. After how many hours will it be cured?
𝑡
(10) The speed V(t), of a certain chemical reaction at t 0C is given by𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉(0) × 530 . At what temperature
will the speed of reaction be twice that at 0 0C?
(11) The population of a country grows according to the law 𝑃 = 12𝑒 𝑘𝑡 where P million is the population at
time t years and k is a constant. Given that when P=7, t=15, find the time for which the population will be
(a) 20 million (b) 30 million (c) 35 million
(12) The law of cooling for a bath of water is 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑒 −0.5𝑡 where θ is excess of temperature of the water over
the temperature of the bathroom at time t minutes and A is a constant. Given that at time 0 t = the temperature of
the water is 600C and that the bathroom has a constant temperature of 150C , calculate the value of t when the
temperature of the water is a) 50 0C b) 35 0C c) 27 0C
(13) How long does it take $5000 to grow to $10,000 at 6% compounded continuously?

(14) How long does it take to earn $1000 interest on a deposit of one million dollars at 9% compounded
continuously?

(15) An investment of $10,000 in Dell Computer stock in 1995 grew to $231,800 in 1998.
a) Assuming the investment grew continuously, what was the annual growth rate?
b) If Dell continues to grow at the same rate, then what will the $10,000 investment be
worth in 2002?

60 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (16) An investment of $10,000 in 1980 in Hershey stock was worth $563,000 in 1998. Assuming the
investment grew continuously, what was the annual growth rate?
1
(17) Find the amount that must be invested at 5 % today in order to have $100 000 in 20 years if the
2
investment is compounded continuously.

(18) The population of a certain city has a relative growth rate of 9% per year. The population in 1978 was
24,000. Find the projected population of the city for the year 2010.

(19) The relative growth rate for a certain bacteria population is 75% per hour. A small culture is formed and 4
hours later a count shows approximately 32,500 bacteria in a culture. Find the initial number of bacteria in the
culture and estimate the number of bacteria 6 hours from the time the culture was started.

(20) If $2500 is invested at an interest rate of 6.5%, compounded monthly, how long will it take for the
investment to reach $7500?

Expected answers for activity 3.5.1.

 x4 
a) log x 4  log 3  log 3x 2  log   log 3x 2 
x4
 
 3x 2  x 4  9 x 2  x 4  9 x 2  0  x 2 x 2  9  0
 3 3

 x 2 x  3x  3  0  x 2  0  x  0 to be rejected!

 x  3  0  x  3, or, x  3

3
b) log 3 5x  12  log 3 x  2 Answer: x  3, or , x  
5

c) log 3 x  log 9 x  3? Answer: x  3, or , x  9

 3  (log 3 x)log 3 x   log 3 9  3 log 3 x

log 3 9
log 3 x 
log 3 x

log x  log
3
2
3 32  3 log 3 x  log 3 x 2  2  3 log 3 x

Letting y  log 3 x  y 2  3 y  2  0   y  1 y  2  0  y  1, or, y  2

log 3 x  1  x  3 or log 3 x  2  x  9

2nd Method

61 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 1 1
using the change of base formula, from, log b x   log 3 x 
log x b log x 3

1 1 1
log 3 x  log x 9  3   log x 9  3   log x 32  3   2 log x 3  3
log x 3 log x 3 log x 3

1
Let y  log x 3   2y  3  1  2 y 2  3 y  2 y 2  3 y  1  0 solve this equation
y

 1
2 y 2  3 y  1  0   y  1 y    0  y  1, or , y  ,
1
 2 2

when y  1  log x 3  1  3  x1  x  3

 log x 3   3  x 2  x  3  x  9 . The solution is 3 or 9.

1 1 1
when y 
2 2

3
d) log 4 x  log 4 7  Answer: x  56
2

e) log 5 x  2 log x 5  3 Answer: x  5, or , x  25

f) log 2 x  log 8 x  4 Answer: x  64

g) log a x  log a 4  log a 5  log a 12 Answer: x  15

1
h) 5 log 3 x  2 log 3 x  3 Answer: x 
3

UNIT 4: SOLVING EQUATIONS BY NUMERICAL METHOD

4.0. INTRODUCTION
In S4, we have seen that to solve linear equations and quadratic equations, we use either by factorising, by
formula or by completing the square.

Task 1: In pairs,
Solve the following linear equations,

(1) Consider the polynomial f ( x)  x3  3x 2  6 x  40

(a) Show that ( x  5) is not a factor of f (x)
(b) Find a linear factor of f (x)
(c) Solve f ( x)  0

62 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (2) The polynomial x3  4 x 2  7 x  k where k is a constant, is denoted by f (x)
(a) Given that ( x  2) is a factor of f (x) , find the value of k
(b) Express f (x) as product of linear factors.
(c) Solve f ( x)  0

(3) Consider the polynomial f ( x)  ax3  x 2  5x  b where a and b are constants. When f (x) is divided by
( x  2) the remainder is 36 and when f (x) is divided by ( x  2) the remainder is 40. Find the value of a and b .
hence solve f ( x)  0

NOTE: In some instances, it may be almost impossible to use an exact method to solve an equation for example,
x  1  sin x precisely. In such cases, we may be able to use other techniques which give good approximations to
the solution.

4.1. LINEAR INTERPOLATION AND EXTRAPOLATION

(a) Linear interpolation
Is the process of finding a value between two points on a line or a curve.

y  y1 y2  y1 ( x  x1 )( y2  y1 )
The Linear Interpolation Formula is given as,  or y  y1 
x  x1 x 2  x1 ( x2  x1 )

Task 2: Individually,

(1) From the following table, use interpolation to find f (1.15)

x 1 2 3

f (x) 2 8 1

(2) Use interpolation to find sin 0.857

x in radians 0.85 0.86 0.87

sin x 0.7513 0.7578 0.7643

63 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (3) A curve y  f (x) passes through the point (4,1.88) and (5,1.84) .Find the value of f (4.2)

Expected answers:
(1)
x 1 1.15 2

f (x) 2 f (1.15) 8

( x  x1 )( y2  y1 ) (1.15  1)(8  2)
Here y  y1  , then y  2   2.9 , therefore f (1.15)  2.9
( x2  x1 ) (2  1)

(2) x  0.857, x1  0.85, x2  086, y1  0.7513, y2  0.7578

y  y1 y2  y1 y  0.7513 0.7578  0.7513
Then   
x  x1 x 2  x1 0.857  0.85 0.86  0.85

0.0065 f (0.857)  0.7513

 
0.01 0.007
 0.65  0.007  f (0.857)  0.7513
 f (0.857)  0.00455  0.7513  0.75585 , hence f (0.857)  0.75585
(4.2  4)(1.84  1.88)
(3) f (4.2)  1.88   1.872
54

Task 3: Group discussion,

(1) In experiment to measure the rate of cooling of an object, the following temperature 𝜃℃ against time 𝑇 in
seconds, were recorded;
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝜃℃ 80 70.2 65.8 61.9 54.2

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇 0 10 15 20 30

Use linear interpolation to find the value of:

(a) θ when T=18s
(b) T when 600

64 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (2) The table shows the value of function at a set of points
𝑥 0.9 1 1.1 1.2

𝑓(𝑥) 0.266 0.242 0.218 0.198

Use linear interpolation to find:

(a) the value of 𝑓(1.04)
(b) the value of 𝑥 corresponding to 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.25

(b) Linear extrapolation

Extrapolation involves approximating the value of a function for given values outside the given tabulated
( x  x1 )( y2  y1 ) y  y1 y2  y1
values. We use the formula as the same for linear interpolation y  y1  or 
( x2  x1 ) x  x1 x 2  x1

In the graph below, the three points x1 , x2 and x3 are given and the value of point x4 is extrapolated.

Task 4: Individually,
(1) The two given points lie on a straight line is (1,5) and (4,10). Determine the value of y at x=5 on the
straight line using extrapolation method.
(2) From the following table, find (3.363) 2
x x2

3.35 11,2225

3.36 11.2896

Expected answers:

( x  x1 )( y2  y1 )
(1) Given x1  1, y1  5 and x2  4, y2  10 , since y  y1 
( x2  x1 )
(5  1)(10  5)
Then y  5   11.65
(4  1)
y  y1 y2  y1 y  11.2225 11.2896  11.2225
(2) Using  , then 
x  x1 x 2  x1 3.363  3.35 3.36  3.35

65 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 0.0671 y  11.2225
   6.17  0.013  y  11.2225
0.01 0.013
 y  11.2225  0.082
 y  11.3097

Task 5: Group discussion,

(1) The two known points lying on a straight line are (0,7) and (3,10) and. Find the value of y at x= 4.5
on this straight line using linear extrapolation.
(2) The end points of a straight line are given by (0.3, 0.8) and (1.8,2.7). Extrapolate the value of x= 2.3.

4.2. LOCATION OF ROOTS

(a) Analytical method

The root of f ( x)  0 lies in interval ]𝑎, 𝑏[, if f (a). f (b)  0 ; in other words, f (a) and f (b) are of opposite
sign.

Task 6: In pairs,

(1) Locate the ranges of the equation x3  x  1  0

(2) Show that the equation x  ln(8  x) has a root between 1 and 2.

Expected answers:

(1) Let f ( x)  x3  x  1
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

f ( x)  x3  x  1 -25 -7 -1 -1 -1 5

The root of x3  x  1  0 lies in interval 1,2 since f (1). f (2)  0.

(2) f ( x)  x  ln(8  x)
f (1)  1  ln(8  1)  0.946
f (2)  2  ln(8  2)  0.208
Since f (1)  0 and f (2)  0 , then the equation x  ln(8  x) has the root between 1 and 2.

Task 7: Group discussion,

(1) Show that the equation x3  3x  12  0 has a root between 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3. Hence, use linear
interpolation once to get the first approximation to the root.
(2) Show that the equation x3  x  5  0 has a root between 1 and 2. Hence, use linear interpolation to
calculate the root to 2 decimal places.

(b)Graphical method

66 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 To solve the equation f ( x)  0 , graphically, we draw the graph of y  f (x) and read from it the value of 𝑥
for which f ( x)  0 , i.e. the x-coordinates of the points where the curve y  f (x) cuts the x-axis.

Alternatively, we would rearrange f ( x)  0 , in the form h( x)  g ( x) , and find the x-coordinates of the
points where the curves y  h(x) and y  g (x) intersect.

Task 8: In pairs,

(1) Copy and complete the following table for y  x3 and y  x  1

x −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

y  x3

x -1 0 1 2

y  x 1

Using one pair of axes, draw the graphs of y  x3 and y  x  1 ,  1  x  2 . Use your graphs to find an

approximate solution to the equation x3  x  1  0 in the range  1  x  2 .

(2) Find graphically the positive root of the equation x3  6 x  13  0

Expected answers:
(1)

x −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

−1 −0.25 0 0.25 1 3.375 8

y  x3

x −1 0 1 2

0 0 2 3
y  x 1

67 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 From the intersection of the graphs, an approximate solution to the equation x3  x  1  0 in the range
 1  x  2 is 1.3

f ( x)  x3  6 x  13  0
(2) f (1)  1  6  13  18  0, f (2)  8  12  13  17  0
f (3)  27  18  13  4  0, f (4)  64  24  13  27  0

The root of f ( x)  x3  6 x  13  0 lies between 3 and 4 as 𝑓(3). 𝑓(4) < 0.

f ( x)  x3  6 x  13  0 can written as x3  6 x  13 or y  x3 and y  6 x  13

Let us draw two curves for y  x3 and y  6 x  13

x 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0

y  x3 27 32.8 39.3 46.7 54.9 64

x 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0

y  6 x  13 31 32. 33. 34. 35. 37

2 4 6 8

From the intersection of the graphs, an approximate solution to the equation x3  6 x  13  0 in the range
3  x  4 is 3.2.

Task 9: Group discussion,

68 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (1) Use graphical method to show that the equation e x  2 x  1  0 has two real root.
x
(2) Given the equation sin x   0 , show by plotting suitable graphs on the same axes that the root lies
2
 3
between and
2 4
(3) Draw the graph of y  x3 and y  2 x  20 . Find the approximate solution of the equation

x3  2 x  20  0 .
(4) Solve graphically x3  2 x  5  0 .
(5) Solve graphically the equation x  1  sin x .

4.3. ITERATIVE METHOD

(a) Newton-Raphson method

Suppose you need to find the root of continuous and differentiable function f (x) ,and you know the root
you are looking for is near the point x  x0 . Then Newton-Raphson method (Newton’s method) tell us that

f ( x0 )
the better approximation of the root is x1  x0 
f ' ( x0 )

f ( xn )
Generally, for any value xn the next value is xn1  xn  for n  1,2,3,4,5,.........
f ' ( xn )

NOTE:

 If the near point x  x0 is not given, we guess two numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that f (a). f (b)  0 . Then

the first approximate root 𝑥1 lies between 𝑎 and 𝑏.

 If f ' ( x1 )  0 or nearly zero, this method fails.

Task 10: Individually,

(1) Find the root of the equation x 2  4 x  7  0 near x0  5 to the nearest thousandth.

(2) The equation 2 x3  x 2  1  0 has exactly one real root.

4 xn2  xn2  1
(a) Show that for this equation the Newton-Raphson formula can be written xn1 
6 xn2  2 xn

(b) Using the formula given in part(a) with x0  1 find the value of x1 and x2

(c) Explain why for this question the Newton-Raphson cannot be use with x0  0

(3) Use the Newton-Raphson method to approximate the real solution of the equation x3  x  1  0
(4) Use the Newton-Raphson method to find the next approximate root of the equation x3  5x  3  0

Expected answers:

69 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (1) Given that f ( x)  x 2  4 x  7  0 , i.e f ' ( x)  2 x  4 . Then Newton-Raphson formula can be written

xn2  4 xn  7 3x 2  8 xn  7
xn1  xn  or xn1  n and x0  5
2 xn  4 2 xn  4

 n  0, x1  6

n  1, x2  6.625
By using this formula, For 
n  2, x3 

 .

(2)
xn3  xn  1
(3) Let f ( x)  x3  x  1, f ' ( x)  2 x 2  1 . Newton-Raphson formula becomes xn1  xn  ,
3xn2  1

2 xn3  1
after combining the terms xn1 
3xn3  1

f (1)  13  1  1  1  0
then the first approximation x0 lies between 1 and 2.
f (2)  23  2  1  5  0

2(1.5) 2  1
n  0, x1   1.34782609
2(1.5) 2  1
Let us use 1.5, gives
2(1.34782609) 2  1
n  1, x2   1.342520040
3(1.34782609) 2  1

x3  1.32471817
If we continues this process, until we two approximation on the same value we get x4  1.32471796
x5  1.32471796

Hence the solution is approximately x  1.32471796

(4) Let f ( x)  x3  5x  3, f ' ( x)  3x 2  5 and Newton-Raphson

2 xn3  3
formula becomes xn1  , f (0)  3  0 and f (1)  (1)3  5(1)  3  1  0
2 xn2  5

then the first approximation lies between 0 and 1, let now use x0  0.5

2(0.5)3  3
for n  0, x1   0.647059
2(0.5) 2  5

2(0.647059)3  3
n  1, x2   0.656573
2(0.647059) 2  5

2(0.656573)3  3
n  2, x3   0.65662
2(0.656573)  2

2(0.65662)3  3
n  3, x4   0.65662
2(0.65662)  5
The solution is approximately x  0.65662

70 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Task 11: Group discussion,
(1) Solve the following equations by Newton-Raphson method
(a) e x  3  x , to three decimal places
(b) x3  x  2 , to three decimal places
(2) Apply Newton-Raphson method to find an approximate solution of the equation e x  3x  0 Correct
up to three significant figure, (assume x0  0.4 as an approximate root of the equation).

(b) General iteration method

When trying to solve an equation f ( x)  0 by an iterative method, you first rearrange f ( x)  0 into a form

x  g (x) . The iteration formula is then xn1  g ( xn )

4  x3 4  xn3
For example if f ( x)  x3  6 x  4 , x  and xn 
6 6

Task 12: In pairs,

(1) Use iterative method to find the solution 0f x 2  x  5  0 to 2 decimal places(2dp) starting with
x0  1 .

(2) Starting with x1  2 use iterative formula xn1  3 6 x  5 to find the solution to x3  6 x  5  0 to 2
decimal places(2dp).
3
(3) Starting with x1  4 use the iterative formula xn1  2
 3 to find the solution to 3x 2  x3  3  0 to
( xn )
3dp.

Expected answers:

(1) Given x 2  x  5  0 . Rearrange x  5  x , the formula is xn1  5  xn

If x0  1 ,

x1  5  1  2.4495
x2  5  2.4495  2.7294
x3  5  2.7294  2.7802 , thus the solution rounding to 2dp x  2.79
x4  5  2.9802  2.7893
x5  5  2.7893  2.7909

(2) Given x 2  x  5  0 . the formula is xn1  3 6 x  5

71 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 x2  3 6(2)  5  2.572128
x3  3 6(2.57128)  5  2.733
x4  3 6(2.733)  5  2.7741
Since x1  2 , , thus the solution rounding to 2dp x  2.79
x5  3 6(2.7741)  5  2.78746
x6  3 6(2.78746)  5  2.790
x7  3 6(2.790)  5  2.991

3
(3) Given 3x 2  x3  3  0 , the iterative formula xn1   3 and x1  4
( xn ) 2
3
x2   3  3.1875
(4) 2
3
x3   3  3.29527
(3.1875) 2
3
x4   3  3.27627
(3.29527) 2
Then , thus the solution rounding to 3dp x  3.279
3
x5   3  3.27949
(3.27627) 2
3
x6   3  3.27903
(3.27949) 2
3
x7   3  3.27903
(3.27903)

Task 13: Group discussion,

(1) Consider the equation x 2  3x  1  0

(a) Show that x 2  3x  1  0 has one root lying between 0 and 1 and another lying between 2 and 3.
(b) Show that x 2  3x  1  0 can be rearranged into the form:
x2  p
(i) x where p and q are constants
q
s
(ii) xr where r and s are constants
x
And state the values of 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 and 𝑠.

x p
2
(c) Using the iteration formula xn1  n together with your values of p and q, starting at x1  0.5
q

find, to 3 decimal places, one root of x 2  3x  1  0

s
(d) Using the iteration formula xn1  r  together with your values of 𝑟 and 𝑠 find, to 3 decimal
xn

places, the second root of x 2  3x  1  0 .

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 1
(2) Using the iteration formula xn1  2  and starting with x2  2 , find the value, to 4 significant
xn2

figures, to which the sequence x1 , x2 , x3 ,.......xn tends. This sequence leads to one root of an equation. State the
equation.
sin( xn )
(3) x 2  sin x  0 has a root lying between 0.5 and 1. Using iteration formula xn1  , find this
xn
root to
3 significant figures.

4.4. END OF UNIT 4 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions)

p xn
(1) Using the iteration formula xn1  2
 together with your values of 𝑝, starting at x0  2.5 , find,
xn 2

to 3 significant figures, a root of x3  14

(2) Approximate 3
6 by applying the Newton-Raphson method to the equation x3  6  0 .
(3) Solve the following equations by the Newton-Raphson method
(a) xe x  2  0
(b) x  2 sin x  0
(4) Consider the equation ln x  4  x  0
(a) Show graphically, or otherwise, that the equation ln x  4  x  0 has only one real root and prove
that this root lies between 2.9 and 3.
(b) By taking 2.9 as first approximation to this root and applying the Newton-Raphson process once to
the equation ln x  4  x  0 , or otherwise, find a second approximation, giving your answer to 3 significant
figures.
(5) Solve graphically x  2 sin x  0
1

(6) Use the iteration formula to solve xn1  3 with x1  1.5 to find the value, to 3 significant figures,
xn

to which the sequence x1 , x2 , x3 ,.......xn tends. This sequence leads to one root of an equation. State the
equation.
(7) The equation x 2  4 x  2 has two roots, one near x  0 and the other near x  4
2
(a) Using xn1  with x0  0 find the root (correct to 2 decimal places).
xn  4
2
(b) Why could we not use the formula xn1  with x0  4 ?
xn  4
2
(c) Using xn1  with x0  4 , find the root near x  4 (correct to 2 decimal places).
xn
73 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 UNIT5 : TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

5.0 INTRODUCTION
The trigonometric functions include the following 6 functions: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
sin  1 cos  1 1
and cosecant where tan   cot    sec   cosec 
cos  tan  sin  cos  sin 
Moreover , there are rules involving these functions into a triangle :

For a right angled triangle ABC:

A a
ˆ 
cos B ˆ b
cos A
c c
c b

ˆ b
sin B ˆ a
sin A
c c
B a C

ˆ b
tan B ˆ a
tan A
a b

Note: For each of these functions, there is an inverse trigonometric function which will be discussed
later.

5.1 GENERALITIES ON TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

(a) Domain and range of six trigonometric functions

Graph of the sine function, y  sin x

Hence for y  sin x , Domain  IR or Domain   , and Range   1,1

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 Graph of the cosine function, y  cos x

Hence, for y  cos x , Domain  IR or Domain   , and Range   1,1

Graph of the tangent function, y  tan x

The tangent function repeats after every interval of length π.

 
Hence for y  tan x , Domain  IR \ 2k  1  and Range  IR or Range   ,
 2

Graph of the cotangent function, y  cot x

For y  cot x , Domain  IR \ k  and Range  IR   ,

Graph of the secant function, y  sec x

75 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
  
For y  sec x , Domain  IR \ 2k  1  and Range   ,1  1,
 2

Graph of the cosecant function

For y  csc x , Domain  IR \ k  and Range   ,1  1,

Summary of domain and range of six trigonometric function

Function Domain (𝐱) Range (𝐲)

y  sin x ℝ  1,1
y  cos x ℝ  1,1
y  tan x 𝜋
ℝ\ { + 𝑘𝜋} , 𝑘𝜖ℤ IR   ,
2
y  csc x ℝ\{𝑘𝜋}. 𝑘𝜖ℤ  ,1 1,
y  sec x 𝜋
ℝ\ { + 𝑘𝜋} , 𝑘𝜖ℤ  ,1 1,
2

y  cot x ℝ\{𝑘𝜋}. 𝑘𝜖ℤ IR   ,

Task1 : (In pairs),

Find the domain of definition for each of the following functions:

(1) f(x) = sinx + cosx 1

(3) F(x) = sin (x)
x+1
(2) f(x) = cos ( ) 1
x (4) f(x) = x + sin2x

76 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (5) f(x) = cos x + tanx (6) f(x) = cos
√x
x

Expected answers:

IR   ,  
IR  IR \   k   IR \ k , k  IZ
(1)
(5)
(2) IR \ 0 or  ,0  0, 2 
IR \ 0 0,  0,
IR \ 0 or  ,0  0,
(6)
(3)

(4) IR \ 0 IR  IR \ 0 or  ,0  0,

(b) Domain and range of inverses of trigonometric functions

1 1
Remember that while solving trigonometric function, sin x  , we write x  sin 1   . The term
2 2
1
sin 1   is called trigonometric inverse.
2

Inverse sine and inverse cosine

sin x and cos x are defined on the entire interval  , . They have the inverses called inverse sine
and inverse cosine denoted by sin 1 x and cos 1 x respectively.

Note:

1 1
 That the symbols sin 1 x and cos 1 x are never used to denote and respectively.
sin x cos x

can be written as sin x  and cos x 

1 1 1 1
 If desired and (or csc x and sec x )
sin x cos x
respectively.
 Sometimes, sin 1 x and cos 1 x are called arcsine of x and arccosine of x and they are denoted by
arcsin x and arccos x respectively.

Remark:
The inverses of the trigonometric functions are not functions, they are relations. The reason why they are
not functions is that for a given value of x , there are an infinite number of angles at which the trigonometric

77 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
functions take on the value of x . Thus, the range of the inverses of the trigonometric functions must be
restricted to make them functions. Without these restricted ranges, they are known as the inverse
trigonometric relations.

π π
To define sin 1 x and cos 1 x , we restrict the domain of sin x and cos x to the interval [− 2 , 2 ] and

[0, 𝜋] respectively to obtain a one-to-one function. Thus:

sin 1 sin y   y if – 2 ≤ y ≤ cos 1 cos y   y if 0 ≤ y ≤ π
π π
 
2

  
sin sin 1 x  x if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1   
cos cos 1 x  x if−1 ≤ x ≤ 1

Inverse tangent

Tangent of x denoted tan x , it has the inverse called inverse tangent and is denoted by tan 1 x .

  
To define tan 1 x , we restrict the domain of tan x to   , 
 2 2

Because tan x (restricted) and tan 1 x are inverse to each other, thus:

tan1 tan y   y if, – 2 ≤ y ≤

π π
 2

  
tan tan1 x  x if, −∞ < 𝑥 < +∞

Inverse secant

The inverse secant, denoted sec1 x , is defined to be the inverse of restricted secant function.
    
If we let y  sec1 x , then, the domain is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1,+∞) and the range is 0,    ,   .
 2 2 

Inverse cotangent and inverse cosecant

78 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 For y  cot x we obtain its inverse cot 1 x if we restrict the domain y  IR   , and range y  0,  

    
For csc1 x the restricted domain is x   ,1 1, and the range is y   ,0   0, 
2   2

Notice
If α and β are acute complementary angles, then from basic trigonometry, sin α and cos β are equal. Let us

write x  sin   cos  so that   sin 1 x and   cos 1 x . Since     we obtain the following:
2


 sin 1 x  cos 1 x 
2

 tan1 x  cot 1 x 
2

 sec1 x  csc 1 x 
2
 sin 1  x    sin 1 x 

 tan tan1  x    tan1 x 

Summary of domain and range of six inverse trigonometric function

Function Domain (𝐱) Range (𝐲)

y  sin 1 x  1,1   
 2 , 2 

y  cos 1 x  1,1 0,  

y  tan 1 x IR   ,   
 2 , 2 

y  csc1 x  ,1 1,     

 2 ,0   0, 2 

y  sec1 x  ,1 1,     

0, 2    2 ,  

79 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 y  cot 1 x IR   , y  0,  

Task 2 : (In pairs),

1  1 
(1) Find: (a) sin 1   (b) sin 1   
2  2
(2) Simplify the following trigonometric inverses:
(a) 
cos sin 1 x  (b) 
sec2 tan 1 x  (c) 
tan 2 sec1 x 
(d)
(3) For which value of x is true that:
(a) tan1 tan x   x (b) 
tan tan1 x  x  (c)  
csc csc1 x  x

(4) Find the domain of the function: f ( x)  csc1 x  tan1 x

Expected answers:

1  1 
(1) Find: (a) sin 1   (b) sin 1   
2  2

1 1   
(a) Let y  sin 1   , this equation is equivalent to sin y  for y   ,  . The only value
2 2  2 2
 1 
satisfying these conditions is y  , so sin 1   
6 2 6
 1  1
(b) Let y  sin 1    , this equation is equivalent to sin y   . The only value satisfying these
 2 2

  1  
conditions is y   , so sin 1   
4  2 4
(2) Simplify:
(a)  
First we transform cos sin 1 x in function cosine only. We know sin 2   cos 2   1, thus

 
cos 2 x  1  sin 2 x or cos x  1  sin 2 x . Then cos sin 1 x  1  sin 2 sin x   1  x 2

(b)    
Since sec2   1  tan2  , then sec2 tan1 x  1  tan2 tan1 x  1  x 2

(c) Since tan   sec   1 , then tan sec x   sec sec x   1  x

2 2 2 1 2 1 2
1

  
(3) (a) x   ,  (b) x   , (c) x   ,1 1,
 2 2
(4) For csc1 x the domain is  ,1 1, and for tan 1 x domain is IR   , , hence the

resultant domain is the intersection of the two which is  ,1 1, .

Task 3 : (Group discussion),

80 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (1) Find the domain of the following:

f ( x) 
1
 sin 1 2 x   x 1
(a) (b) f ( x)  cos 1   (c) f ( x)  sin 1  
x x   x
 

(c) Parity (even and odd) of trigonometric functions

Even functions

A function f (x ) is said to be even if the following conditions are satisfied:

 ∀x∈ 𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒇 , −𝒙 ∈ 𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒇

 f (  x)  f ( x)

The graph of such function is symmetric aboutthe vertical axis. i.e

For example: The function cos x is an even function since ∀x ∈ ℝ, −x ∈ ℝ and

f ( x)  cos( x)  cos x  f ( x)

Odd function

A function f (x) is said to be odd if the following conditions are satisfied:

 x  Domf ,  x  Domf

 f (  x)   f ( x )

The graph of such function looks the same when rotated through half a revolution about 0. This is
called rotational symmetry.

For example: The function sin x is an even function since ∀x ∈ ℝ, -x ∈ ℝ and

f ( x)  sin( x)   sin x   f ( x)

Task4 : (In pairs), Study the parity of the following functions:

x2
(1) f(x) = cosx ;

81 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (2) f(x) = x + sin4x ;
3 tanx
(3) f(x) = √x + sinx ; 4) f(x) = x+1

Period of trigonometric functions

A function f (x) is called periodic if there is a positive number P such that f ( x  P)  f ( x) whenever
x and x  P lie in the domain of f (x) . We call P a period of the function.
The smallest positive period is called the fundamental period (also primitive period, basic period, or
prime period) of f (x) A function with period P repeats on intervals of length P, and these intervals
are referred to as periods.

The most important examples of periodic functions are the trigonometric functions.

Any function which is not periodic is called aperiodic.

Task 5 : (Individually)
Find the period of the following functions:
(a) sin x (c) tan x
(b) cos x (d) sin 3x

EXPECTED ANSWERS:

(a) Using definition, we have sin( x  P)  sin x

 x  P  x  2k , k  IZ

 P  2k . We take k  1 , P = 𝟐𝝅.

(b) For cos x we have cosx  P   cos x 𝜋

x  P  X  2k where k ∈ ℤ . For k  1 ,P = 2𝝅

(c) For tan x , we have tan(x+P)= tan x ⇔x + P = x + k 𝜋, k ∈ ℤ

⇔P = k 𝜋 . For k  1 , P = 𝝅
(d) For sin 3x we have sin 3( x  P)  sin(3x  2k )

82 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
  3x  3P  3x  2k
 3P  2k
2k
P
3
2
For k  1 , P 
3

Note
2𝜋
If a ≠0 and b ≠0 , then the functions a sin bx and a cos bx we may use the fornula |𝑏|
to obtain the

fundamental period.

Task 6: (In pairs)

Find the fundamental period of f (𝑥) = 2 sin 6x and g(𝑥) = 4 cos 3x

Expected answers:
For f(𝑥) , we have 2 sin 6 (𝑥 + 𝑃) = 2 sin 6x ⇔ 6𝑥 + 6𝑃 = 6𝑥 + 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘𝜖ℤ
⇔ 6𝑃 = 2𝑘𝜋.
𝜋
Since k =1, P = 3

For g(𝑥) , we have 4 cos 3 ( x +P) = 4 sin 3x

⇔ 3𝑥 + 3𝑃 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘𝜖ℤ

⇔ 3𝑃 = 2𝑘𝜋.
2𝜋
We take k =1, P = 3

Task7: (Group discussion)

Find the fundamental period of the following functions:

(1) f (x ) = sin 2x (4) h (t ) = 2 sin t

(2) f (x) = cos( )

2𝑥
(5) f (t ) = sin (wt +𝜑)
3

g (x ) = tan 3x (6) f (x ) = tan ( 2x +3)

(3)

Combining periodic functions

83 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
  If we have two functions f (x) and g (x) the resultant period is given by the lower common
multiple (LCM) of both periods of the two functions
 If the periods are fractions, first multiply the denominator on both the two periods.

Task 8 : (In pairs)

Find the fundamental period of the functions:

x+1 2x+1
(1) f (x ) = tan ( ) sin ( )
2 5
sin3x
(2) f (x ) =
tan7x

(3) f (x ) =sin x +sin 4x

Expected answers:
𝑥+1 2𝑥+1
(1) For tan ( ) ,𝑃1 = 2𝜋 and for sin ( ) , 𝑃2 = 5𝜋
2 5

LCM of (2𝜋, 5𝜋) = 10𝜋 , P =10𝜋

2𝜋 𝜋
(2) For 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 , 𝑃1 = and for 𝑡𝑎𝑛7𝑥, 𝑃2 =
3 7

𝑃1 is 2𝜋 in 3 fundamental periods and 𝑃2 is 𝜋 in 7 fundamental periods

LCM of (𝜋, 2𝜋) = 2𝜋 , P =2𝜋

𝜋
(3) For 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑃1 = 2𝜋 for 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 , 𝑃1 = 2
2𝜋
⇒ P= LCM(2𝜋, ) hence P= 𝟐𝝅
3

Task 9 : (Group discussion),

Find the fundamental period of the following functions:

(1) f (x ) = 3sin 2x + tan 5x

(2) f (x ) =√2 sin 4x + sin 5x
(3) f (x ) = cos x - tan 2x
(4) f (x ) = cos√3𝑥 + sin 6x

5.2. LIMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION AND THEIR INVERSES

(a) Limits of trigonometric functions

Task 10: (Group discussion),

(1) Evaluate te following limits:

84 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (a) lim sin x
x0

(b) lim x sin x

x0

(c) lim cos x

x0

cos x
(d) lim
x0 x
sin x
(2) Consider the function f ( x)  , where x is in radians. Use calculator to complete the following
x
tables:
x 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001

sin x
x

x −1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 −0.01 −0.001

sin x
x

sin x
(a) What is the limit of as 𝑥 approaches 0 from the right side?
x
(b) What is the limit of sinx x as x approaches 0 from the left side?
sin x
(c) What can you say about lim
x0 x

Expected answers:

(1) Evaluate:
(a) lim sin x  sin 0  0 (c) lim cos x  cos 0  1
x0 x0

(b) lim x sin x  0  sin 0  0 , cos x cos 0 1

x0 (d) lim   
x 0 x 0 0
(2) The completed tables are:
x 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001

sin x 0.8 0.8 0.8 0. 0. 0.9 0.97 0.9 0.9 0. 1 1

x 4 7 9 92 94 6 8 9 99

x −1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 −0.01 −0.001

85 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 sin x 1 0.87 0.89 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 0.99 1 1
x

sin x
(a) lim 1
x0 x
sin x
(b) lim 1
x0 x
sin x
(c) As conclusion lim 1
x 0 x

sin x 1−cos𝑥
The result lim  1 and lim𝑥→0 𝑥 = 0,will help us to find limit of some other trigonometric
x 0 x

Task11: (In pairs),

Evaluate the following limits:

(a)
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
(b) lim𝑥→0 (e) lim𝑥→0
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥−3
(c) lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (f) lim𝑥→3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 1−2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
(d) lim𝑥→0 (g) lim𝑥→𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 3 𝑥−
3

Expected answers:

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑥 0
(a) lim𝑥→0 = Indeterminate case ( I.C.)
𝑥 0
𝑥 𝑥
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
lim𝑥→0 =lim𝑥→0 2 2
we know that [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2]
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= lim𝑥→0 2
lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = lim𝑥→0 2
𝑥 lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = lim𝑥→0 𝑥
2
lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = 1× 0 = 0,
𝑥 2
2 2

𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒙
Thus, 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒙→𝟎 =0
𝒙

𝑥 0
(b) lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 0 I.C

𝑥 𝑥 1 lim 1 1
lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 =lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 =1=1
𝑥 lim𝑥→0
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝒙
Thus, 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒙→𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 = 1

86 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 0
(c) lim𝑥→0 =0 I.C
𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1
lim𝑥→0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= lim𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = lim𝑥→0 = lim𝑥→0 lim𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1×1=1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
Thus, lim𝑥→0 =1
𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 ∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 1
(d) lim𝑥→0 =0 = ∞ Or lim𝑥→0 = lim𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = ∞×∞=∞
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

When finding limits of trigonometric functions, sometimes we need to change the variable.
𝑥−3 0
(e) lim𝑥→3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥 = 0 I.C

Let 𝑡 = 𝑥 − 3 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 3 . if 𝑥 → 3, 𝑡 → 0.
𝑥−3 𝑡 𝑡
lim𝑥→3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥 = lim𝑡→0 sin(𝜋𝑡+3𝜋)= lim𝑡→0 sin 𝜋𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜋+cos 𝜋𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜋)
𝑡
= lim𝑡→0 −sin 𝜋𝑡 [𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟑𝛑 = −𝟏 , 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑𝛑 = 𝟎 ]
𝑡 1
𝟏
= -lim𝑡→0 𝜋𝑡
sin 𝜋𝑡 = -lim𝑡→0 𝜋
sin 𝜋𝑡 = −𝝅
𝜋𝑡 𝜋𝑡

1−2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
(f) lim𝑥→𝜋 𝜋
3 𝑥−
3
1
1−2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 1−2× 0
lim 𝑥→
𝜋 𝜋 = 𝜋 𝜋
2
=0 I.C
3 𝑥− −
3 3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑡 𝑥 − 3 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 3 . if 𝑥 → 3 , 𝑡 → 0.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 √3
1−2cos(𝑡+ ) 1−2(cos𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 −sin 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) 1−2( cos𝑡− sin 𝑡)
lim𝑡→0 3
= lim𝑡→0 3 3
= lim𝑡→0 2 2
=
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
1−cos𝑡−√3sin 𝑡 1−cos𝑡 √3sin 𝑡
lim𝑡→0 = lim(𝑡→0 + )=
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
1−cos𝑡 √3sin 𝑡 1−cos𝑡 sin 𝑡
lim𝑡→0 + lim = lim𝑡→0 + √3lim = 0 + √3 × 1 = √𝟑,
𝑡 𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡→0 𝑡
𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
since [𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒙→𝟎 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒙→𝟎 = 𝟏]
𝒙 𝒙

Task12: (group discussion),

Find the limit of the following functions:

lim𝜃→𝜋 (𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) 1−cos𝑡
(a) (c) lim𝑡→0
4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡
(b) lim𝜋 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (d) lim𝑡→0 𝑡
𝑥→
2

(b) Limits of inverse trigonometric functions

87 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 𝑓(𝑥) 0 𝑓(𝑥) ∞
Recall that if lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 or lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞ , we remove this indeterminate case by
𝑓(𝑥) 0
differentiating function 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) and then evaluate the limit. That is, if lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 or
𝑓(𝑥) ∞ 𝑓(𝑥)
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞ then we evaluate lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) . We do this until the indeterminate case is removed, this

method is called l’Hôpital’s rule. Other methods used to remove indeterminate cases are also applied.

Task13: (Class discussion) ;

Evaluate
1
(1) lim𝑥→+∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) ;
𝑥 2 −1
(2) lim𝑥→1 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1−𝑥) ;

(3) lim𝑥→+∞ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5)

Expcted answers:
1 1
(1) lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (∞) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0) = 0
𝑥→+∞
𝑥 2 −1 0
(2) lim𝑥→1 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1−𝑥) =0 I.C Remove this I.C by l’Hôpital’s rule

𝑥 2 −1 2𝑥 2
lim𝑥→1 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1−𝑥) = lim𝑥→1 1 = 1 = −2
− −
√2𝑥−𝑥2 √2−1

(3) lim𝑥→+∞ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (∞ − ∞) I.C

Remove this I.C,

2 5
lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5) = lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 2 (1 − + 2) =
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥
2 5 𝝅
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [∞ (1 − + )] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (∞) =
∞ ∞ 𝟐

Task14: (Group discussion)

𝜋 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥−𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥−1)
1. lim𝑥→1 ( 2 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥) 4. lim𝑥→1 𝑥 2 −1
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5𝑥
2. lim𝑥→1− (𝑥 − 1)𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1−𝑥 5. lim𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2
3. lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 6. lim𝑥→+∞ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥

5.3 DIFFERENTIATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

(a) Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions

88 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Derivative of sine and cosine

The derivative of sine is denoted by (sin x ) ' = cos x and (cos x ) ' = sin x

If u is another function, then ( sin u ) '= u 'cos u and (cos u ) ' = u 'sin u

Task15: (Individually)

Find the derivative of :

(1) f (x) = sin ( 3x2 + 4)

(2) f (x ) = cos ( 3x)

(3) f (x) = sin 3 ( x 2 + 4

Expected answers:

(1)   
'

f ' ( x)  3x 2  4 cos 3x 2  4  6 x cos 3x 2  4  
(2) f ' ( x)  (3x)' sin(3x)  3sin 3x

(3)   
f ' ( x)  3 sin 2 x 2  4  sin x 2  4  ,'

  '
  
f ' ( x)  3 x 2  4 sin 2 x 2  4 cos x 2  4 
  
f ' ( x)  6 x sin 2 x 2  4 cos x 2  4 
Task 16: (Group discussion)

Find the derivative of the following functions:

(1) f (x) = sin ( x 2 + 3) (3) f (x ) = cos 3x2

(2) 3 2 3
.f (x) = sin ( x + 4 ) (4) f ( x) = cos 2x

Derivative of tangent and cotangent

sin x
The function f (x ) = tan x can be written as tan x 
cos x

sin x  sin x  cos x  sin xcos x 

'
Thus tan x '  
' '

 
 cos x  cos x 2
2
x  cos 2 x
tan x ,  sin 2

1
 1  tan 2 x
cos x cos 2 x

89 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 𝒖′
If 𝒰 is another function then, (tan u ) ' = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒖 = 𝒖′ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒖 = 𝒖′ (𝟏 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒖)

'
 cos x 
In the same way cot x '  
1
   2  (1  cot x)
2

 sin x  sin x

𝒖′
If 𝓤 is another function, then (cot u ) ' = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒖 = −𝒖′ 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒖 = −𝒖′ (𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝒖)

Task 17: (In pairs),

Find the derivative of:

(1) f (x) = x2 tan x

(2) f (x) = cot x2

Expected answers:

(1) f '( x) = ( x 2 ) ' tan x + x2 (tan x)' = 2x tan x + x2 sec2 x

(2)   '
   
f ' ( x)   x 2 csc2 x 2  2 x csc2 x 2

Task 18 (Group discussion)

Find the derivative of the following functions:

(1) f (x ) = x tan x (3) f (x) = cot ( x 2 - 5)

(2) f ( x ) = tan (3x + 2) f (x ) = sin xcot 4x
(4)
Derivative of secant and cosecant

(secx ) ' = secx tan x and (csc x ) ' = -cscx cot x

If 𝓤 is another function, then (sec u ) ' = u 'sec u tan u and (csc u ) ' = -u 'csc u cot u

Task 19: (In pairs);

Find the derivative of:

(1) f ( x)  sec2 x  1

(2) f ( x)  cscx  1

(3) f ( x)  sec4 3x 

Expected answers:

(1) f '( x ) = 2 sec ( 2x +1)tan ( 2x +1)

90 | P a g e M A T H S 5 M A T H T E A C H E R S GROUP
(2) f '( x) = -2x csc ( x 2 +1) cot ( x 2 +1)

f ' ( x)  4 sec3 3xsec 3x   43x  sec3 3x  sec 3x tan 3x

' '
(3)

f ' ( x)  12 sec4 3x tan 3x

Task20: (Group discussion),

Find the derivative of the following functions

(1) f ( x)  sec3x  2

(2) f ( )   3 csc 2

(b) Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions

Derivative of inverse sine and inverse cosine

𝟏 −𝟏
, (𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝐱)′ = and (𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝐱)′ =
√𝟏−𝐱 𝟐 √𝟏−𝐱 𝟐

𝐮′ −𝐮′
If 𝓤 is another function, (𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝐮)′ = and (𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝐮)′ =
√𝟏−𝐮𝟐 √𝟏−𝐮𝟐

Task 21: (Class discussion),

Find the derivative of:

(1) f (x ) = sin-1 x3

(2) f (x ) = cos-1 ( 2x +1)

(3) y = sin-1 (1- x2 )

(4) y = 3cos -1 ( x 2 +0.5 )

(5) y = (x 2 +1)sin -1 4x

Expected answers:
′
(𝑥 3 ) 3𝑥 2
(1) 𝒇′ (𝒙) = = √1−𝑥 6
√1−(𝑥 3 )2

−(2𝑥+1)′ −2 −1
(2) 𝒇′ (𝒙) = = √1−4𝑥 2 = √−𝑥2
√1−(2𝑥+1)2 −4𝑥−1 −𝑥
−2𝑥 −2𝑥
(3) y′ = = √−𝑥 4
√1−(1− 𝑥2 )2 +2𝑥 2
−2𝑥 −2𝑥
(4) y′ = 3 = √0.75−
√1−(𝑥 2 +0.5 )2 𝑥 2 −𝑥 4

4 4(𝑥 2 +1)
(5) y ′ = (2x) sin -1 4x+(𝑥 2 + 1) = √1−16𝑥 2
+ 2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 4𝑥
√1−(4𝑥 2 )2

Derivative of inverse tangent and inverse cotangent

91 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 𝟏 −𝟏
(𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱)′ = and (𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝐱)′ = 𝟏+𝐱𝟐
𝟏+𝐱 𝟐

𝐮′ −𝐮′
If 𝓤 is another function, (𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐮)′ = 𝟏+𝐮𝟐 and (𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝐮)′ = 𝟏+𝐮𝟐

Task 22: (In pairs);

Find the derivative of:

4
(1) f (x)=(tan -1 2x )

(2) f (x ) = 2 cot-1 3x

Expected answers:
3
2 8(tan−1 2x)
(1) f ′ (x) = 4(tan−1 2x)3 (tan−1 2x)′ = 4(tan−1 2x)3 (1+4x2 ) = 1+4x2
−2(3x)′ −6
(2) f ′ (x) = 1+(3x)2 = 1+9x2

Derivative of inverse secant and inverse cosecant

𝟏 −𝐱 ′
(𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝐱)′ = and (𝐜𝐬𝐜 −𝟏 𝐱)′ =
𝐱√𝐱 𝟐 −𝟏 𝐱√𝐱 𝟐 −𝟏

𝐮′ −𝐮′
If 𝒰 is another function , (𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝐮)′ = and (𝐜𝐬𝐜 −𝟏 𝐮)′ =
𝐮√𝐮𝟐 −𝟏 𝐮√𝐮𝟐 −𝟏

Task23: (In pairs);

Find the derivative of:

(1) f (x ) = sec-1 2x

(2) f (x ) = csc-1 √𝑥

Expected answers:
2
(1) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
2𝑥√4𝑥 2 −1
1
− −1
′ (𝑥) 2√𝑥
(2) 𝑓 = =
2 2𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
√𝑥√(√𝑥) −1

Task 24: (Group discussion);

Find the derivative of:

1
(1) f(x) = cos−1 x (3) f(x) = sin−1 (1 − x)

(2) f(x) = cos−1 x 2 (4) f(x) = sin−1 √2x

92 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (5) f(x) = cot −1 √x (8) f(x) = sec −1 (2x + 1)

1 (9) f(x) = tan−1 √x 2 − 1 + csc −1 x

(6) f(x) = cos−1 x cot −1 x
(10) f(x) = sec −1 5x
(7) f(x) = cot −1 √x − 1
(11) f(x) = csc −1 (x 2 + 1) , x > 0

(c)Successive derivatives
Successive derivative is the process of differentiating a given function successively times and the results of
such differentiation are called “successive derivatives”.

Let = 𝑓(𝑥) , the successive derivatives are:

𝒅𝒚
 First derivative: = 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒚′
𝒅𝒙

𝒅 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
 Second derivative: ( ) = 𝒅𝒙𝟐 = 𝒇′′ (𝒙) = 𝒚′′
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝐝 𝐝𝟐 𝐲 𝐝𝟑 𝐲
 The third derivative : 𝐝𝐱 (𝐝𝟐 𝐱) = 𝐝𝐱 𝟑 = 𝐟 ′′′ (𝐱) = 𝐲 ′′ ′

.
.
.

𝐝 𝐝𝐧−𝟏 𝐲 𝐝𝐧 𝐲
 And the nth derivative : ( 𝐧−𝟏
)= = 𝐟 (𝐧) (𝐱) = 𝐲 (𝐧)
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐧

Task 25: (Class discussion);

Find the nth derivative of:

(1) y = sin x (2) y = cos x

Expected answers:
𝛑
1. y ′ = cosx = sin(x+𝟐 )

𝟐𝛑
y ′′ = −sinx = sin(x+ 𝟐 )
𝟑𝛑
y ′′′ = −cosx = sin(x+ 𝟐 )

⋮
𝐧𝛑
y (n) = sin(x+ 𝟐 )
𝐧𝛑
Thus, if y = sin x , 𝐲 (𝐧) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐱+ 𝟐 )
93 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 𝛑
2. y ′ = −sinx = cos(x+𝟐 )

𝟐𝛑
y ′′ = −cosx = cos(x+ 𝟐 )
𝟑𝛑
y ′′′ = sinx = sin(x+ 𝟐 )

⋮
𝐧𝛑
y (n) = cos(x+ 𝟐 )
𝐧𝛑
Thus, if y = sin x , 𝐲 (𝐧) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐱+ 𝟐 )

Task 26: (Group discussion);

(1) Find the second derivative of:

a) y =sin 2x sin 3x

b) y = arctan x

c) y = sin2x

d) y = tan2x
(2) Find the third derivative of:
a. y = x arctan x
b. y = sin 2x cos 3x
sin2x
c. y = sin3x

d. y = tan x tan 2x

(3) Find the nth derivative of:

a. y = sin x + cos x b) y = cos 2x

5.4.APPLICATIONS

In simple harmonic motion (SHM), the displacement x ( t ) of a particle from its equilibrium
position is defined by the equation x= xm cos (𝜔t + 𝜙) in which xm is the amplitude of the
displacement, the quantity (𝜔t + 𝜙) is phase of the motion, and 𝜙 is the phase constant.

The angular frequency 𝜔 is related to the period and the frequency of the motion
𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝝎
by = = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 , 𝑻 = 𝒇 = and 𝒇 = 𝟐𝝅
𝑻 𝝎

The motion of an object moving up and down is an example of simple harmonic motion.
If the position of an object is S ( t ), then,

94 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 𝐝𝐬
 The velocity of the object is = .
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝟐 𝐬
 The acceleration of the object is 𝐚 = .
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
𝐝𝟑 𝐬
 The jerk of the object is = .
𝐝𝐭 𝟑

Task 27: (Class discussion);

(1) A weight hanging from a spring is stretched down 5 units beyond its rest position and
released at time t = 0 to bob up down. Its position at any later time t is s(t)= 5 cos t . What are its
velocity, acceleration and jerk at time t ?

(2) A body oscillates with simple harmonic motion according to the equation
 
x  6m cos 3t   . At time t=2s, what are:
 3

a) the displacement b) the velocity

c) the acceleration d) the phase of motion

e) the frequency f) the period of the motion.

(3) An object oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the x _axis . Its
displacement from the origin varies in meter with time according to the equation 𝑥=
𝜋
4cos(𝜋𝑡 + ) where t is in seconds and the angles in radians.
4

(a) Determine the amplitude, frequency, period of motion and angular frequency.
(b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the object at any time.
(c) Find displacement, velocity and acceleration at t = 1.
(d) Determine the maximum speed and maximum acceleration

Expected answers:

(1) Position: s = 5 cos t

 Velocity (derivative of function representing the position):

𝑑𝑠 𝑑
𝑣= = (5 cos 𝑡) = −5sin𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

 Acceleration (derivative of function representing the velocity):

𝑑𝑣 𝑑
𝑎= = (−5 sin 𝑡) = −5cos𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

 Jerk (derivative of function representing the acceleration):

95 | P a g e M A T H S 5 M A T H T E A C H E R S G R O U P
 𝑑𝑎 𝑑
𝑗= = (−5 cos𝑡) = 5sin𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 
(2) Given that x  6m cos 3t   . At t=2s
 3

 
(a) Position 6m cos 3  2    3m
 3

   
d  6m cos 3t   
 3   
  , then v  18 sin 3 2s     48.94m / s
dx
(b) v
dt dt  3
dv  
(c) a  54 2 cos 3t   , then a  266.21m / s 2
dt  3

(d) The phse of the motion is
3
 3
(e) Since   2f , f    1.5Hz
2 2
1 2 2
(f) T    0.67 s
f  3
𝜋
(3) Given 𝑥 = 4cos(𝜋𝑡 + 4 )

(a) Amplitude(A) is 4m
Angular frequency(  )= 
 
Frequency f    0.5Hz
2 2
1 1
Period T    2s
f 0.5

   
d  4m cos t   
 4   
 
dx
(b) v  4 sin t  
dt dt  4

dv  
a  4 2 cos t  
dt  4

 
(c) x  4 cos  (1)    2.82m
 4

 
v  4 sin  (1)    8.88m / s
 4

 
a  4 2 cos  (1)    27.89m / s 2
 4

96 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
  
(d) The maximum velocity is obtained at sin t    1 , then vmax  4m / s
 3

 
(e) The maximum acceleration is obtained at cos t    1 , then amax  4 2 m / s 2
 4

5.5.END OF UNIT ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions)

(1) State whether each of the following functions is periodic. If the function is periodic, give its
fundamental period.
(a) f ( x)  sin 3x
(b) f ( x)  1  tan x
(c) f ( x)  cos( x  1)

(d) f ( x)  cos 2 x

(e)  
f ( x)  cos x 2
(2) Study the parity of the following functions and state whether it is either even or odd or
otherwise.
(a) f ( x)  cos x  sin x
sin x
(b) f ( x) 
x2  1
x  sin x
(c) f ( x) 
x2  1
(3) Find the limits of the following functions:
(a) limx→π (1 + cotanx) (h) limx→0
sin(a+x)+sin(a−x)−2sina
4 xsinx
1+cos3 x secθ−tanθ
(b) limx→0 (i) limθ→π π
sin2 x 2 −θ
2
1+sinx
(c) limx→0 1+cosx tan−1 x2
(j) limx→0 xsin−1 x
cosec2 x−2
(d) limx→π 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3𝑥 2
4 cotanx−1 (k) lim𝑥→0 7𝑥 2
sin7x
(e) limx→0 x
sin8x
(f) limx→0
sin5x
sin3xsin5x
(g) limx→0 7x2

(4) Find the derivative of the following functions:

(a) f ( x)  3x 4  x 2 tan x (c) p(t ) 
sin t
3  2 cos t
(b) f ( x)  5 sin x cos x  4 csc x
97 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(d)  
f ( x)  3sin 3 2 x 4  1

(e) 
y  x  cos 2 x 
4

x
(f) y  csc 1
2

(g) x 2  1  sec1 x

98 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (5) Suppose that the amount of money in a bank account is given by P(t )  500  100 cos t  150 sin t
where t is in years.
(6) The equation 𝑆 = 2 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 gives the position of a body moving on a coordinate line (s in

meters, t in seconds). Find the body’s velocity, acceleration, and jerk at time t  sec
4
(7) A weight is attached to a spring and reaches its equilibrium position (x=0). It is then set in
 3
motion resulting in a displacement of x=10cost. Find the spring’s velocity when t  0, t  andt 
3 4

UNIT 6: VECTOR SPACE OF REAL NUMBERS

6.0. INTRODUCTION
In S4, we have discussed about a point and a vector in two dimensions(2D).

A vector is an arrow - it has direction and length or A vector is directed line segment. The length of a vector v
is sometimes called its magnitude or norm of v. We will always abbreviate length by the symbol length of

v v

   
Given that a  (a1 , b1 ) and b  (a2 , b2 ) ,the magnitude of the vector ab is given by

ab  a2  a1 2  b2  b1 2
Vectors are added by the triangle law or end-on rule or parallelogram law of addition.

 a   a    a  a 
If a   1  and b   2  then a  b   1 2 
b 1 b  2 b b  1 2 

Scalar multiplication:   IR ,  b  IR
 a   a   
Consider a   1  and b   2  , the dot product of two vectors is denoted by a . b a1a2  b1b2
b  1 b  2
99 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 A linear combination of vectors v1, v2 , v3 ,.................vn of vector space (V, +) is the sum of the form
   
1 v1   2 v2  3 v3  .............   n vn where 1, 2 ,3 ,............ n are the scalars(elements of ℝ)

A set of vectors S  v1, v2 , v3 ,.............vn in a vector space V is called a basis for V if:
(a) S spans V and
(b) S is linearly independent.

Angle between two vectors

⃗
⃗ .𝒃
𝒂
If 𝐚⃗. 𝐛 = |𝐛||𝐛| 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 ⇔ cos θ = ⃗
Here, cos θ means the cosine of the angle θ
⃗ ||𝒃 |
|𝒂

NOTE: Since all properties of vectors in 2D, are the same as in 3D, we will discuss fully in later.

Task 1: (Individually),
(1) Perform the following operations, related to vectors:
(a) If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = (5,4) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC = (6, −2), find AC
(b) Given A(2,1), B(4,4), C(6,7), find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC in terms of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC
(2) Show that the vector ⃗w
⃗⃗ = (14, 3) is a linear combination of vectors u
⃗ = (4, 3) and v
⃗ = (2,–1).
(3) Show that the vectors u
⃗ = (1, –1) and v
⃗ = (–2, 3) are linearly independent.

Expected answers:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 5 6 11
(1) (𝑎)𝐴𝐶 AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC = ( ) + ( ) = ( )
4 −2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2) ,thus ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 4 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(c) 𝐴𝐵 = ( ) and 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 = ( ) = 2BC
3 3 6
14 4 2 4𝛼 + 2𝛽 = 14
(2) Let ⃗w
⃗⃗ = αu
⃗ +βv
⃗ , here ( ) = 𝛼 ( ) + 𝛽 ( ), we form {
3 3 −1 3𝛼 − 𝛽 = 3
Solve the equations simultaneously we get 𝛼 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 3, therefore ⃗w
⃗⃗ = 2u
⃗ +3v
⃗,
1 −2
(3) Two vectors u
⃗ and v
⃗ are L.I if det(u
⃗ ,v
⃗ ) ≠ 0 i.e | | = 3 − 2 = 1 ≠ 0, hence they are linear
−1 3
independent.

Task 2: (Group discussion),

(1) Let V be the vector space ℝ2 and let 𝑆 = {𝑣, 𝑤

⃗⃗ } where 𝑣 = (2,1), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤
⃗⃗ = (1,3)
(a) Determine whether S span ℝ2
(2) Determine the angle between the vectors 𝑣 = (3,4), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤
⃗⃗ = (2,6)
(3) Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣2 = (1,4). Show that the set S={V1, V2} is a basis for ℝ2
𝑣1 = (3,2) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗

100 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

6.1. VECTOR SPACE ℝ𝟑
(a) Position of points and vectors in 3 dimensions

The position of point in space is, however, determined by three numbers x, y, z

A vector is a directed line segment. That is to say, a vector has a given length and a given direction. The vector
joining point A and point B is denoted by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 and its components are found by subtracting the coordinates of the
point A from the coordinates of point B.

For example, the components of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐀𝐁 defined by two points 𝐀(𝐚𝟏 , 𝐚𝟐 , 𝐚𝟑 ) and 𝐁(𝐛𝟏 , 𝐛𝟐 , 𝐛𝟑 ) are given
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝐛𝟏 − 𝐚𝟏 , 𝐛𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐 , 𝐛𝟑 − 𝐚𝟑 ). Then a vector in space may be described by ordered triple of coordinates
by 𝐀𝐁
(a, b, c).The point A is called the initial point or tail of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB and B is called the terminal point or tip.

Equal vectors: Two vectors are equal if they point in the same direction and have the same length

Parallel vectors
Two vectors are parallel if and only if:

(a) they have the same direction, or

(b) they have opposite directions.

101 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 ⃗ is
Thus, two vectors are parallel if and only if one can be expressed as a scalar multiple of the other. i.e, if 𝒖
parallel to ⃗
𝒗 , then ⃗ = 𝒓𝒗
𝒖 ⃗ or ⃗ = 𝒔𝒖
𝒗 ⃗ for real number 𝒓 and 𝒔

Opposite vectors
Two vectors are opposite if the coordinates of one vector are additive inverse of the coordinates of the other.
That is, if ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒗
𝑢 and 𝑣are opposite then 𝒖 ⃗

Operations on vectors

Addition: Addition of vectors can be expressed by a diagram. Placing the vectors end to end, the vector from
the start of the first vector to the end of the second vector is the sum of the vectors.

⃗ = (𝐚𝟏 , 𝐚𝟐 , 𝐚𝟑 ) and ⃗𝒃 = (𝐛𝟏 , 𝐛𝟐 , 𝐛𝟑 ), then 𝒂

Algebraically, if 𝒂 ⃗ + ⃗𝒃 = (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 + 𝒃𝟑 ).

Particular case:
(1) If two vectors are parallel, to find the sum; the second is newly replaced by equal
vector but having its origin at the end of the first one.


(2) If two vectors are opposite, their sum is zero vector. The opposite of the vector a

is denoted by  a
102 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Subtraction:

Subtraction of vectors can be shown in diagram form by placing the starting points of the two vectors together,
and then constructing an arrow from the head of the second vector in the subtraction to the head of the first
vector.

   
Algebraically, from the addition of vectors, we define the subtraction of vector as a  b  a  ( b) ,

if 𝑎 = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and 𝑏⃗ = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), then 𝑎 − 𝑏⃗ = (𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 − 𝑏3 ).

Scalar multiplication


The definition of scalar multiplication in space 𝐄𝟎 is the same as in plane. The product of a vector a with a
⃗
real number 𝝀 is defined by 𝝀𝒂


Note: if the real number α is positive, the resulting vector has the same direction as a and if it is negative the

⃗ = (𝐚𝟏 , 𝐚𝟐 , 𝐚𝟑 ) then 𝝀𝒂
resulting vector has the opposite direction to that of a . If 𝒂 ⃗ = (𝝀𝐚𝟏 , 𝝀𝐚𝟐 , 𝝀𝐚𝟑 )

Properties of vectors

Theorem: if 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, and 𝑐 are the vectors in (2 or 3 dimensions) and 𝜆 and 𝛽 are the scalars, then

(a) 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 (Commutativity)
(b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑏⃗) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐) (Associativity)
(𝑎
(c)𝜆(𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) = 𝜆𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏⃗ (Distributivity of scalars)
103 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (d) (𝜆 + 𝛽)𝑎 = 𝜆𝑎 + 𝛽𝑎 (Distributivity of vectors)
(e)There is a unique vector ⃗0 such that 𝑎 + ⃗0 = 𝑎 for all vectors 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ such that 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = ⃗0
(f) For every vector 𝑎 there is a unique vector −𝑎
(g) 𝜆(𝛽𝑎) = (𝜆𝛽)𝑎
(h) 1. 𝑎 = 𝑎 (identity element for multiplication)

Task 3: (In pairs),

⃗ = (3, 4,6), 𝑣 = (1, 1,1). Find

Given the points A(6,0,-3) and B(3,-3,0) and the vectors 𝑢

(1) Vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

AB (3) Sum ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + 𝑢⃗ −𝑣
(2) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 3𝑢
Sum 2AB ⃗ +𝑣 (4) ⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Sum 4𝑢 AB + 2𝑣

Expected answers:

(1) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = (3,3, −3)
(2) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 3𝑢
2AB ⃗ + 𝑣 = 2(3,3, −3) − 3(3,4,6) + (1,1,1) = (−2, −5, −23)
(3) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑢
𝐴𝐵 ⃗ − 𝑣 = (5,6,4)
(4) ⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝑢 AB + 2𝑣 = (11,15,29)

(b)Sub-vector space

A vector space (also called a linear space) is a collection of objects called vectors, which may be added together
and multiplied by numbers, called scalars.

A subset V of ℝ𝒏 is called a sub-vector space, or just a sub-space, of ℝ if it has the following properties:

 The 0-vector belongs to V,

 V is closed under vector addition, i.e. if 𝑢
⃗ , 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 then 𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉.
 V is closed under scalar multiplication, i.e. if 𝜆 ∈ ℝ, and 𝑢
⃗ ∈ 𝑉, then 𝜆𝑢
⃗ ∈𝑉

Task4: Individually,

(1) Consider A  x,0,2 x , x  IR, show that ( IR, A,) is a sub-vector space of ℝ𝟑 .
(2) Show that K  x, xz  1,0, x, z  IR is a sub-vector space of ℝ𝟑 or not.

EXPECTED ANSWER:

104 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (1) Given A  x,0,2 x , x  IR

 Since x  0 we have 0,0,0  A

   
 Consider k  k ,0,2k , t  t ,0,2t   A , then: k  t  k  t ,0,2k  2t   k  t ,0,2(k  t )
 
Let k  t  y then k  t   y,02 y   A, y  IR
 
Consider k  k ,0,2k   A,  IR , then:  k  k ,0,2k 

Let k  z then  k  z,0,2 z   A, z  IR

 Therefore, A is a sub-space of IR 3
(2) Given that K  x, xz  1,0, x, z  IR

 Since x  0 we have 0,1,0  A . Hence K is not a sub-vector space of IR 3

Task 5: (Group discussion)

Show that the following are or are not sub-vector spaces of IR 3

(a) F   y, z,0, y, z  IR

(b) H  x,0, z , x, z  IR

(c) G  2 x,3 y,0, x, y  IR

Sum and intersection of two sub-vector spaces

If 𝐅 and 𝐆 are two sub-vector spaces of , then the sum of 𝐅 and 𝐆 is also a sub-vector space of 𝐄. And is
denoted as F  G  x  y, x  F , y  G . Their intersection is denoted by F  G  x, x  F , x  G

Dimension of sub-spaces

The unique number of vectors in each basis of a sub-vector V is called the dimension of V and is denoted by
dim(V) .

Grassmann’s Low of dimension

If ( IR, F ,) and ( IR, G,) are the two sub-vector spaces of ( IR, E,) , then we have
dim( F  G)  dim( F )  dim(G)  dim( F  G) . This formula is called Grassmann’s formula of dimensions.

Task 6: (In pairs),

105 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (1) Describe the intersection H∩K if H  a  b,3a  b,2a  b, a, b  IR and K  3c, c,2c , c  IR
(2) Consider F  x,0, z , x, IRand G  x, y,0, x, y  IR.Find their intersection
(3) Let H  a  b,3a  b,2a  b, a, b  IR and K  ( x, y, z) : x  y  z  0, x  2 y  3z  0be subspaces of

IR 3 . Find the dimension of their intersection.

(4) Let U  a, b, c  : a  2b  c  0 and V  a, b, c  : a  b  c  0 be subspaces of IR 3 . Find the dimension
of their intersection.
(5) Let U  a  b,3a  b,2a  b, a, b  IR and V  3c, c,2c , c  IR be subspaces of IR 3 . Find
dim(U  V ) .

(6) Let U  a, b, c  : a  2b  c  0, a  3c and V  a, b, c  : a  b  c  0, a  b be subspaces of IR 3 . Find

dim(U  V ) .

(7) Consider F  x,0, z , x, IRand G  x, y,0, x, y  IR. Verify Grassman’s formula.

EXPECTED ANSWERS:

(1) Given H  a  b,3a  b,2a  b, a, b  IR and K  3c, c,2c , c  IR. The intersection is given by
solving the following system:

 a  b  3c  a  b  3c  0  a  b  3(3a  b)  0
  
 3a  b  c   3a  b  c  0   c  3a  b
2a  b  2c 2a  b  2c  0 2a  b  2(3a  b)  0
  
By solving this system, we obtain 0,0,0 . Hence H  K  0,0,0
(2) We need to solve the system

x  x

0  y . Then F  G  x,0,0, x, IR
z  0

We can write F  G  x1,0,0, x, IR , therefore the dimension dim( F  G)  1
(3) The intersection consists of the vectors of the form a  b,3a  b,2a  b satisfying the system

 x yz  0

 x  2 y  3z  0
 a  b  3a  b  (2a  b)  0
Substituting the form a  b,3a  b,2a  b into the system gives: 
a  b  2(3a  b)  3(2a  b)  0
2a  b  0 a  0
Or   . Hence H  K  0,0,0 and dim( H  K )  0
a  6b  0 b  0

106 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 a  2b  c  0
(4) First, we need the intersection by solving the system  which gives b  2a
 abc  0
From a  2b  c  0  a  2(2a)  c  0, c  3a . Then U  V  a,2a,3a , a  IR
But (a,2a,3a)  a(1,2,3) , so the basis is (1,2,3), hence dim(U  V )  1
(5) The sum is U  V  a  b,3a  b,2a  b  3c, c,2c , a, b, c  IR
U  V  a  b  3c,3a  b  c,2a  b  2c , a, b, c  IR

Then U  V  a(1,3,2)  b(1,1,1)  c(3,1,2)

Here we have three vectors and we want to know if they are independent.
1 1 3
Then 3  1 1  (2  3  9)  (6  1  6)  9  0 (they are linear independent.
2 1 2

Hence dim(U V )  3
(6) For U  a, b, c  : a  2b  c  0, a  3c

a  2b  c  0
  b  2c and a  3c . Now we can write U  3c,2c, c , c  IR
 a  3c
For V  a, b, c  : a  b  c  0, a  b

a  b  c  0
  c  0 and a  b . Now we can write V  b, b,0, c  IR
 ab
Now the sum is U  V  3c,2c, c   b, b,0, b, c  IR
U  V  b  3c, b  2c, c , b, c  IR
U  V  b(1,1,0)  c(3,2,1), b, c  IR
The bases are (1,1,0) and (3,2,1) which are linear independent. Hence dim(U V )  2

(7) Given F  x,0, z , x, IRand G  x, y,0, x, y  IR

( x,0 z )  ( x,0,0)  (0,0, z ) 

 F,   dim( F )  2
( x,0, z )  x(1,00)  z (0,0,1)

 ( x, y,0)  ( x,0,0)  (0, y,0)

 For G,   dim( G)  2
( x, y,0)  x(1,0,0)  y (0,1,0)
 F  G  2 x, y, z , x, y, z  IR

(2 x, y, z )  (2 x,0,0)  (0, y,0)  (0,0, z )

  dim( F  G)  3
(2 x, y, z )  x(2,0,0)  y(0,1,0)  z (0,0,1)

107 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  F  G  ( x,0,0), x  IR

( x,0,0)  ( x,0,0)
  dim( F  G)  1 . Then
( x,0,0)  x(1,0,0)
dim( F  G)  dim( F )  dim( G )  dim( F  G )
3  2  2 1 hence verified.
33

Task 7: (Group discussion)

(1) Take U to be the x-axis and V to be the y-axis , both subspaces of IR 2 . Find their intersection.
(2) Let U1  x, y, z  : x  y  z  0,2 x  3 y  z  0 and U 2  x, y, z  : x  y  z  0, x  2 y  3z  0 be
subspaces of IR 3 . Find their intersection, their sum and their dimensions.
(3) Let U and W be the following subspaces of IR 4 :
U  a, b, c, d  : b  c  d  0,,W  (a, b, c, d  : a  b  0, c  2d  . Find the dimension of U  W

(4) Let U  a,0, c , a, c  IR and W  0, b, c , b, c  IR be subspaces of IR 3 . Find the dim(U  W )
(5) Given V and W , the sub-vector spaces of ℝ4 such that U  a, b, c, d  : b  2c  d  0,, and

W  (a, b, c, d  : a  d , b  2c.

(a) Find the dimension of V ,W and V  W

(b) Deduce dim(V  W )
(6) Consider A = {(−3x, 0, 4x): xϵℝ}. show that (IR, A, +) is a sub-vector space of IR3
(7) Consider the subset U = {(x, y): xy = 0}.is U a sub-vector space of IR2?
(8) Consider S = (a, b, 0): a, bϵℝ, is (IR, S, +) a sub-vector space? Why?
(9) Consider F = {(x, 0, z): x, zϵℝ} and G = {(x, y, 0): x, yϵℝ} be the sub-spaces of ℝ3 . Find F ∩ G
(10) Let U = {(x, y, 0): x, yϵℝ} and V = {(0, y, y): yϵℝ} be the sub-vector space of ℝ3 .Find their intersection
(U∩ V). and the dimension dim(U∩ 𝐕).

NOTE:

If dim( F  G)  0 , the Grassmann’s formula of dimension becomes dim( F  G)  dim( F )  dim(G) . In this
case, F and G are said to be complementary and the sum 𝐅 + 𝐆 is said to be a direct sum; and it is denoted by
𝐅 ⊕ 𝐆. Otherwise, F and G are said to be supplementary.

Task 8: (Group discussion),

108 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (1) Let W1 ,W2 , and W3 denote the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis respectively. Show that IR 3 is uniquely

represented as a direct sum of W1 ,W2 , and W3 .

(2) Let U  a, b,0, a, b  IR be the xy − plane let W  0, c, c , c  IR be the z-axis. Show that IR 3 is a
direct sum of U and W .

Expected answers:

(1) IR3  W1  W2  W3 as W1  W2  W3  0

Let (a,0,0)  W1, (0, b,0)  W2 and (0,0, c) W3

(a, b, c)  IR3 , (a, b, c)  (a,0,0)  (0, b,0)  (0,0, c) .

Therefore, IR 3 is uniquely represented as a direct sum of W1 ,W2 , and W3 .

(2) Any vector (a, bc)  IR3 can be written as the sum of a vector in U and a vector in V as:
(a, bc)  (a, b,0)  (0,0, c) . Accordingly, IR is a direct sum of U and W , that is, U  W
3

Task 9: (Group discussion),

(1) Let F = {(x, 0,0): xϵℝ} and G = {(0, y, 0): yϵℝ} is W=F+G a direct sum of ℝ2 ? show your working.
(2) Let W1 and W2 denote the 𝑥𝑦 and the IR 3 planes, respectively. Can IR 3 be uniquely represented as a
direct sum of W1 and W2 ? Show your working steps.

(c) Linear combination

   
 The vector u is called a linear combination of the vectors u1 , u2 , u3 provided that there exists scalars c1, c2 , c3
   
such u  c1 u1  c2 u2  c3 u3 .

   
 The set S  u1 , u2 , u3  of vectors in the vector space V is a spanning set for V (or a generating set for V)
 
provided that every vector in V is a linear combination of the vectors in S.

  

 The set of vectors S  u1 , u2 , u3  of a vector space V is said to be linearly independent provided that the
 

c1  0, c2  0, c3  0
  
equation c1 u1  c2 u2  c3 u3  0 has only the trivial solution

109 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

   
 A set of vectors is called linearly dependent if it is not linearly independent. Or if c1 u1  c2 u2  c3 u3  0

and c1, c2 , c3  0
 A finite set S of vectors in a vector space V is called a basis for V provided that;
 The vectors in S are linearly independent,
 The vector in S Span V (or S is a generating set of V).

NOTE:

     

To three vectors, u1 , u2 , u3 are linear independent if det  u1 , u2 , u3   0 and are linearly dependent if
 
  
det  u1 , u2 , u3   0
 

Task 10: (In pairs),

  
(1) Show that the vectors u  1,1,0, v  1,3,1, w  5,3,2 are linear dependent.
  
(2) Show that the vectors u  1,2,0, v  0,1,3, w   1,0,2 are linearly independent.
  
(3) Show that the vectors u  1,2,3, v   1,1,2, w  2,1,1 are linearly dependent.
   
(4) Write the vector v  1,2,5 as a linear combination of vectors e1  1,1,1, e2  1,2,3 and e3  2,1,1 .

 1    2 4
     3
(5) Show that the vectors  1,  1  and   form a basis in IR
3

 4   3   5 

Expected answers:

1 1  5 
        
(1) To verify this we have to solve c1 u  c2 v  c3 w  0 or c1   1  c2  3   c3  3   0
0   1   2
     

 c1  c2  5c3  0
  c  3c3
Expending we get  c1  3c2  3c3  0 , solving we get  1 , this system has many solutions (not only
  c  2c  0 c2  2c3
 2 3

trivial solution). One of them, which is not trivial, is c1  3, c2  2 and c3  1 . Therefore, the given three vectors
are linearly dependent.
110 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Alternative method:
1 1 5
  
Since det  u , v , w    1 3 3   6  5  0  0  3  2  0 , the three vectors are linear dependent.
 
0 1  2

1 1 5
   3 3 1 3 1 3
Or det  u , v , w    1 3 3 1 1 5  3  2  5  0 , the three vectors are linear
  1  2 0 2 0 1
0 1  2

dependent.
1 0 1
   

(2) Since det  u , v , w   2  1 0   2  6  0  0  0  0  8  0 , the three vectors are linear
 
0 3 2

independent.
1 1 2
   1 1 2 1 2 1
(3) Since det  u , v , w   2  1 1  1 1 2  1  1  2  0 , hence the three vectors are
  2 1 3 1 3 2
3 2 1

linear dependent.
       
(4) If v can be written as linear combination of e1 , e2 and e3 we have v  c1 e1  c2 e2  c3 e3 or

1 1  2   1   c1  c2  2c3  1..........(1)

        
c1 1  c2  2   c3   1    2   c1  2c2  c3  2..........(2)
1  3  1   5   c  3c  c  5............(3)
         1 2 3

c3  2 , hence
   
Solving the system we get c1  6, c2  3 and v  6 e1  3 e2  3 e3

(5) The set of vectors form a basis if:

 they are linear independent and
 form a spanning set(they can be written as linear combination of any vector in IR 3 )
1 2 4
since  1 1  3  5  24  12  16  9  10  17  17  0 , the three vectors are linear dependent and hence
4 3 5

they cannot form a basis in IR 3 .

Task 11: (Group discussion),

111 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

   
(1) Show that the vectors u  1,2,3, v  0,1,2, w  0,0,1 generate/span IR 3 .
 
(2) Consider the vectors u  1,3,2, v  2,1,1 of IR 3 .

   

(a) If w  1,7,4 , is u , v , w a basis of IR 3
 
(b) For what value of real number 𝑘, the vector (1, 𝑘, 5) is a linear combination of 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣?

(3) Write the polynomial S  t 2  4t  3 as linear combination of P  t 2  2t  5 , Q  2t 2  3t and R  t  3

Coordinate vector

  
  
Suppose that S  v1 , v2 , v3  is a basis for a vector space V and that u is any vector from V. As u is a vector in
 
   
V, it can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors from S as follows: u  c1 v1  c2 v2  c3 v3 .


The scalars c1, c2 , c3 are called the coordinates of u relative to the basis S and it is denoted by

 
u   c1 , c2 , c3 
S


The coordinate vector of vector u is unique.

Task 12: (In pairs),


(1) Determine the coordinate vector of x  10,5,0 relative to the following bases:
(a) The standard basis vectors for IR 3

 

(b) The basis A  e1  1,1,1, e2  0,1,2, 3,0,1
 

Expected answers:

 

(a) The standard basis vectors for IR 3 is e1  1,0,0, e2  0,1,0, 0,0,1
 
10  1  0  0  c1  10
            
Since x  c1 e1  c2 e2  c3 e3   5   c1  0   c2  1   c2  0    c2  5
0  0  0 1  c  0
         3

112 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  
Hence the coordinate vector relative to S is  x   10,5,0
 S
10  1 0  3   c1  3c3  10 c1  2
         
(b) Here   5   c1   1  c2  1   c2  0     c1  c2  5   c2  3
0 1  2   1 c  2c  c  0  c  4
        1 2 3  3

 
Hence the coordinate vector for x relative to A is  x    2,3,4
  A

Task 13: (Group discussion)

 
(1) Find the coordinate vector of the vector u  3,1,4 and v  3,2,1 relative to the basis
V  1,1,1, 1,1,0, 0,0,1
 
(2) Find the coordinate vector of v relative to the basis 1,1,1, 1,1,0, 1,0,0 where v  4,3,2 .

6.2. EUCLIDIAN VECTOR SPACE ℝ𝟑

(a) Scalar product of two vectors
Itis the sum of the products of the corresponding coordinates of the two vectors. That is, the scalar product of
   
vectors u  a1 , a2 , a3  and v  b1 , b2 , b3  of space is defined by u . v  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3

Properties of scalar product

 
 u , v  E0 :

   
(a) If u  0 or v  0 , then u . v  0
   
(b) If u  v , then u . v  0
   
(c) u . v  v . u
   
  
    
(d)  u , v , w  E0 and a  IR , w u   v    u . w  v . w
 
 2
  
(e) We define the square of u to be u . u   u   a12  a22  a32
 

Task 14: (In pairs),

 
(1) Given u  2,3,4 and v  1,2,2
 
(a) Find the scalar product of u and v
113 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 2

(b) Evaluate  u 
 

Expected answer:
 
(a) u . v  2 1  3  (2)  4  2  2  6  8  4
2

(b)  u   22  32  42  4  9  16  29
 

Task 15: (Group discussion)

 
Find the scalar product u . v of :
   
(a) u  2,3,4 and v  12,3,0 (c) u  1,0,0 and v  3,3,3
   
(b) u  1,2,14 and v  22,0,0 (d) u  21,4,2 and v  0,1,0

(b) Magnitude (or norm or length) of a vector

 
The magnitude of the vector u denoted by u is defined as its length and is the square root of its square. That

2

  
is u   u  , thus if u  a, b, c  , then u  a  b  c
2 2 2

 

Properties of magnitude
 
(a) If u  0 u 0

 
(b) ku  k u

 
(c) Unit vector: A vector u is said to be unit vector if and only if its magnitude is 1. That is u  1 .

(d) Normalized vector: The normalized vector of a vector is a vector in the same direction but with magnitude

u
1. It is also called the unit vector and is given by  .
u

Note: A vector is said to be normal vector or simply the normal to a surface if it is perpendicular to that surface.

Distance between two points:

114 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 A  a1, a2 , a3  and B  b1, b2 , b3  of

If are two points, we can form a vector AB  b1  a1 , b2  a2 , b3  a3  and

the distance between these two points denoted d ( A, B) or AB and is given by


d ( A, B)  AB  b1  a1 2  b2  a2 2  b3  a3 2

Task 16: (In pairs),


(1) Find the magnitude of u  2,3,4
(2) Find the distance between the points A1,1,3 and B2,4,5
 
(3) Find the normalized vector parallel to v  2,4,4 in the same direction of v

Expected answers:

(1) u  2  3  4  29
2 2 2

 
(2) Vector AB  2  1,4  (1),5  3  1,5,2 and AB  1  5  2  30
2 2 2



v 2,4,4 2,4,4   1 , 2 , 2 
(3) Normalized vector e  
   
v 2 4 4
2 2 2 6 3 3 3

Task 15: (Group discussion)

Find the magnitude of;
 
(a) u  21,4,2 (c) u  1,2,14
 
(b) u  22,0,0 (d) u  3,3,3

(c)Angle between two vectors

 
Consider two non-zero vectors u and v whose angle  between them

115 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

      
The scalar products of vectors u and v is also defined to be u . v  u . u cos  .

    
u.v  
1  u . v 
From this definition, the angle between the two vectors is given by cos     or   cos
   
u.v  u.v 
 

Note: When we are calculating the angle between two vectors, we calculate the smallest positive angle.

Properties

 

 If the two vectors are perpendicular  u  v  , their scalar product is zero mean that the angle between them
 

is
2
       
 If the two vectors are parallel, then u . v  u . u if they are in the same direction or u . v   u . u if they

are in opposite direction.

Direction cosine
Direction cosine (or directional cosine) of a vector are the cosine of angles between the vector and the three
coordinates axes.

    
The direction cosines of the vector v  x, y, z  are: cos   
x  , cos    y  and
 x2  y 2  z 2   x2  y2  z 2 
   

 z 
cos    .
 x2  y2  z 2 
 

Note: The sum of squares of direction cosines of a vector is 1. That is cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1 .
Task 16: (In pairs),

116 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (1) Consider the vector (3,8,1). What is the measure of the angle between this vector and z-axis of coordinates
system?
(2) Determine the direction cosines of the vector with components 1,2,3 .

Expected answers:
  3.0  8.0  1.1   1 
(1) The unit vector on z-axis is e3  0,0,1 , then   cos 1    cos 1 
   83.30
 3  8 1
2 2 2
0  0 1 
2 2 2
 74 
1 1 2 2 3 3
(2) cos    , cos    and cos   
1  2  (3)
2 2 2
14 1  2  (3)
2 2 2
14 1  2  (3)
2 2 2
14

Task 17: (Group discussion),

(1) Find the angle formed by the vectors:

 
  (c) u  1,0,0 and v  3,3,3
(a) u  2,3,4 and v  12,3,0
 
  (d) u  21,4,2 and v  0,1,0
(b) u  1,2,14 and v  22,0,0
(2) Find the direction cosines of the following vectors:
 
(a) u  2,3,4 (c) u  1,2,14
 
(b) v  12,3,0 (d) v  22,0,0

(d)Vector product

  

Consider  i  1,0,0, j  0,1,0, k  0,0,1 a positive orthonormal basis of E0 and two linearly independent
 
     
vectors u  a1 , a2 , a3  and v  b1 , b2 , b3  . The vector product of u and v is denoted by u  v and is given by
  
i j k
  a2 a3  a1 a3  a1 a2 
  a a3 a1 a3 a1 a2 
u  v  a1 a2 a3  i j k or u  v   2 , , 
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2  b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2 
b1 b2 b3

Task 18: (In pairs),

117 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  
Find the vector product of u  (2,3,5) and v  (2,5,6)

Expected answer:
  
i j k
  3 5 2 5 2 3     
u v  2 3 5  i j k  7 i  22 j  16 k or u v   7,22,16
5 6 2 6 2 5
2 5 6

Properties of vector product

      
 If w is a vector product of u and v , then w  u and w  v
   
 The vector product is anti-symmetric: u v   v  u
      
 If u  0 and v  0 , then u v  0
 If two vectors are linearly dependent, then their vector product is a zero vector.
      
 If u v  0 ,then u  0 or v  0

 
  
 

 The vector product is not associative:  u v   w  u  v  w 
   

Task 19: (Group discussion),

 
Calculate the vector product u  v of the following vectors:
   
(a) u  1,3,1, v   1,2,1 (c) u  3,3,2, v  5,1,0
   
(b) u   3,2,1, v  0,1,1 (d) u  10,9,6, v  3,11,0

(e) Mixed product

The mixed product (also called the scalar triple product or box product or compound product) of three
vectors is a scalar which numerically equals the vector product multiplied by a vector as the dot product.

     
That is, if u  a1 , a2 , a3  , v  b1 , b2 , b3  and w  c1 , c2 , c3  . The triple scalar product of u , v and w is

a1 a2 a3
 

    
  
 a2 a3 a a a a
denoted by u . v  w  or u , v , w and is given by u . v  w   b1 b2 b3  a1  a2 1 3  a3 1 2
      b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
c1 c2 c3

Mixed product properties:

118 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
  The mixed product does not change if the orders of its factors are circularly rotated, but changes sign if they
are transposed. That is,

         
 u . v  w   w. u v   v . w u 
     

 
 
 
 
 

 u . v  w    w. v  u    v . u w 
     
 If three vectors are linearly dependent, the mixed product is zero.

Task 20: (In pairs),


 
   
Calculate the mixed product u . v  w  of the following vectors: u  2,1,3 , v  0,2,5 and w  1,1,2
 

2 1 3
   2 5 1 3 1 3
Expected answer: u . v  w   0 2  5  2 0 1  18  1  19
  1  2 1  2 2 5
1 1  2

  
ki j
  2 5  0 5  0 2    
Or  v  w   0 2  5  i j k  9 i  5 j  2 k   9,5,2
  1  2 1 2 1 1
1 1  2


 

Then u . v  w   2,1,3
.  9,5,2  2  (9)  (1)  (5)  3  (2)  18  5  6  19
 
Task 21: (Group discussion),

  
Calculate the mixed product  v  w  of the following vectors:
u .
 
     
(a) u  1,3,1, v   1,2,1 and w  1,0,1 (c) u  3,3,2, v  5,1,0 and w  2,1,3
     
(b) u   3,2,1, v  0,1,1 and w  8,0,0 (d) u  10,9,6, v  3,11,0 and w  1,3,4

119 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

6.3. APPLICATIONS
(a) Work done as scalar multiplication of force and distance
 
If a constant force F acting on a particle displaces it from A to B, the work done is given by Workdone  F . AB

Task 22: (In pairs),

       
(1) Constant forces, P  2 i  5 j  6 k and Q   i  2 j  k act on a particle. Determine the work done when
     
the particle is displaced from A to B, the position vectors of A and B being 4 i  3 j  2 k and 6 i  j  3 k
respectively.
  
(2) A force of magnitude 6 units acting parallel to 2 i  2 j  k displaces the point of application from (1,2,3)
to (5,3,7). Find the work done.

Expected answers:

   
    
   
(1) Total force   2 i  5 j  6 k     i  2 j  k   i  3 j  5 k
   
   
    
   
Displacement   6 i  j  3 k    4 i  3 j  2 k   2 i  4 j  5 k
   
  
   

Work done   i  3 j  5 k . 2 i  4 j  5 k   2  12  25  35 units of work.
  
     
Note that: i . i  1 , j . j  1 and k . k  1

   
2 i  2 j k 
  
(2) The force of magnitude 6 units, acting parallel to 2 i  2 j  k is 6     4 i  4 j  2 
k
2 2  (2) 2  12
  
The displacement  5,3,7  1,2,3  4,1,4  4 i  j  4 k
Work done 4,4,2
. 4,1,4  16  4  8  20 units of work.

Task 23: (Group discussion),

       
(1) A particle acted on by constant forces 2 i  j k , i  2 j  3 k and 3 i  j  5 k is displaced from point
     
i  2 j  3 k to point 6i  3 j  k . Find the work done.

120 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

      
(2) A particle is acted upon by constant forces 4 i  j  3 k and 3i  j  k is displaced from point (1,2,3) to
point (5,4,1). Find the total work done.

(b)Area of a parallelogram and area of a triangle

Area of a parallelogram
Consider the figure below:

     
Also the vector products of vectors u and v is also defined to be u  v  u . u sin  .

   
From the figure The area of a parallelogram with vectors u and v as two adjacent sides is given by A  u  v

Area of a triangle

1  
Since the area of the parallelogram is twice the area of the triangle, Thus, the area of triangle is A  u v
2

Consider the triangle ABC whose vertices are points A  a1 , a2 , a3  , B  b1 , b2 , b3  and C  c1 , c2 , c3  . Letting A
  1  
to be the starting point, we can form two vectors AB and AC then the area of this triangle is A  AB AC
2

Task 24: (In pairs),

 
(1) Find the area of parallelogram with vector u  3,0,4 and v  3,2,1 as two adjacent sides.
 
(2) Find the area of parallelogram with vector u  1,0,0 and v  3,3,3 as two adjacent sides.

Expected answers:
  
i j k
  0 4 3 4 3 0   
(1) u v  3 0 4  i j k  8 i  9 j  6 k
2 1 3 1 3 2
3 2 1

    
A  u v   8 i  9 j  6 k  64  81  36  181 units of area.

121 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

   
i j k
  0 0 1 0 1 0  
(2) u v  1 0 0  i j k  3 j  3 k
3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3

1   1  
1 18 3 2
A  u v   3 j  3 k  (3)2  32   Unit of area.
2 2 2 2 2

Task 25: (Group discussion),

(1) Find the area of a parallelogram whose sides are formed by the vectors:
 
(a) u  1,2,14 and v  22,0,0
 
(b) u  21,4,2 and v  0,1,0
    
(2) Find the area of triangle formed by the points whose position vectors are 3 i  j , 5i  2 j  1 k and
  
i  2 j 3k .

(3) The vertices of a triangle are (1,1,1), (0,1,2) and (3,2,1). Find the area of the triangle.

(c)Volume of a parallelepiped, volume of a triangular prism and volume of tetrahedron

Volume of a parallelepiped,
Consider the following figure:

    
A parallelepiped which has vectors u , v and w as three concurrent edges, where v and w define its base,


  

the volume is given by V  u . v  w 
 

If the parallelepiped is defined by four points A  a1 , a2 , a3  , B  b1 , b2 , b3  , C  c1 , c2 , c3  and D  d1 , d 2 , d3 


   
its volume is V  AD . AB AC 
 

122 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 Volume of a triangular prism The parallelepiped can be split into 2 triangular prism of equal volume.
1   
Thus V  u . v  w 
2  

Volume of a tetrahedron
The parallelepiped can be split into 6 tetrahedral of equal volume.

1   
Hence the area of tetrahedron is given by V  u . v  w  .
6  

Remark: A tetrahedron is also called triangular pyramid.

Task 26: (In pairs),

  
(1) Find the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the vectors: u  3,2,5 , v  2,2,1 and u   4,3,2
(2) Find the volume of a triangular prism whose vertices are the points 𝐴(1,2,1), 𝐵(2,4,0), 𝐶(−1,2,1) and
𝐷(2, −2,2).
(3) Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are the points A3,2,1, B1,2,4, C 4,0,3 and D1,1,7 

Expected answers:

123 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 3 2 5

 
(1) since V  u . v  w   2 2  1  12  30  8  40  9  8  91 Cubic units
 
4 3 2
  
(2) AB  1,2,1, AC   2,0,0 and AD  1,4,1

1 2 1
1 1
The volume is V   2 0   0  8  0  0  0  4  2 Cubic units.
2 2
1 4 1
  
(3) AB   2,0,3, AC  1,2,2 and AD   2,1,6

2 0 3
1 1 5
The volume is V  1  2 2  24  3  0  12  4  0  Cubic units.
6 6 6
 2 1 6

Task 27: (Group discussion),

(1) Find the volume of a triangular prism whose vertices are the points:
(a) A1,2,1, B0,2,4, C 1,1,1 and D1,6,4

(b) A 1,3,1, B0,1,0, C 3,1,2 and D1,2,4

(2) Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are the points:
(a) A3,1,4, B1,0,0, C 3,4,1 and D1,0,2

(b) A 1,2,1, B 5,2,3, C 1,1,1 and D1,1,0

         
(3) Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides OA  3 i  j , OB  j  2 k and OC  i  5 j  4 k
extending from origin of coordinates.
(4) Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are the points A2,1,3, B4,1,3, C 3,2,1 and D1,4,2

6.4. END OF UNIT 6 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions)

(1) Determine whether the given set of vectors is linearly independent

(a) 1,0,0, 1,1,0, 1,1,1 in IR 3

(b) 1,3,2, 2,5,3, 4,0,1 in IR 3


(2) Find the coordinate vector of v  a, b, c  relative to the basis S  1,1,1, 1,1,0, 1,0,0

(3) Give the coordinates of the normalized vector parallel to v  2,4,4 and with same direction.
 
(4) Find the value of constant k such that a  1,1,2 and b  5, k ,6 are orthogonal.

124 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (5) Find each of the following vector product
        
    
(a) i  i (b) i  j (c) i  k (d) j  k (e) i   j  k  (f)  i  j   k
   
 
(6) The vectors a and b are two sides of a parallelogram in each of the following. Calculate the area of each
parallelogram.
              
(a) a  3 i  j , b  3 i  2 j  2 k (b) a  4 i  j  3 k , b  8 i  3 j  k

   
    
(7) Let u  2,1,3, v  0,1,7 and w  1,4,5 , find: u   v  w  and  u  v   w . Hence conclude on the results.
   

(8) Find the area of the triangle having vertices P1,5,2, Q0,0,0 and R3,5,1 .
  
(9) Find the volume of the parallelepiped with sides , a , b and c
  
(a) a  2,6,2, b  0,4,2 and c  2,2,4
           
(b) a  3 i  j  2 k , b  4 i  5 j  k c  i  2 j  4 k
           
(10) Consider the parallelepiped with sides : a  3 i  2 j  k , b  i  j  2 k , c  i  3 j  3 k

(a) Find the volume

 
(b) Find the area determined by the faces a and c
(11) Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are (0,1,2),(3,0,1), (4,3,6) and (2,3,2)
 
(12) Calculate the angle between the vectors u  2,4,5 and v   6,4,3
  
(13) A particle is displaced from the point whose position vector is  5 i  5 j  7 k to the point whose position
        
vector 6 i  2 j  2 k under the action of a number of constant forces defined by 10 i  1 j  11 k , 4 i  5 j  6 k and
  
 2 i  j  8 k . Find the work done.

125 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

UNIT 7: MATRICES AND DETERMINANT OF ORDER THREE

7.0. INTRODUCTION.
a b e f
In S4, we have seen that a matrix of order two have the form of A = ( ),B = ( ) and C =
c d g h
1 j k
( ).
l m n
Equality matrix
Two matrices to be equal, they must be of the same size and have all the same entries in the same places.
a=e
A = B ⟹ { cb =
=f
g
d=h
Addition and subtraction of matrix
We add or subtract the matrices of the same order. Thus 𝐀 ± 𝐂 and 𝐁 ± 𝐂 can not be determined because 𝐀 and
𝐁 are 2 × 2 matrices and C is a 2 × 3 matrix.

a b e f a+e b+f
 A+B = ( )+( )=( )
c d g h c+g d+h
a b e f a−e b−f
 A−B = ( )−( )=( )
c d g h c−g d−h

Multiplication of matrices
Matrices can be multiplied together if the number of columns in the first matrix equals the number of rows in
the second matrix. Thus 𝐀𝐁, 𝐁𝐀, 𝐀𝐂 and 𝐁𝐂 can all be found but 𝐂𝐁 and 𝐂𝐀 cannot.
αa αb
 αA = ( )
αc αd
a b e f ae + bg af + bh
 AB = ( )( )=( )
c d g h ce + dg cf + dh
a b i j k ai + bl aj + bm ak + bn
 AC = ( )( )=( )
c d l m n ci + dl cj + dm ck + dn

Transpose of a matrix

The transpose of a matrix 𝐀 is denoted 𝐀𝐓 and is found by interchanging the rows and columns.

e g i l
a c
Thus AT = ( ) ; BT = ( ) and CT = ( j m)
b d f h
k n
The determinant of a matrix
The determinant of a matrix of order two is obtained as follows:
126 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 a b a b
If A = ( ) then det(A) or |A| = | | = ad − bc
c d c d
Inverse of matrix

If 𝐀 is a square matrix then a matrix B such that AB = BA = I is called an inverse of matrix 𝐀. that the inverse
of A is denoted by A−1 .A matrix A which has an inverse is called a non-singular or invertible matrix. A matrix
A is said to be invertible if det(A) ≠ 0.
a b 1 d −b
A=( ) and its inverse, if its det(A) exists, then , A−1 = det(A) ( ) Provided det(A) ≠ 0
c d −c a

Task1: In pairs,

(1) Find the value of a and b in the following matrix equation.

a+b 2 6 2
(a) ( )=( ).
5 ab 5 8
3 −5 1 b 4 6
(b) ( )+( )=( ).
2 a 3 2 5 −2

1 2
(2) Given that A = ( ) find: (i) A − 3I, (ii) A − 2I
−1 4
3 2 x 1
(3) Given that A = ( ) , X = (y) and C = ( ), use the solve the matrix equation AX = C.
5 4 −4

x+y=8
(4) Solve the following equation by matrix inverse method :{
x−y=2

2 5 3 −5
(5) Show that A = ( ) and B = ( ) are inverse matrices to each other.
1 3 −1 2
1 2 5 6
(6) Given A = ( ) and B = ( ) determine AB, 2A + B , 3B − 2A and AT
3 4 7 8
x+1 1
(7) Calculate: | |
−1 x − 1
𝑥 𝑥
(8) Find 𝑥 such that the matrix ( ) is singular.
5 3𝑥
2 3 2x + 3y = 1
(9) Fin the inverse of the matrix A = ( ). and hence deduce the solution of the system {
4 7 4x + 7y = 3

EXPECTED ANSWERS:

(1) (a)The values of a = 2 and b = 4 (b) The values of a = −4 and b = 11

−2 2
(2) (a)A − 3I = ( )
−1 1

127 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 −1 2
(c) A − 2I = ( )
−1 2
(3) Solution S = {(6, −8.5)}
(4) Solution S = {(5,3)}
(5) A And B are inverse matrices to each other if and only if
A. B = I Then
2 5 3 −5 1 0
( )( )=( ) So A and B are inverse matrices to each other.
1 3 −1 2 0 1
19 22 7 10 13 14 1 3
(6) AB = ( ), 2A + B = ( ) , 3B − 2A = ( ) and AT = ( )
43 50 13 16 12 12 2 4
(7) (x 2 )

(8) Solution 𝑆 = (0, 5⁄3)

1 7 −3
(9) A−1 = ( ) and the solution S = {(1,1)}
2 −4 2

Task2: Group discussion,

(1) Find the value of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 in the following matrix equation.

3 𝑎 1 𝑏 7 3
a) ( )( )=( ).
5 4 2 3 13 7
3 2 𝑎 4
b) ( ) ( ) = ( ).
4 3 𝑏 5
1 2
(2) Given that 𝐴 = ( ) find (i) 𝐴2 − 5𝐴 + 6𝐼.
−1 4
3 2 𝑥 2
(3) Given that 𝐴 = ( ) , 𝑋 = (𝑦) and 𝐶 = ( ), use the solve the matrix equation 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐶.
5 4 −8
7x + 9y = 3
(4) Solve the following equations.{
5x + 7y = 1
2
5 3 −5
(5) Show that A = ( ) and B = ( ) are inverse matrices to each other.
1
3 −1 2
1 −3 5 −2
(6) Given A = ( ) and B = ( ) determine AB, 2𝐴 + 𝐵 , 3𝐵 − 2𝐴 and AT
−1 4 7 8
x y cos β − sin β
(7) Simplify: a) |−y x| b) | |
sin β cos β
x−2 1
(8) Solve: a) | |=0
2 x−3
a b
(9) Show that det(M) = det(M T ), where M = ( ).
c d

7.1 SQUARE MATRICES OF ORDER THREE.

DEFINITION.

128 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 A square matrix is formed by the same numbers of rows and columns. The elements of the from (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ); where the
two subscripts 𝑖 and 𝑗are equal, constitute by the principal diagonal (or main or primary or leading diagonal).
The secondary diagonal, (or minor or anti-diagonal or counter-diagonal) is formed by the elements with
𝑖+𝑗 =𝑛+1
a11 a12 a13
Square matrix of the order three has the form:(a21 a22 a23 )
a31 a32 a33

The principal diagonal is 𝑎11 , 𝑎22 , 𝑎33 and secondary diagonal is 𝑎13 , 𝑎22 , 𝑎13
1 3 4
Matrix of the order three(2 5 −1), So the principal diagonal is 1,5,0 and the secondary diagonal is 4,5,5
5 6 0
TYPES OF MATRICES
Upper triangular matrix: Elements located the below leading diagonal are zeros.
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐
Examples: 𝑨 = (𝟎 −𝟑 𝟔 ) 𝑩 = (𝟎 −𝟏 𝟓)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟔
Lower triangular matrix: Elements located the above leading diagonal are zeros. Examples:𝐀 =
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝐎
(𝟐 𝟑 𝟎 ) 𝐁 = (−𝟒 𝟓 𝟎)
𝟓 −𝟏 −𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟒
Diagonal matrix: All elements located the above and below are zeros. Only leading diagonal, the other
elements are zeros.
𝟔 𝟎 𝟎 𝟒 𝟎 𝟎
Examples:𝑨 = (𝟎 𝟒 𝟎) 𝑩 = (𝟎 −𝟑 𝟎)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟓
Scalar matrix: Is a matrix where the leading diagonal is constant and the other elements are zeros. The
diagonal matrix with the same elements.
5 0 0
Examples:𝐴 = (0 5 0)
0 0 5
Identity matrix or unity matrix.

An identity matrix (denoted by 𝐼) is diagonal matrix which all elements of leading diagonal are equal to 1.
1 0 0
Example: 𝐼 = (0 1 0)
0 0 1
Zero or null matrix

129 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 A zero matrix is matrix where all elements are null.
0 0 0
Example of null matrix of order three:(0 0 0)
0 0 0
Equality of matrices
Two matrices are equal if the elements of the two matrices that occupy the same position are equal.
If 𝐴 = 𝐵 then𝐴𝑖𝑗 = 𝐵𝑖𝑗 .
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13
𝑎
𝑨 = ( 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) 𝑩 = (𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 )
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33

𝑨=𝑩

Then 𝒂𝟏𝟏 = 𝒃𝟏𝟏 , 𝒂𝟏𝟐 = 𝒃𝟏𝟐 , 𝒂𝟏𝟑 = 𝒃𝟏𝟑 , 𝒂𝟐𝟏 = 𝒃𝟐𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐𝟐 , 𝒂𝟐𝟑 = 𝒃𝟐𝟑 , 𝒂𝟑𝟏 = 𝒃𝟑𝟏 , 𝒂𝟑𝟐 =
𝒃𝟑𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑𝟑 = 𝒃𝟑𝟑

Task3: Individually,
(1) Write down an example of:
(a) Scalar matrix
(b) Triangular matrix
(c) Diagonal matrix

(2) Give five examples of matrices of order three.

7.1.3 OPERATION ON MATRIX

Addition and subtraction

Only matrices of the same order (dimension) cane added or subtracted. We add and subtract element of two
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13
𝑎
matrices that occupy the same position. If 𝐴 = ( 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 )
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13 a11 + b11 a12 + b12 a13 + b13
a
A + B = ( 21 a22 a23 ) + (b21 b22 b23 ) = (a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a23 + b23 )
a31 a32 a33 b31 b32 b33 a31 + b31 a32 + b32 a33 + b33
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13 a11 − b11 a12 − b12 a13 − b13
a
A − B = ( 21 a22 a23 ) − (b21 b22 b23 ) = (a21 − b21 a22 − b22 a23 − b23 )
a31 a32 a33 b31 b32 b33 a31 − b31 a32 − b32 a33 − b33

Task4: (Individually),

130 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 2 0 1 1 0 1
(1) A = (3 0 0) And B = (1 2 1) Find A + B and A − B
5 1 1 1 1 0

EXPECTED ANSWERS
2 0 1 1 0 1 2+1 0+0 1+1 3 0 2
(1) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = (3 0 0) + (1 2 1) = (3 + 1 0 + 2 0 + 1) = (4 2 1)
5 1 1 1 1 0 5+1 1+1 1+0 6 2 1

2 0 1 1 0 1 2−1 0−0 1−1 1 0 0

𝐴 − 𝐵 = (3 0 0 ) − (1 2 1) = (3 − 1 0 − 2 0 − 1) = (2 −2 −1)
5 1 1 1 1 0 5−1 1−1 1−0 4 0 1
Properties:

1. Closure: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝑀
𝐴+𝐵 =𝐶
The sum of two matrices of order three is another matrix of order three.
2. Association: (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
3. Identity matrix (additive identity) 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴 where 0 is the zero matrix of the same dimension.
4. Additive inverse(opposite)𝐴 + (−𝐴) The opposite of 𝐴is(−𝐴).
5. Commutative 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴

The matrices are the abelian group with addition operation(𝑀, +).

Scalar multiplication

Given a matrix, 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ),and a real number,𝑘 ∈ ℝ,the product of a real number by a matrix is a matrix of the
same dimension as 𝐴,and each element is multiplied by 𝑘. 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗
a11 a12 a13 ka11 ka12 ka13
If A = (a21 a22 a23 ) then kA = (ka21 ka22 ka23 )
a31 a32 a33 ka31 ka32 ka33

Task 5: Individually,
2 0 1
Consider the matrix A. A = (4 1 3 ) , Find 2A and 3A
0 −1 −3
EXPECTED ANSWERS:

2 0 1 2×2 2×0 2×1 4 0 2

2𝐴 = 2 (4 1 3 )=( 2 × 4 2 × 1 2 × 3 ) = (8 2 6)
0 −1 −3 2 × 0 2 × (−1) 2 × (−3) 0 −2 −6

131 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 2 0 1 3×2 3×0 3×1 6 0 3
3A = 3 (4 1 3 ) = (3 × 4 3 × 1 3 × 3 ) = (12 3 9)
0 −1 −3 3 × 0 3 × −1 3 × −3 0 −3 −9
Properties:

1. 𝛼(𝛽𝐴) = 𝛼𝛽(𝐴), 𝐴𝜖𝑀𝑚×𝑛 , 𝛼, 𝛽𝜖ℝ

2. 𝛼(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝛼𝐴 + 𝛼𝐵, 𝐴, 𝐵𝜖𝑀𝑚×𝑛 , 𝛼𝜖ℝ
3. (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝐴 = 𝛼𝐴 + 𝛽𝐴
4. 1𝐴 = 𝐴, 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛

Task6: In group,
Given the following matrices.
1 −2 6 8 0 9 13 −2 0
𝐴 = (2 2 −5) ,𝐵 = (14 4 6) And 𝐶 = (10 0 3)
0 4 8 0 6 7 9 1 5
Evaluate:
1. 𝐴−𝐵
2. 𝐴 + 𝐵 − 2𝐶
3. 2𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶

Transpose of matrix.

Transpose of a matrix 𝐴 is written as 𝐴𝑇 or 𝐴′ and is found by interchanging the rows and columns (switched).

If 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) then 𝐴𝑇 = (𝑎𝑗𝑖 )

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎21 𝑎31
𝑎
𝐴 = ( 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) , 𝐴𝑇 = (𝑎12 𝑎22 𝑎32 )
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎13 𝑎23 𝑎33
Task 7: Individually,
3 2 −1
1
Given the matrix 𝐴 = ( 1 4 3 ), Find a) 𝐴𝑇 b) 2𝐴𝑇 c) 3 𝐴𝑇
−2 6 5
EXPECTED ANSWER:

3 2 −1 𝑇 3 1 −2
𝑇
a) 𝐴 =( 1 4 3 ) =( 2 4 6 )
−2 6 5 −1 3 5
3 1 −2 6 2 −4
b) 2𝐴𝑇 = 2 ( 2 4 6 ) = ( 4 8 12 )
−1 3 5 −2 6 10

132 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 1 −2
1
3 1 −2 3 3
1 𝑇 1 2 4
c) 𝐴 = ( 2 4 6 )= 3
3 3 3 3
−1 3 5 −1 5
1
(3 3 )

Properties of transpose of matrices.

Let 𝐴, 𝐵 be matrices of order three.

1. (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴
2. (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇
3. (𝛼 × 𝐴)𝑇 = 𝛼 × 𝐴𝑇 , 𝛼𝜖ℝ.

Task8 : Group discussion,

1 2 3 −2 3 1
(1) Consider matrices A = (−3 −2 4) and B = ( 3 −4 2)
5 −4 7 −1 6 5

Evaluate:

(a) (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇
(b) 3𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇
(c) (−3𝐴 + 4𝐵)𝑇
1 2 𝑥2 1 4 1
(2) Find the value of 𝑥 in 𝑀 = (4 1 0 ) if 𝑀𝑇 = ( 2 1 1)
1 𝑥+3 8 𝑥2 0 8

Multiplication of matrices.

Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵can be multiplied together if and only if the number of columns of 𝐴 is equal to the
number of rows of𝐵.

𝑨𝒎×𝒏 × 𝑩𝒏×𝒑 = 𝑪𝒎×𝒑

The elements of 𝑪𝒎×𝒑,of the product matrix is obtained by multiplying every element in rows 𝒎 of a matrix 𝑨
by each elements of columns 𝒑 of matrix 𝑩 and then adding them together.
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13
If A = (a21 a22 a23 ) and B = (b21 b22 b23 )
a31 a32 a33 b31 b32 b33

133 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13
a
A × B = ( 21 a22 a23 ) × (b21 b22 b23 )
a31 a32 a33 b31 b32 b33
a11 b11 + a12 b21 + a13 b31 a11 b12 + a12 b22 + a13 b32 a11 b13 + a12 b23 +a13 b33
= ( a21 b11 +a22 b21 + a23 b31 a21 b12 +a22 b22 + a23 b32 a21 b13 +a22 b23 +a23 b33 )
a31 b11 + a32 b21 + a33 b31 a31 b12 + a32 b22 + a33 b32 a31 b13 + a32 b23 + a33 b33

Task 9: Individually,
2 0 1 1 0 1
Consider matrices A = (3 0 0)and B = (1 2 1) Find A × B
5 1 1 1 1 0
2 0 1 1 0 1
𝐴 × 𝐵 = (3 0 0 ) × (1 2 1)
5 1 1 1 1 0
2×1+0×1+1×1 2×0+0×2+1×1 2×1+0×1+1×0
= (3 × 1 + 0 × 1 + 0 × 1 3 × 0 + 0 × 2 + 0 × 1 3 × 1 + 0 × 1 + 0 × 0 )
5×1+1×1+1×1 5×0+1×2+1×1 5×1+1×1+1×0
2+1 0+1 2+0 3 1 2
= ( 3+0 0 3 + 0 ) = (3 0 3)
5+1+1 0+2+1 5+1+0 7 3 6
Properties for multiplication of matrices.

Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 be matrices of order three.

1. Closure 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐶
The product of two matrices of order three is another matrix of order three.
2. Association: (𝐴 × 𝐵) × 𝐶 = 𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶)
3. Identity matrix (multiplicative identity): 𝐴 × 𝐼 = 𝐼 × 𝐴 = 𝐴 where 𝐼 is the identity matrix of the same
dimension(order).
4. Distributive 𝐴 × (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 × 𝐵 + 𝐴 × 𝐶
5. Not Commutative: 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴
6. Transpose (𝐴 × 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 × 𝐴𝑇

Notices :

 Multiplication of matrices are not commutative

 If 𝐴𝐵 = 0 it does not necessary follow that that 𝐴 = 0 or 𝐵 = 0
 In general, the multiplication of matrices is not commutative i.e 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴,but we can have the
case where two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 satisfay 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴. In this case, 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be commuting.

Task 10: In pairs,

134 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 1 0 2 1 0 1
(1) Consider matrices A = (3 1 0) and B = (1 2 0)
0 5 4 1 1 3
Find the product.
a) 𝐴×𝐵
b) 𝐵×𝐴
c) Conclude on A. B and B. A
1 −1 1 1 2 3
(2) Given matrices A = (−3 2 −1) and B = (2 4 6) Find the product𝐴𝐵. What do you observe?
−2 1 0 1 2 3
1 0 0 2 4 0
(3) Given the matrices 𝐴 = (0 1 0) and 𝐵 = ( 3 1 0)Find the product of 𝑨𝑩 and 𝑩𝑨. What do
1 0 2 −1 −4 1
you observe?

EXPECTED ANSWERS :

(1)
1 0 2 1 0 1
a) A × B=(3 1 0) × (1 2 0)
0 5 4 1 1 3
1×1+0×1+2×1 1×0+0×2+2×1 1×1+0×0+2×3
= (3 × 1 + 1 × 1 + 0 × 1 3 × 0 + 1 × 2 + 0 × 0 3 × 1 + 1 × 0 + 0 × 3 )
0×1+5×1+4×1 0×0+5×2+4×1 0×1+5×0+4×3
1+2 0+2 1+6 3 2 7
= (3 + 1 + 0 0+2 3 + 0 ) = (4 2 3)
0 + 5 + 4 0 + 10 + 4 0 + 12 9 14 12

1 0 1 1 0 2
b) B × A = (1 2 0 ) × ( 3 1 0 )
1 1 3 0 5 4
1×1+0×3+1×0 1×0+1×1+1×5 1×2+0×0+1×4
= (1 × 1 + 2 × 3 + 0 × 0 1 × 0 + 2 × 1 + 0 × 5 1 × 2 + 2 × 0 + 0 × 4)
1×1+1×3+3×0 1×0+1×1+3×5 1×2+1×0+3×4
1+0 0+1+5 2+0+4 1 6 8
= (1 + 6 + 0 0 + 2 + 0 2 + 0 ) = (7 2 2)
1 + 3 + 0 0 + 1 + 15 2 + 0 + 12 4 16 14

c) Multiplication of matrices are not commutative because 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴.

(2)

135 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 1 −1 1 1 2 3
𝐴𝐵 = (−3 2 −1) × (2 4 6) =
−2 1 0 1 2 3
1 × 1 + (−1 × 2) + 1 × 1 1 × 2 + (−1 × 4) + 1 × 2 1 × 3 + (−1 × 6) + 1 × 3
((−3 × 1) + 2 × 2 + (−1 × 1) (−3 × 2) + 2 × 4 + (−1 × 2) (−3 × 3) + 2 × 6 + (−1 × 3))=
(−2 × 1) + 1 × 2 + 0 × 1 (−2 × 2) + 1 × 4 + 0 × 3 (−2 × 3) + 1 × 6 + 0 × 3
1−2+1 2−4+2 3−6+3 0 0 0
(−3 + 4 − 1 −6 + 8 − 2 −9 + 12 − 3) = (0 0 0)
−2 + 2 −4 + 4 −6 + 6 0 0 0
1 −1 1 1 2 3 0 0 0
𝐴𝐵 = (−3 2 −1) × (2 4 6) = (0 0 0)
−2 1 0 1 2 3 0 0 0
The observation AB = 0 it does not necessary that A = 0 or B = 0
1 0 0 2 4 0 2 4 0
(3) 𝑨𝑩 = (0 1 0) × ( 3 1 0 ) = (3 1 0)
1 0 2 −1 −4 1 0 −4 2
2 4 0 1 0 0 2 4 0
𝑩𝑨 = ( 3 1 0) × (0 1 0 ) = (3 1 0)
−1 −4 1 1 0 2 0 −4 2
Then 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑩𝑨 Observation: the given matrices commute in multiplication.

Trace of matrix

The sum of the entries on the leading diagonal of a square matrix,𝐴,is known as the trace of that matrix denoted
by 𝑡𝑟(𝐴).

Task 11: Individually,

4 3 1
1. Trace of(0 2 3) = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7
5 7 1
1 6
2. Trace of ( )= 1+4 =5
2 4
1 2 4
3. Trace of (3 6 0 )=1+6+(-4)=3
4 1 −4

Properties of trace of matrix.

1) 𝑇𝑟(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) + 𝑡𝑟(𝐵)

2) 𝑇𝑟(𝛼𝐴) = 𝛼𝑡𝑟(𝐴)
3) 𝑇𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑡𝑟((𝐴)𝑇 )
4) 𝑇𝑟(𝐴𝐵) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐵𝐴)
5) 𝑇𝑟(𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑡𝑟 (𝐵𝐶𝐴) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐶𝐴𝐵), cyclic property

136 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 6) 𝑇𝑟(𝐴𝐵𝐶) ≠ 𝑡𝑟(𝐴𝐶𝐵), arbitrary permutation is not allowed.

Task12: In group
1 0 1 −2 0 1 1 0 −1
(1) Consider the matrices A = ( 1 −1 1) , B = ( 1 0 2) and C = (−2 2 0 ) . Find:
0 0 0 −1 0 1 −1 1 0
(a) AB and BA
(b) (A × B) × C and A × (B × C)
(c) A × (B + C) and A × B + A × C
(d) Tr(AB)
cos ∅ 0 sin ∅
(2) Consider the matrix A = ( O 1 0 ) Find A × A
− sin ∅ 0 cos ∅
−3 2 −1 −4 −3 5
(3) If A = ( 2 −1 3 ) andB = (−5 −4 7 ) Find A × B
−1 1 1 1 1 −1
−5 10 8 −1 2 4
(4) Verify that if M = ( 4 −7 −6) and N = ( 2 1 −2), then MN = NM = I
−3 6 5 −3 0 5
1 −2 6 0 8 9 13 −2 0
(5) If A = (2 2 −5) , B = (14 4 6) and C = (10 0 3 ). Find : AB, AC, BC.
0 4 8 0 6 7 9 1 −5

7.2. MATRIX OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATION IN 3D.

Every linear transformation 𝑓: ℝ3 → ℝ3 can be identified with a matrix of order three, [𝑓]𝑒 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ), whose 𝑗 𝑡ℎ
column is 𝑓(𝑒𝑗 ) where{𝑒𝑗 } , 𝑗 = 1,2,3. is the standard basis of ℝ3 . The matrix [𝑓]𝑒 is called matrix representation
of 𝑓 relative to the standard basis {𝑒𝑗 }.

Task 13: In pairs,

(1) Find the matrix of f relative to the standard basis if f: ℝ3 → ℝ3 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (4𝑥 − 2𝑧, 2𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑦).
(2) Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑦 − 𝑧, 2𝑥) and the standard basis ofℝ3 is {𝑒1 = (1,0,0); 𝑒2 = (0,1,0); 𝑒3 =
(0,0,1) }, find:
(a) 𝑓(𝑒1 ), 𝑓(𝑒2 ), 𝑓(𝑒3 )
(b) Form matrix whose 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column is 𝑓(𝑒𝑗 ), 𝑗 = 1,2,3.

Excepted answers:

(1) The standard basis of ℝ3 is {𝑒1 = (1,0,0); 𝑒2 = (0,1,0); 𝑒3 = (0,0,1) }

𝑓(𝑒1 ) = (4,2,0) .𝑓(𝑒2 ) = (0,1,1) 𝑓(𝑒3 ) = (−2,0,1)

137 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 4 0 −2
Then the matrix of 𝑓 relative to the standard basis is [𝑓]𝑒 = (2 1 0 ).
0 1 1
The procedure followed if the given basis is not standard.

To find the matrix of a linear transformation (mapping) of relative to any basis {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 }, we follow the
following steps:

 Find𝑓(𝑒𝑗 ), 𝑗 = 1,2,3.
 Equalize 𝑓(𝑒𝑗 ) to 𝑒𝑖 𝑎𝑖𝑗 to find the value of𝑎𝑖𝑗
i = number of row
 The matrix of 𝑓 is [𝑓]𝑒 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ), where {
j = number of column

Task 14: Individually,

Consider the following linear mapping defined on ℝ3 by (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (4𝑥 − 2𝑧, 2𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑦) . Calculate its
matrix relative to the basis {𝑒1 = (1,1,1), 𝑒2 = (−1,0,1), 𝑒3 = (𝑜, 1,1)}.

Excepted answers:

𝑓(𝑒1 ) = (4 − 2,2 + 1,1 + 1) = (2,3,2) 𝑓(𝑒2 ) = (−4 − 2, −2 + 0,1 + 0) = (−6, −2,1) 𝑓(𝑒3 ) =
(0 − 2,0 + 1,1 + 1) = (−2,1,2)

𝑓(𝑒𝑗 ) = 𝑒1 𝑎𝑖𝑗

2 1 −1 0
 𝑓(𝑒1 ) = 𝑒𝑖 𝑎𝑖1 (3) = (1) 𝑎11 + ( 0 ) 𝑎21 + (1 ) 𝑎31
2 1 1 1

2 𝑎11 −𝑎21 0 𝑎11 − 𝑎21 = 2 𝑎11 = 𝑎21 + 2

(3) = (𝑎11 ) + ( 0 ) + (𝑎31 ) ⟹ { 𝑎11 + 𝑎31 = 3 ⟹ { 𝑎21 + 2 + 𝑎31 = 3
2 𝑎11 𝑎 21 𝑎 31 𝑎11 + 𝑎21 + 𝑎31 = 2 2𝑎21 + 𝑎31 + 2 = 2
𝑎11 = 𝑎21 + 2 𝑎11 = 1
{ 𝑎21 + 𝑎31 = 1 ⟹ {𝑎21 = −1
2𝑎21 + 𝑎31 = 0 𝑎13 = 2
−6 1 −1 0
 𝑓 (𝑒2 ) = 𝑒𝑖 𝑎𝑖2 (−2) = (1) 𝑎12 + ( 0 ) 𝑎22 + (1 ) 𝑎32
1 1 1 1
−6 𝑎12 −𝑎22 0 𝑎12 − 𝑎22 = −6
(−2) = (𝑎12 ) + ( 0 ) + (𝑎32 ) ⟹ { 𝑎12 + 𝑎32 = −2
1 𝑎12 𝑎22 𝑎32 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32 = 1
𝑎12 = −3
By the same procedure⟹ { 𝑎22 = 3 ,
𝑎32 = 1

138 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 −2 1 −1 0
 𝑓(𝑒3 ) = 𝑒𝑖 𝑎𝑖3 ( 1 ) = (1) 𝑎13 + ( 0 ) 𝑎23 + (1) 𝑎33
2 1 1 1
−2 𝑎13 −𝑎23 0 𝑎13 − 𝑎23 = −2
𝑎
( 1 ) = ( 13 ) + ( 0 ) + (𝑎33 ) ⟹ { 𝑎13 + 𝑎33 = 1
2 𝑎 13 𝑎 23 𝑎33 𝑎13 + 𝑎23 + 𝑎33 = 2

a13 = −1
By the same procedure ⟹ { a23 = 1
a33 = 2
a11 a12 a13
a
The matrix of 𝑓 is given by [f]e = (aij ) = ( 21 a22 a23 )
a31 a32 a33
1 −3 −1
Therefore [f]e = (−1 3 1)
2 1 2
Let {e⃗1 , e⃗2 , e⃗3 } be a basis of 𝑬 and let 𝑓 be any operator on 𝑬.Then, for any vector. 𝑣 ∈ 𝐸, [f]e . [v
⃗ ]e = [f(v)]e.
That is if we multiply the coordinate vector of 𝑣 by matrix representation of 𝑓,we obtain the coordinate vector of
𝑓(𝑣).

Let {𝑒𝑖 }, {𝑓𝑖 }and{𝑔𝑖 } be a basis of 𝐸, 𝑈 and 𝑉 respectively. Let 𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝑈 and 𝑔: 𝑈 → 𝑉 be linear mapping. Then,
[ gof ]e  [ f ]e .[ g ]e

That is, relative to the appropriate basis, the matrix representation of the composition of two linear mapping is
equal to the product of the matrix representation of the individual mapping.

For 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐸 and any scalar ∈ 𝐾 ,[𝑔 + 𝑓]𝑒 = [𝑔]𝑒 + [𝑓]𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 [𝛼𝑔]𝑒 = 𝛼 [𝑔]𝑒 .

Task 15: In pairs:

0 −4 3 3 0 4
Matrices representation of linear transformation f and g are 𝐴 = (−1 1 0 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (1 5 −1)
−1 4 −2 2 1 2
respectively. Find matrix representation of:

a) 4𝑓
b) 2𝑓 + 3𝑔
c) 𝑓𝑜𝑔

Excepted answers:
0 −4 3 0 −16 12
a) 4𝑓 = 4 (−1 1 0 ) = (−4 4 0)
−1 4 −2 −4 16 −8

139 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 0 −4 3 3 0 4 9 −8 18
b) 2𝑓 + 3𝑔 = 2 (−1 1 0 ) + 3 (1 5 −1) = (1 17 −3)
−1 4 −2 2 1 2 4 11 2
0 −4 3 3 0 4 2 −17 10
c) 𝑓𝑜𝑔 = (−1 1 0 ) × ( 1 5 −1 ) = ( −2 5 −5 )
−1 4 −2 2 1 2 −3 18 −12

Task 16: In groups:

(1) Find the matrix representation of the transformation 𝑓: ℝ3 → ℝ3 .

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = {3𝑥 + 2𝑦, 2𝑧 − 𝑦, 𝑧 − 𝑥}

a) Relative to the standard (canonical) basis of ℝ3 .

b) Relative to the basis {𝑒1 = (1,1,1), 𝑒2 = (−1,0,1), 𝑒3 = (𝑜, 1,1)}
3 4 1
(2) Matrices representation of linear transformation 𝑓 and 𝑔 are 𝐴 = (−1 2 0 ) and
4 −5 −3
2 3 2
𝐵 = (−1 0 3) respectively. Find matrix representation of:
1 0 2
(a) 4𝑓 − 5𝑔
(b) 𝑓𝑜𝑔
(c) 𝑔𝑜𝑓
(3) Let 𝑓be a linear operation of ℝ3 defined by 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = {2𝑦 + 𝑧, 𝑥 − 4𝑦, 3𝑥}
(a) Find matrix relative to the basis{𝑒1 = (1,1,1), 𝑒2 = (1,1,0), 𝑒3 = (1,1,0)}
(b) Verify that [𝑓]𝑒 [𝑣]𝑒 = [𝑓(𝑣)]𝑒 for any vector 𝑣 ∈ ℝ3 .
(4) Find the matrix of the following map relative to the canonical basis 𝑓: ℝ3 → ℝ3 .

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (2𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑦 − 𝑧, 2𝑥 + 4𝑦)

7.3 DETERMINANTS OF ORDER THREE.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
The determinant of a given matrix 𝑀 = (𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) 𝑀 is denoted by 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑀) .
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

The determinant of A is calculated by rule of SARRUS

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Since det(𝑀) = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎21 𝑎32 𝑎33

140 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 The terms with a positive sign are formed by the elements of the principal diagonal and those of the parallel
diagonals with its corresponding opposite vertex. The terms with a negative sign are formed by the elements of
the secondary diagonal and those of the parallel diagonals with its corresponding opposite vertex.

Or we can work out as follows: To calculate the 3x3 determinant, we rewrite the first two rows below the
determinant (or first two columns to the right of the determinant).

Task 17: Individually,

3 2 1 
 
Find the determinant of matrix  0 2  5 
2 1 4 
 

3 2 1
Expected answer: 0 2  5  (3  2 1  2  5  2  0 11)  (2  2 1  1 5  3  0  2  4)  63
2 1 4

General method of finding the determinant of matrix with 3 × 3 dimension is the use of cofactors.

Minor

An element,𝑎𝑖𝑗 , to the value of determinant of order 𝑛 − 1, obtained by deleting the row 𝑖 and the column 𝑗 in
the matrix is called a minor.
2 5 3
2 3
[1 [6] 4] → | |
2 1
2 7 1
141 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Cofactor

The cofactor of the element𝑎𝑖𝑗 is its minor prefixing:

The + sign if 𝑖 + 𝑗 is even.

The – sign if 𝑖 + 𝑗 is odd.

1 2 1
2 1
[[2] 5 4] → − | |
6 2
3 6 2
The value of a determinant is equal to the sum of the products of the element of line (row or column) by its
corresponding cofactors:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑀) = | 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 | 22
𝑎32 𝑎33 | − 𝑎12 |𝑎31 𝑎33 | + 𝑎13 |𝑎21 𝑎32 |
𝑎21 𝑎32 𝑎33

Task 18: Individually,

7 2 3 3 2 1
(1) Evaluate |4 1 5| (2) Evaluate | 0 2 −5|
2 0 3 −2 1 4

Expected answers:
7 2 3
1 5 4 5 4 1
(1) |4 1 5| = 7 | | − 2| | + 3| |
0 3 2 3 2 0
2 0 3

= 7(3 − 0) − 2(12 − 10) + 3(0 − 2)

= 7 × 3 − 2 × 2 + 3 × (−2)

= 21 − 4 − 6

= 11
3 2 1
2 −5 0 −5 0 2
(2) |0 2 −5| = 3 | | − 2| | + 1| |
1 4 −2 4 −2 1
−2 1 4

= 3(8 + 5) − 2(0 − 10) + 1(0 + 4)

= 3 × 13 − 2 × −10 + 1 × 4

= 39 + 20 + 4

= 63

Task 19: Group discussion

142 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (1) Solve the equation
𝑥−3 1 −1
a) | −7 𝑥 + 5 −1 | = 0
−6 6 𝑥−2
𝑥+3 5 6
b) | −1 𝑥 − 3 −1 | = 0
1 1 𝑥+4
(2) Find the determinant of the following matrices.
1 3 1
a) 𝐴 = (−4 5 −2)
−3 1 3
1 4 2
b) 𝐵 = (−2 0 1)
−1 3 0
1 4 −2
c) 𝐶 = (0 1 2 )
1 2 4
1 3 5 2 0 1
(3) Given that𝐴 = (2 −1 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (1 −3 2 ). Find 𝐴𝐵 and verify that 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝐵) =
4 2 1 1 1 −1
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐵).
(4) Prove that for any 3 × 3 matrix 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑀) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑀).

Properties of determinants.

1. Matrix 𝑨 and its transpose 𝐴𝑇 have the same determinant.|𝐴| = |𝐴𝑇 |.

1 2 3 1 0 3
𝑇
Eg. 𝐴 = |0 4 1| , 𝐴 = |2 4 5| , |𝐴| = |𝐴𝑇 | = −31
3 5 1 3 1 1
2. 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 0
 If 𝑨 has a pair of identical rows (columns)
1 3 2 1 2 1
Eg. |A| = |0 4 3| = 0 or |A| = | 4 0 4 | = 0
1 3 2 −1 3 −1
 All elements of a line are zero.

1 3 2
Eg. |A| = |−2 1 4| = 0
0 0 0
 The elements of a line are a linear combination of the others.

2 3 2
Eg. |𝐴| = |1 2 4| = 0 𝑟3 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
3 5 6
143 | P a g e MATH S5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 3. A triangular matrix determinant is the leading diagonal elements.
1 2 3
Eg. |𝐴| = |0 3 −1| = 1 × 3 × 5 = 15
0 0 5
4. If matrix switches two parallel lines, its determinant changes sign.
1 2 3 0 4 1
Eg. |𝐴| = |0 4 1| = − |1 2 3|
3 5 1 3 5 1
5. If the elements of a line are added to the elements of another parallel line previously multiplied by a real
number, the value of the determinant is unchanged.
2 1 2 2 1 7
Eg. |1 2 0| = 16 𝑟3 = 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 |1 2 4 | = 16
3 5 6 3 5 17
6. If determinant is multiplied by a real number, any line can be multiplied by the above mentioned number,
but only one.
1 0 3 2×1 0 3 2 0 3
Eg. 2 × |2 4 5| = |2 × 2 4 5| = |4 4 5| = −62
3 1 1 2×3 1 1 6 1 1
1 0 3
2 × |2 4 5| = 2 × (−31) = −62
3 1 1
7. If all elements of line are formed by two added the above mentioned determinant decomposes in the sum
of two determinants.

2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2
Eg: |𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎+𝑐 𝑎+𝑑 | = | 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 | + |𝑏 𝑐 𝑑|
3 5 6 3 5 6 3 5 6
8. The determinant of a product equals the products of determinants.
|𝐴 × 𝐵| = |𝐴| × |𝐵|
1 2 1 3 −1 1
Let 𝐴 = (2 4 8) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (0 4 1)
3 2 3 3 2 2
6 9 5 6 9 5
𝐴 × 𝐵 = (30 30 22) |𝐴 × 𝐵| = |30 30 22| = 72
18 11 11 18 11 11
1 2 1 3 −1 1
|𝐴| = |2 4 8| = 24 , |𝐵| = |0 4 1| = 3
3 2 3 3 2 2
|𝐴| × |𝐵| = 24 × 3 = 72

Task 20: Group discussion

In 1-3, evaluate the determinants.
144 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 2 1 −5 1 −2 3 1 0 −2
1. (a)|3 7 0 |, (𝑏) |2 1 0|, (𝑐) |2 7 3 |
4 2 1 4 7 1 1 4 0
1 5 7 1 7 11 17 34 119
2. (𝑎) |2 3 1 |, (𝑏) |2 17 23|, (𝑐) |26 221 91 |
7 21 23 7 54 79 7 7 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
3. (𝑎) |0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 |, (𝑏) | 𝑥 1 0| , (𝑐) | − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 0 |
0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑦 𝑧 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼

7.3.1. Matrix inverse

If 𝑨 is a square matrix then a matrix 𝐴−1 such that 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼 is called an inverse of matrix 𝑨.

A matrix 𝐴 which has an inverse is called a non-singular or invertible matrix. A matrix 𝐴 is said to be
invertible if 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0.

The matrix inverse of matrix 𝐴is equal to the inverse value of its determinant multiplied by the adjoint matrix.
𝟏
𝐀−𝟏 = 𝐚𝐝𝐣(𝐀)
|𝐀|

Where 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) is the adjoint (also called (adjugate) matrix which is the transpose of the cofactor matrix. The
cofactor matrix is found by replacing every element in matrix 𝐴 by its cofactor.

Task 21: Individually,

1 1 1 2 0 1
Find the inverse of𝐴 = (1 1 −1), and 𝐵 = (3 0 0)
1 −2 3 5 1 1
Expected answers:
(a) We find the inverse as follows:
1 1 1
i) |𝐴| = |1 1 −1| = −6
1 −2 3
ii) Cofactor of each element:

1 −1 1 −1 1 1
𝑐(1) = | |=1 𝑐(1) = − | | = −4 𝑐(1) = | | = −3
−2 3 1 3 1 −2
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑐(1) = − | | = −5 𝑐(1) = | |=2 𝑐(−1) = − | |=3
−2 3 1 3 1 −2
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑐(1) = | | = −2 𝑐(−2) = − | |=2 𝑐(3) = | |=0
1 −1 1 −1 1 1
145 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
The cofactors matrix is
1 −4 −3 1 −5 −2
𝑐𝑜𝑓(𝐴) = (−5 2 3 ) , and then 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = (−4 2 2)
−2 2 0 −3 3 0
1 −5 −2
1 1
The matrix inverse of A is A−1 = |A| Adj(A) = −6 (−4 2 2)
−3 3 0
−1 5 2
−1 1
𝐴 = 6 ( 4 −2 −2).
3 −3 0
(b) We find its inverse as follows:
2 0 1
i) |𝐵| = |3 0 0| = 3
5 1 1
ii) Cofactors of each element:
0 0 3 0 3 0
𝑐(2) = | |=0 𝑐(0) = − | | = −3 𝑐(1) = | |= 3
1 1 5 1 5 1
0 1 2 1 2 0
𝑐(3) = − | | = 1 𝑐(0) = | | = −3 𝑐(0) = − | | = −2
1 1 5 1 5 1
0 1 2 1 2 0
𝑐(5) = | |=0 𝑐(1) = − | |=3 𝑐(1) = | |=0
0 0 3 0 3 0
The cofactor matrix is
0 −3 3 0 1 0
𝑐𝑜𝑓(𝐵) = (1 −3 −2), and then 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐵) = (−3 −3 3)
0 3 0 3 −2 0
0 1 0
1 1
The matrix inverse of A is B−1 = |A| adj(B) = 3 (−3 −3 3)
3 −2 0
1
0 0
3
Therefore,𝐵 −1 = (−1 −1 1)
2
1 −3 0

Task 22: Group discussion.

Find the inverse of the following matrices:
1 −1 2 1 −10 7 3 3 −1
1. 𝐴 = (1 2 3) 3. 𝐶 = ( 1 4 −3) 5. 𝐸 = (−6 2 2)
3 0 1 −1 2 −1 −1 −1 3
2 1 7 2 1 0 1 𝑝 𝑞
2. 𝐵 = (3 4 5) 4. 𝐷 = (3 7 5) 6. 𝐹 = (0 1 𝑟 )
1 −2 9 1 17 15 0 0 1

Properties of the inverse matrix

146 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 For the two invertible matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵

1. 𝐴𝐵 −1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1
2. (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴
3. (𝛼𝐴)−1 = 𝛼 −1 𝐴−1
4. (𝐴𝑇 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )−1

Task 23: In pairs

1 1 −2 0 1 0
(1) Consider the matrix 𝐴 = (0 1 −1) , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (2 −2 0) , Find
3 0 0 1 1 1
𝑎) 𝐴 −1 and 𝐵 −1 𝑏) (𝐴𝐵)−1 𝑐)(3𝐵)−1 𝑑) (𝐵𝑇 )−1
1 0 2 1 −1 1
(2) Given that A = (2 1 0) , and B = (0 2 1), Find
3 1 1 1 3 0

𝑎) 𝐴−1 , 𝑏) 𝐵 −1 , 𝑐) (𝐴𝐵)−1 , 𝑑)(4𝐴)−1

Expected answers:
1
0 0
0 0 1 3
1
(1)a) |𝐴| = 3, 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = (−3 6 1) , 𝐴−1 = −1 2 3
−3 3 1 1
−1 1
( 3)

1
−2 −1 0 −1 2 0
|𝐵| = −2, 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐵) = (−2 0 −1
0 ),𝐵 = ( 1 0 0)
1
4 1 −2 −2 − 2 1

1 1 1
1
−1 2 0 0 0 −2 1
3 2
−1 −1 −1 1 1
b) (𝐴𝐵) =𝐵 𝐴 =(1 0 0) −1 2 3
= 0 0 3
1
−2 − 2 1 −1 1
1
−2 0
1
−2
1
( 3) ( )
−1 1 1
−1
1
0 −3 0
6
2 1
1 1
c)(3𝐵)−1 = 3 𝐵 −1 = 3 ( 1 0 0) = 3
0 0
1
−2 − 2 1 2
−3 −6
1 1
( 3)

1 𝑇
−1 2 0 −1 1 −2
1 1
d) (𝐵 𝑇 )−1 −1 𝑇
= (𝐵 ) = ( 1 0 0) = ( 2 0 − 2)
1
−2 − 2 1 0 0 1

147 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 1 2 −2 −1 −2 2
(2) a) |𝐴| = −1, 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = (−2 −5 4 ) , 𝐴−1 = ( 2 5 −4)
−1 −1 1 1 1 −1
3 3 −3 −3 −3 3
1
b)|𝐵| = −6, 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐵) = ( 1 −1 −1) , 𝐵 −1 = 6 (−1 1 1)
−2 −4 2 2 4 −2
1
0 −1 − 2
−3 −3 3 −1 −2 2
1 2 4 5
c) (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1 = 6 (−1 1 1 )( 2 5 −4) = 3 3
−6
2 4 −2 1 1 −1 2 7 5
−3
(3 3 )
1 1 1
−4 −2
−1 −2 2 2
−1 1 −1 1 1 5
d) (4𝐴) = 4𝐴 = 4( 2 5 −4) = −1
2 4
1 1 −1 1 1 1
−4
( 4 4 )
Task 24: (Group discussion)
2 1 0 −1 2 0
(1) Given matrices. A = (1 5 2) and B = ( 1 3 2), Find
2 −1 1 2 0 1

𝑎) 𝐴−1 And 𝐵 −1 𝑏) (𝐴𝐵)−1 𝑐)(3𝐵)−1 𝑑)(𝐵 𝑇 )−1 𝑒) (2𝐴)−1 𝑓)(𝐴𝑇 )−1 .

3 7 2 2 −2 1
(2) Consider the following matrices 𝐴 = (1 0 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = ( 3 1 6), Find
0 1 1 −1 1 1
1. 𝐴−1 and 𝐵 −1 2. (𝐴−1 )−1 3. (𝐴𝑇 )−1 4. (10𝐴)−1

1 0 0 1 4 −2
−1 −1 −1
(3) Find the 𝐴 of the matrix 𝐴 = (−1 1 0). Find also 𝐵 and (𝐴𝐵) where 𝐵 = (0 1 3 ).
3 2 1 0 0 1
7.4 APPLICATIONS
The solution of the following system of three linear equations in three unknowns.
𝑎11 𝑥 + 𝑎12 𝑦 + 𝑎13 𝑧 = 𝑏1 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑥 𝑏1
𝑎
{𝑎21 𝑥 + 𝑎22 𝑦 + 𝑎23 𝑧 = 𝑏2 can be written in the form ( 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) (𝑦) = (𝑏2 ) ⟹ 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝑎31 𝑥 + 𝑎32 𝑦+𝑎33 𝑧 = 𝑏3 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑧 𝑏3

Then 𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑩, provide that where 𝐴−1 exists.

Remarks:

 I at least one of 𝑏𝑖 is different from zero the system is said to be non-homogeneous and if all 𝑏𝑖 are zero,
then system is said to be homogeneous.
 The set of values of 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 that satisfy all the equations of system (1) is called solution of system.
148 | P a g e M A T H S 5 M A T H T E A C H E R S G R O U P
  For the homogeneous system, the solution 𝒙 = 𝒚 = 𝒛 = 𝟎 is called trivial solution, other solution are
non-trivial solution.
 Non -homogeneous system cannot have a trivial solution as at least on of 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 is not zero.

Alternative method: Cramer’s rule.

Consider the system:
𝑎11 𝑥 + 𝑎12 𝑦 + 𝑎13 𝑧 = 𝑏1
{𝑎21 𝑥 + 𝑎22 𝑦 + 𝑎23 𝑧 = 𝑏2
𝑎31 𝑥 + 𝑎32 𝑦+𝑎33 𝑧 = 𝑏3
We use Cramer’s rule as follows:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏1 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑏1 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑏1
𝛥 = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | , 𝛥𝑥 = |𝑏2 𝑎22 𝑎23 | , 𝛥𝑦 = |𝑎21 𝑏2 𝑎23 | , 𝛥𝑧 = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑏2 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑏3 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑏3 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑏3

𝚫 𝚫 𝐲 𝚫𝐳
Solution is {(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳)} = {( 𝚫𝐱 , , 𝚫 )}
𝚫

Remarks:

If and only if Δ = 0
0
i) 𝛥𝑥 = 𝛥𝑦 = 𝛥𝑧 = 0 The solution means indeterminate.
0

ii) 𝛥𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝛥𝑦 ≠ 0, 𝛥𝑧 ≠ 0 The solution is impossible.

Task 25: In pairs

(1) Solve the following equation by inverse matrix.
𝑥+𝑦−𝑧=3
a) { 3𝑥 −𝑦+𝑧 = 1
−2𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =6
b) { 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 10
𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0
(2) Use Cramer’s to solve the system. {3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0

Expected answers:
(1)

149 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 𝑥+𝑦−𝑧=3
a) { 3𝑥 −𝑦+𝑧 = 1
−2𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
1 1 −1 𝑥 3 𝑥
(3 −1 1 ) (𝑦) = (1) ⟹ (𝑦) = 𝐴−1 𝐵
−2 1 1 𝑧 0 𝑧
−2 −2 0 2 2 0
1
|𝐴| = −8, 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = (−5 −1 −4) So 𝐴−1 = ( 5 1 4)
8
1 −3 −4 −1 3 4
𝑥 2 2 0 3 8
1 1
(𝑦) = 8 ( 5 1 4) (1) = 8 (16), Then solution is 𝑆 = {(1,2,0)}
𝑧 −1 3 4 0 0
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =6
b) { 2𝑥 +𝑦−𝑧=1
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 10
1 1 1 𝑥 6 1 1 1 𝑥 6
(2 1 −1) (𝑦) = ( 1 ) , 𝐴 = (2 1 −1) , 𝑋 = (𝑦) , 𝐵 = ( 1 )
3 2 1 𝑧 10 3 2 1 𝑧 10
We find the inverse of 𝐴. |𝐴| = −1 ≠ 0 then 𝐴has inverse.

Let used another method:

1 1 1
We have 𝐴 = (2 1 −1) To find its inverse, suppose that its inverse is given by
3 2 1
𝑎 𝑑 𝑔
−1
𝐴 = (𝑏 𝑒 ℎ ) Then we know that 𝐀𝐀−𝟏 = 𝐈
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 =1
{ 2𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 0 (1)
3𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑑+𝑒+𝑓 =0
{2𝑑 + 𝑒 − 𝑓 = 1 (2)
3𝑑 + 2𝑒 + 𝑓
𝑔+ℎ+𝑖 =0
{ 2𝑔 + ℎ = 𝑖 = 0 (3)
{ 3𝑔 + 2ℎ + 𝑖 = 1

We solve these three systems to find value of 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆, 𝒇, 𝒈, 𝒉 and 𝒊.

𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 =1 𝒂 = −𝟑 𝑑+𝑒+𝑓 =0 𝒅 = −𝟏
{ 2𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 0 ⟹{ 𝒃=𝟓 {2𝑑 + 𝑒 − 𝑓 = 1 ⟹{ 𝒆=𝟐
3𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 𝒄 = −𝟏 3𝑑 + 2𝑒 + 𝑓 𝒇 = −𝟏

150 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 𝑔+ℎ+𝑖 =0 𝒈=𝟐 −3 −1 2
−1
{ 2𝑔 + ℎ = 𝑖 = 0 ⟹ {𝒉 = −𝟑 Then 𝐴 =( 5 2 −3)
3𝑔 + 2ℎ + 𝑖 = 1 𝒊=𝟏 −1 −1 1
𝑥 −3 −1 2 6 1
𝑋 = (𝑦) = ( 5 2 −3 ) ( 1 ) = ( 2) Therefore solution 𝑆 = {(1,2,3)}
𝑧 −1 −1 1 10 3
𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0
(2) {3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2

1 −2 −3 0 −2 −3
𝛥 = |3 5 2 | = −22, 𝛥𝑥 = |0 5 2 | = 22
2 3 −1 2 3 −1
1 0 −3 1 −2 0
𝛥𝑦 = |3 0 2 | = −22, 𝛥𝑧 = |3 5 0| = 22
2 2 −1 2 3 2
𝜟𝒙 𝟐𝟐
Hence, by Cramer’s rule,𝒙 = = −𝟐𝟐 = −𝟏
𝜟

𝜟𝒚 −𝟐𝟐
𝒚= = −𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏
𝜟

𝜟𝒛 𝟐𝟐
𝒛= = −𝟐𝟐 = −𝟏
𝜟

Solution 𝑆 = {(−1,1, −1)}

Task 26: (Group discussion)

(1) . Solve the following systems by using inverse matrix.
3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧=3
a) { − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 𝑐) { 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1
7𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0 4𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4
4𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
b) {𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2 𝑑) { 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
5𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 4 −3𝑥 − 9𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
(2) Solve the following system by using Cramer’s rule.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 7 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 7
a) { 3𝑥 + 𝑦 = −2 𝑐) { 3𝑥 + 𝑦 = −2
5𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 12 5𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 10
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧=6 7𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = −1
b) {2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1 𝑑) { 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
𝑥−𝑦+𝑧=2 𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 4.
(3) Find the condition for the simultaneous equations below to have no solution.

151 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 = 2
{ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1
7𝑥 + 8𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 𝑘

(4) for what value of 𝑎 𝑏 the following system of equations.

2x + 3y + 5z = 9
{ 7x + 3y − z = 1 Will have
4x + 3y + az = b

a) No solution
b) Unique solution.
c) More than one solution.

7.5. END OF UNIT ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions)

 3 1 3  10 2 3 
   
(1) If A   1 0  6  and B   1  4 6  , find A  B, A  B, A  B and A  B  2C
0 0 2  0 6 4 
 

(2) Find the matrix of the following map relative to the canonical basis IR3  IR3

f x, y, z   2 x  y, y  z,2 x  4 y 

(3) Let f be a linear operator on IR3 defined by f x, y, z   2 y  z, x  4 y,3x 

(a) Find the matrix of f in the basis e1  1,1,1, e2  1,1,0, e3  1,0,0

(b) Verify that  f e ve   f v e for any vector v in IR3 .

1 0 0 
 
(4) Find the inverse of: A  1 1 0 
1 1 1 
 

1 0 0  0 1 1 1 0 0
     
(5) Using matrix inverse method , solve AX  2B  3C if A  1 1 0  , B   1 0 0  and C   0 1 0 
1 1 1  0 0 1 1 0 1
     

 x yz 3   x  y  z  4
 
(6) Use matrix inverse method to solve: (a)  2 x  y  1 (b) 3x  10 y  z  10
4 x  y  z  4  4x  y  z  2
 

1 1 3 
 
(7) If f ( x)  x  20 x  8 , find f (A) if A   1
3
3  3
 1  4  4
 

152 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  1 3 4
 
(8) Find the condition of 𝑘 such that A   3 k 6  be non-singular matrix. Obtain A1 for k  1
 1 5 1 
 

 1 2 1 
 
(9) If A   0 1 2 
 1 0  2
 
(a) Show that A3  4 A  7 I  O where I,O are the unit and the null matrix of order 3 respectively. Use this
result to find A1 .
 2 
 
(b) Find the matrix X such that AX   1 
 7
 

 2  2 1 2 x  2 y  z  18
  
(10) Given A   1 1  2  , find A3 and hence solve the system  x  y  2 z  2
 3 1  3 3x  y  3z  10
  

2  t 1 3 
 
(11) Find, in terms of t , the determinant of the matrix A   1 1  t 1 
 1 1  2  t 
 
(12) . If A is a square matrix of order 3 such that det( A)  x , find the value of:

(a)  
det A2

(b) det 2 A

(c)  
det An , n  IZ

(d) det mA, m  IR

UNIT 8: POINTS, STRAIGHT LINES, PLANES AND SPHERE IN 3D

8.1. POINTS IN 3 DIMENSIONS

(a) Location of a point in space
In Unit 6, we have discussed position of a point in 3D. The position of point in space is determined by three
numbers x, y, z obtained with reference to three straight

153 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

Suppose that we need to represent the point A (2,3,5) in space.

Task 1: (Group discussion),

Represent in space:

(a) Points O(0,0,0), A(1,4,5), B(5,2,1)

 
(b) Vector OA, u  3,4,2

(c) The segment CD for C  4,5,3 and D6,4,2

Expected answer:

Task 2: (Group discussion),

Represent the following points in space: A1,1,1, B 1,2,3, C3,4,1 , D 2,1,2, F 3,2,1, G 2,0,1

(b) Coordinates of a midpoint of a segment and centroid of a geometric figure

Coordinates of a midpoint of a segment

154 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 The point halfway between the end points of a line segment is called the midpoint. A midpoint divides a line
segment into two equal parts.

Let the points x1 , y1 , z1  and x2 , y2 , z2  be the end points of a line segment, then the midpoint of that segment is

 x  x y  y2 z1  z2 
given by the formula: M   1 2 , 1 , 
 2 2 2 

Centroid of a geometric figure

The centroid of geometric figure is the arithmetic mean (average) position of all points in the shape. It is also
called barycenter or geometric Centre or Centre of gravity.

Let x1 , y1 , z1  , x2 , y2 , z2  , x3 , y3 , z3  , ……….., xn , yn , zn  be n points of space, their centroid is given by the

 x  x  x  ....  xn y1  y2  ....  yn z1  z2  ....zn 

formula C   1 2 3 , , 
 n n n 

Task 3: (In pairs),

(1) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining 1,2,3, 3,2,1

(2) Determine the centroid of the triangle built from the points 1,4,2,  1,3,4 and 2,5,6

Expected answers:

1 3 2  2 3 1
(1) M  , ,   2,2,2
 2 2 2 

 1  (1)  2 4  (3)  5 2  4  6   2 
(2) C  , ,    ,2,4 
 3 3 3  3 

Task 4: (Group discussion),

(1) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining segment
(a) 1,3,6 and  1,4,5 (c) 11,2,4 and 1,3,5
(b)  9,8,2 and 2,3,8 (d) 6,2,0 and 0,0,1
(2) Find the centroid of the figure built from the points
(a) 6,2,0 , 2,4,6 and 0,0,1 (c)  5,4,10 , 1,3,2 , 0,3,7 and 2,5,9
(b) 2,3,8 , 1,4,6 and 3,0,4 (d)  2,3,1 , 2,4,1 , 0,3,0 and 4,4,9
(c)The ratio formula
Let P be a point on the line joining point A and point B. P divides this line internally (means that it lies between A
and B) in the ratio 𝒎: 𝒏, we have

155 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 mB  nA
,Then P 
mn

Let point P divide the line externally (meaning that it does not lie between A and B) in the ratio 𝒎: 𝒏, we have

mB  nA
Then P 
mn

Task 5: (Individually),

Find the position of the point P which divides AB 

(a) internally in the ratio 1:3

(b) externally in the ratio 2:5

Expected answers:

B  3A 1 3
(a) Since 𝑚 = 1 and 𝑛 = 3, P   B A
1 3 4 4
2B  5 A 5 2
(b) Since 𝑚 = 2 and 𝑛 = 5, P   A B
25 3 3

Task 6: (Group discussion),

(1) For A (2, 1, 5) and B (4, 3, 7) determine the point that divides AB in the ratio of 2:3 internally.
(2) Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line joining (1,2,3) to (3, −4,5) in the ratio 5:6.
(3) Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line joining (5,4,2) to (−1, −2,4) in the ratio 2:3
(4) Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line joining (2,3,−5) to (1, −4,−6) in the ratio a) 2:3
internally b) 2:3 externally.
(5) P 1,1,1, Q1,3,2 and R5,11,8 are three points in a straight line. Find the ratio in which Q divides PR.

8.2. STRAIGHT LINES IN 3 DIMENSIONS

8.2.1. Equations of lines
In the plane, a line is determined by a point and a number giving the slope of the line. In 3-dimensional space, a
line is determined by a point and a direction given by a parallel vector, called the direction vector of the line.

(a) Line defined by a position vector and a direction vector


A line which is parallel to the vector v  a, b, c  and passing through the point P with position vector

OP  x0 , y0 , z0  has:

 Vector equation

156 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

   
OQ  0 P r v or x, y, z   ( x0 , y0 , z0 )  r a, b, c  or
     
   
x i  y j  z k  x0 i  y0 j  z0 k  r  a i  b j  c k  where r is a parameter.
 
 Parametric equations
 x  x0  ra

 y  y0  rb
 z  z  rc
 0

 The Cartesian equations (or symmetric equations)

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
From the parametric equations, solving for 𝑟 we get  
a b c

Task 7: (Individually),

(1) Find the vector, parametric and symmetric equations of the line L passing through the point A3,2,4 with

direction vector u  2,3,5 .

(2) Write down the symmetric equations of the line L passing through the point A2,1,4 with direction vector

u  1,0,2 .

Expected answers:

(1) Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point on the line, O0,0,0 be the origin and 𝑡 is a parameter . Then
Vector equation:
     
L  OP  OA t u with OP  x, y, z  , OA3,2,4 and u  2,3,5

 x   3   2
           
   
Or L   y     2   t  3  or L  x i  y j  z k  3 i  2 j  4 k  r  2 i  3 j  5 k 
 z   4  5  
     

 x  3  2t

Parametric equations: L   y  2  3t
 z  4  5t

Symmetric equations:
x3 y  2 z 4
Eliminating the parameter t gives,  
2 3 5

157 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 x 3 y  2
 2  3  3x  9  2 y  4 3x  2 y  13  0
Or we can take any two equations   
x 3 z 4 5 x  15  2 z  8  5 x  2 z  7  0
 
 2 5

x  2 y 1 z  4 x2 z4
(2) Symmetric equations:   or simply  , y 1
1 0 2 1 2

Task 8: (Group discussion),

Find the vector, parametric and symmetric equations of the line L passing through

(a) The point A(1,1,1) with direction vector u  2,1,3 .

(b) The point A(-2,3,1) with direction vector u  2,1,3 .

(c) The point A(9,3,0) with direction vector u  1,1,6 .

(d) The point A(4,5,2) with direction vector u   3,2,1 .

(b) Line defined by two position vectors

A line passes through points Px0 , y0 , z0 , Qx1 , y1 , z1  and V x2 , y2 , z2  any point on the line has:

 x   x0   x1  x0 
     
  
Vector equation: OV  OP r PQ  y    y0   r  y1  y0 
z z   z z 
   0  1 0

 x  x0  r x1  x0 

Parametric equations:  y  y0  r  y1  y0 
 z  z  r z  z 
 0 0

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
The symmetric equations:  
x1  x0 y1  y0 z1  z0

 a x  b1 y  c1 z  d1
Note: Also the equation of a straight line in space may be represented by  1 and the direction
a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2
  
i j k
 b1 c1 a1 c1 a1 b1 
vector of this line is given by  , ,  or a1 b1 c1
 b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2 
a2 b2 c2

158 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 Task 9: (In pairs),
(1) Find vector, parametric and symmetric equations of the line M passing through the points 𝐴(3, −2,5) and
𝐵(1,4, −2).
(2) Find the parametric and Cartesian equation of the line 𝐿 passing through the point 1,4,2 and parallel to

3x  6 y  2 z  15
the line whose equations are 
 2x  y  2z  5

Expected answer:

(1) Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point on the line, O0,0,0 be the origin and 𝑡 is a parameter.

Also we find the direction vector, which is AB   2,6,7 

 x   3    2
        
Vector equation: OP  OA r AB or M   y     2   r  6 
 z   5   7
     

 x  3  2t

Parametric equations: M   y  2  6t
 z  5  7t

x 3 y  2 z 5
Symmetric/Cartesian equations: Eliminating the parameter t gives,  
2 6 7
x 3 y2
 2  6    6 x  18  2 y  4  M   3x  y  7  0
Or we can take two equations:   
x 3 z 5  7 x  21  2 z  10 7 x  2 x  11  0
 
 2 7

3x  6 y  2 z  15
(2) Given the point 1,4,2 and the line whose equations 
 2x  y  2z  5
  
i j k
 6 2  3 2  3 6    
The direction vector of the line is u  3  6  2  i j k  14 i  2 j  15 k
1 2 2 2 2 1
2 1 2

 x  1  14t
 x 1 y  4 z  2
Hence L   y  4  2t or L   
 z  2  15t 14 2 15


Task 10: (Group discussion),

Find vector, parametric and symmetric equations of the line M passing through the points
159 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (a) A2,1,4 and B3,1,1
(b) A2,1,4 and B6,3,2
(c) A1,1,3 and B2,5,4
(d) A1,1,1 and B4,5,6

8.2.2. Condition of co-linearity of 3 points

The three points Aa1 , a2 , a3 , Bb1 , b2 , b3  and C c1 , c2 , c3  are collinear (meaning that they lie on the same line) if

a1 b1 c1
their determinant is zero. That is a2 b2 c2  0
a3 b3 c3

Alternative method:
Three points A, B and C are collinear if the vectors formed from these points are linearly dependent.
 
That is, AB  k AC , k  IR0 .

Task 11: (In pairs),

Prove that points A2,1,3 , B4,3,5 and C 6,7,7 are collinear.

Expected answer:

2 4 6
The points A, B, C are collinear if 𝐝𝐞𝐭(𝐀, 𝐁, 𝐂) = 𝟎, thus  1 3 7  42  84  30  54  70  28  0
3 5 7

Thus, the three points are collinear.

Alternative method

 2  4
       1 
AB  2,4,2, AC  4,8,4 , solve the equation  4   k  8  we have 8k  4  k  . We see that AB  AC or
1
 2  4 2 2
   
 
AC  2 AB Thus, the three points are collinear.
Task 12: (Group discussion),

(1) Find the value of 𝑚 for which the points  1,2,3 , 2,1,5 and 5,0, m are collinear.

(2) Verify if the points A2,3,1 , B5,4,3 and C 2,1,2 are collinear.

(3) Show that the point A1,1,1 , B3,2,4 and C  1,0,2 are collinear and find the equations, in parametric
form, of the line they lie on.
160 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 8.2.3. Relationships between lines

Parallel lines
The two lines are parallel if their direction vectors are equal or are scalar multiples.

If two lines are parallel, there are two possible cases: the lines may be identical or strictly parallel.

 If you find a point on one line which does not lie on the other, the two lines are strictly parallel
 if you find a point on one line which lie on the other, the lines are identical.

Skew lines
Two lines may be skew, which means that they do not intersect, but are not parallel.

Task 13: (In pairs),

 x  3t  x  5  2t
 
(1) Determine if the lines are parallel, intersect, skew or identical: L1   y  2  2t , L2   y  2  4t
 z  4t  z  1  2t
 

 x  3  2t  x  4s
 
(2) Determine if the lines intersect. If so, find the point of intersection. L1   y  2t , L2   y  3  5s
 z  4t  z  2s
 
(3) Find parametric equations of line passing through the point  1,0,1 and parallel to the line

 x  2r

L2   y  1  2r . Are the two lines identical or strictly parallel?
 z  3  3r

(4) Determine whether the following lines are identical or parallel and distinct
 x  2r  x  3t
 
L1   y  1  2r and L2   y  3  2t
 z  3  3r  z  6  3t
 

161 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  x  1 t  x  1  2s
 
(5) Determine if the lines intersect. If so, find the point of intersection. L1   y  2  3t and L2   y  2  4s
 z  4  3t  z  1 s
 
z 5    
(6) Prove that the lines x  1  2  y  and r  2 i  3 j    2 k are skew.
2

Expected answer:
   
(1) The direction vectors are u  1,2,1 and v   2,4,1 (coefficients of parameter).We see that v  2 u ,
meaning that the two lines are parallel.

Let see if they are identical:

 3  5  2t  t  1


For L1 t  0 we get the point 3,2,4 , replace in L2 and solve for t 2  2  4t  t  1
 4  1  2t  t  3

 2
Since the values of t are not equal , hence the L1 and L2 are parallel and distinct.
 
(2) Direction vectors are v1  2,2,1 and v2   1,5,1 . Since v2  kv1 the lines are not parallel. Thus, they
either intersect or they are skew lines.
 3  2t  4  s...(1)

To find out if they intersect we solve the system  2t  3  5s....(2)
 4  t  2  s.....(3)

From the first two we get 𝒕 = 𝟏, 𝒔 = −𝟏 and verify if these values satisfy equation (3)
4  1  2  (1)
hence there is a point of intersection.
33
For L1 if t  1, 5,2,3 and for L2 if s  1, 5,2,3 which is the point of intersection.

 x  1  t


(3) Since the two lines are parallel, the direction vector of L1 is u  1,2,3 , thus L1   y  2t
 z  1  3t

Now, let us check if there is a common point for two lines.
  1  2  r  r  3

For L1 if t  0 we have the point  1,0,1 , replace it in L2 we get 0  1  2r  r  1 / 2
1  3  3r  r  2 / 3

Since the values of r are different hence the two lines are parallel and distinct.

162 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

    
(4) The direction vector for L1 is u  1,2,3 and for L2 v   1,2,3 . We see that v   u meaning that the
two lines are parallel.
To determine if they are distinct or identical, we need to check if there is a common point.
 2  3t  t 1

For L1 if r  0 we have the point 2,1,3 , replace it in L2 we get 1  3  2t  t  1
3  6  3t  t  1

Since the values of t are equal there is a common point 2,1,3 , Hence, the two lines are identical.
 
(5) The direction vector for L1 is v1  1,3,3 and for L2 v2   2,4,1 . Since v2  kv1 the lines are not
parallel. Thus, they either intersect or they are skew lines.
 1  t  1  2s...(1)

To find out if they intersect we solve the system 2  3t  1  4s....(2)
 4  3t  1  s.....(3)

 1  t  1  2s
Solve the first 2 equations we get  t s 0
2  3t  1  4s

Verify if these values satisfy equation (3),

4  0  1 0
means that there is no point of intersection and hence, the given lines are skew lines.
4 1
  
(6) Direction vector of first line is u  1,2,2 and direction v  2,0,1 vector of second line is v  2,0,1 .
 
u  k v , then the two lines are not parallel.
 x  1 t  x  2
 
Parametric equations of first line is  y  2  t and that of second line is  y  3
 z  5  2t  z  2  
 

 1  t  2

These two lines meet when  2  t  3
 5  2t  2  

From the first two equations, t  5 and   3 but these values do not verify the third equation since
 5  2(5)  2  3
.Therefore, the lines are skew.
5 1

Task 14: (Group discussion),

163 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 In each of the following, decide whether the given lines are skew or they intersect. If they intersect, find the
coordinates of their common point.

x7 z  12
(a) 4 x  4 y  z  3 and  y 5 
2 6
   
       
   
(b) r  2 i  3 j  13 k    2 i  2 j  3 k  and r   i  3 j  5 k    3 i  2 j  2 k 
   
x 1 y  2 z 1
(c)  y  1  z  2 and x  4  
2 3 2
 x y  z 3 0 x 1 y 1 z 1
(d) L and M   
2 x  y  z  2  0 2 1 3

8.2.4. Angle between two lines

The angle between two lines is the acute angle (angle which lies between 0 and 90 degrees) between their
 
direction vectors, say u and v .

  
     
   
Since the dot product of u and v is u . v  u . v cos  , thus cos     or   cos 1    
u.v u.v
 
u.v  u.v 
 

Task 15: (In pairs),

(1) Calculate the angle between the lines AB and AC for A1,2,3, B4,5,6 and C 3,2,30
(2) Find the angle between the lines:
 x  1 t  x  1  2t
 
(a) L1   y  4  t and L2   y  1  t to the nearest hundredth of a radian
 z 8  z  1  2t
 

 x  6  2t  x  2t
 
(b) L1   y  8  2t and L2   y  1  2t to the nearest hundredth of a radian
 z  7  t  z  1 t
 

Expected answers:
 
(1) Line AB and AC has the direction vector u  3,33 and v  2,0,3

164 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

    
Since u . v  3  2  3  0  3   3  3 , u  32  32  32  27 and v  22  02  (3) 2  13

 3 
Therefore   cos 1    99.20 which is not acute. Thus   1800  99.20  80.80
 27 13 
 
(2) (a) For L1 , u  1,1,0 and for L2 , v  2,2,1
   
u . v  1 2  2  2  0   1  6 , u  12  12  02  2 and v  22  22  (1) 2  9  3

 6 
Therefore   cos 1    45
0

3 2 
 
(b)For L1 , u  2,1,2 and for L2 , v  1,2,1
   
u . v  2 1  1 2   21  2 , u  22  12  (2) 2  3 and v  12  22  (1) 2  6

 2 
Therefore   cos 1    74.210
 3 6 

Task 16: (Group discussion),

Find the angle between the lines

 x  1 t  x  4  6t
 
(a) L1   y  10  2t and L2   y  1  3t to the nearest degrees
 z  2  2t  z  1  2t
 
x  2 y 1 z x 1 y z
(b) L   and M   
2 1 1 1 2 1
2 x  3 y  z  1  0 3x  y  z  3  0
(c) L and M  
 x  y  2z  2  0  x  y  3z  1  0
x  1 y 1 z  2  x yz  0
(d) L   and M  
1 2 3 2 x  y  3z  1  0

8.2.5. Distance from a point to a line

Consider the following figure

165 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 The distance from point Bb1 , b2 , b3  to the line L passing through point Aa1 , a2 , a3  with direction vector
 


AB u
u  c1 , c2 , c3  is d B, L   
u

Task 17: (Individually),

 x  2t

Find the distance from the point Q1,3,2 to the line given by the parametric equations: L   y  1  t
 z  3  2t


Expected answer:

Direction vector of the line is u  1,1,2 and if we let t=0, the point on L is P2,1,3

  
i j k
    
Thus PQ   1,4,5 , then PQ u   1 4  5  3 i  3 j  3 k
1 1 2

 
PQ u
32  32  32
Hence d Q, L  
27

  unit lengths
u 12  (1) 2  22 6

Task 18: (Group discussion),

Find the distance from the point to the line

(a) 0,0,12, x  4t, y  2t, z  2t

(b) 2,1,3, x  2  2t, y  1  6t, z  3
 x  2  2
(c) 1,3,2, L   y  1  
 z  1  2


(d) 1,2,3, x  2  y 3 z 4

4 4 2

8.2.6. Shortest distance between two skew lines

To find the shortest distance between two skew lines we proceed the following steps:
 Write the parametric form of any point of each given line.

166 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 
 Find the vector w joining the points in parametric form which will be the vector in the direction of the
common perpendicular of both lines.
 Find the dot product of this vector and the direction vector of each line must be zero.
 Find the value of parameters
 Replace the values of the parameters into the two points
 Then, the distance between these two points is the required shortest distance between the two lines.

Note: If two lines intersect (not skew lines), the shortest distance is zero.

Task 19: (Group discussion),

x y 3 z x 5 y 8 z  2
(1) Find the shortest distance between the skew lines:   and  
1 1 1 3 7 1
(2) Find the equations to the common perpendicular to the following skew lines
x 5 y 7 z 3 x  9 y  13 z  15
  and  
3  16 7 3 8 5

Expected answers:

(1) Any point on first line is r ,3  r ,r  and that on second line is 5  3t ,8  7t ,2  t 
     
Then u . w  0 and v . w  0 . Since u  1,1,1 and v  3,7,1

 5  3t  r  5  7t  r  2  t  r  0

15  9t  35  49t  7r  2  t  r  0
 11t  3r  8  t  1
 
59t  11r  48 r  1
The points on two lines where the common perpendicular passes are  1,2,1 and 2,1,3

That is, the required distance is d  (2  1)2  (1  2) 2  (3  1) 2  14

 
(2) Direction vectors are u  3,16,7  and v  3,8,5

Any point on first line is 5  3r,7  16r,3  7r  and any point on the second line is 9  3t ,13  8t ,15  5t 

The vector joining these two points is w  4  3t  3r ,6  8t  16r ,12  5t  7r 
   
Now, u . w  0 and v . w  0
12  9t  9r  96  128t  256r  84  35t  49r  0

 12  9t  9r  48  64t  128r  60  25t  35r  0

167 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  154t  314r  0  t  0
 
 96t  154r  0 r  0
Now, the points on two lines where the common perpendicular passes are 5,7,3 and 9,13,15 , its direction
 
vector is w  4,6,12 or w  2,3,6

 x  5  2

Hence the equation is  y  7  3 and the shortest distance is d  (9  5)2  (13  7)2  (15  3)2  14
 z  3  6


Task 20: (Group discussion),

  
  
(1) Find the shortest distance between the skew lines L1  r  5 i  3 j    2 i  j  and
 
  
  
L2  r  2 i  9 k    2 j  k 
 
(2) Verify if the following lines are skew and find the shortest distance between them:
 x  1  4t  x  2  8t
 
(a)  y  5  4t and  y  4  3t
 z  1  5t  z  5t
 
x  8 y  10 z  6 x 1 y 1 z 1
(b) L   and M   
2 3 1 1 2 4

8.3. PLANES IN 3 DIMENSIONS

8.3.1. Equations of planes
In space, a plane is determined by a point and two direction vectors which form a basis (linearly independent
vectors). It is denoted by  ,  ,  ,.....

(a) Plane defined by a position vector and two direction vectors

 
The plane containing point Px0 , y0 , z0  with u  x1 , y1 , z1  and v  x2 , y2 , z2  as two independent direction

vectors and X x, y, z  any point on this plane, has

Vector equation

168 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  x   x0   x1   x2 
           
OX  OP r u  s v or  y    y0   r  y1   s y2  where 𝒓 and 𝒔 are the parameters.
z z  z  z 
   0  1  2

 x  x0  rx1  sx2

Parametric equations  y  y0  ry1  sy2
 z  z  rz  sz
 0 1 2

x  x0 x1 x2
Cartesian/ symmetric equation is given by y  y0 y1 y2  0
z  z0 z1 z2

We can also find the Cartesian equation by finding the value of two parameters in the first two equation of
parametric equations and put them in the third equation.

(b) Plane defined by two position vectors and a direction vector


The plane containing point Px0 , y0 , z0  and Q  x1 , y1 , z1  with the direction vector v  x2 , y2 , z2  and

X x, y, z  any point on this plane, has

Vector equation

 x   x0   x1  x0   x2 
       
   
OX  OP r PQ  s v or  y    y0   r  y1  y0   s y2  where 𝒓 and 𝒔 are the parameters.
z z   z z  z 
   0  1 0  2

 x  x0  r ( x1  x0 )  sx2

Parametric equations  y  y0  r ( y1  y0 )  sy2
 z  z  r ( z  z )  sz
 0 1 0 2

x  x0 x1  x0 x2
Cartesian/ symmetric equation is given by y  y0 y1  y0 y2  0
z  z0 z1  z0 z2

(c) Plane defined by three position vectors

The plane containing point Px0 , y0 , z0  and Q  x1 , y1 , z1  with the direction vector N  x2 , y2 , z2  and

X x, y, z  any point on this plane, has

Vector equation

169 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  x   x0   x1  x0   x2  x0 
           
OX  OP r PQ  s PN or  y    y0   r  y1  y0   s y2  y0  where 𝒓 and 𝒔 are the parameters.
z z   z  z   z  z 
   0  1 0  2 0

 x  x0  r ( x1  x0 )  s( x2  x0 )

Parametric equations  y  y0  r ( y1  y0 )  s( y2  y0 )
 z  z  r ( z  z )  s( z  z )
 0 1 0 2 0

x  x0 x1  x0 x2  x0
Cartesian/ symmetric equation is given by y  y0 y1  y0 y 2  y0  0
z  z0 z1  z0 z 2  z0

Task 21: (Individually),

(1) Find vector, parametric and Cartesian equations of the plane,  passing through A2,7,1 with direction
 
vectors u  3,1,1 and v   1,2,3 .

(2) Find the vector, parametric and Cartesian equation of plane β containing points A3,2,1 , B4,2,7

with the direction vector u  1,1,3 .

(3) Find the vector, parametric and Cartesian equation of plane β containing points A1,3,5 , B 2,5,4 and

C 3,6,5 .
(4) Given the point A1,1,1, B2,3,4 , C 3,1,4 , P3,0,3 and Q5,1,6 The coordinates of point M which
belongs to the plane ABC and on line PQ are to be determined in as many ways as possible.
(a) Write the parametric equations of plane ABC and the line PQ. Deduce the value of parameters of point M
and the coordinates of M.
(b) Write Cartesian equations of plane ABC and of line PQ. Deduce the coordinate of M.

Expected answers:

(1) Let X x, y, z  represent any point of plane α. r and s be the parameters.

 x   2   3   1 
           
The vector equation is   OX  OA r u  s v or    y    7   r  1   s  2 
 z    1  1    3 
       

 x  2  3r  s

The parametric equation is    y  7  r  3s
 z  1  r  3s

Cartesian equation

170 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 From the parametric equations, use the first two equations to find the values of the parameters r and s
 2x  y  3
 x  2  3 r  s  r 
5
   y  19
 y  7  r  2 s s 
x 3
 5
Now, replace those values of s and r in the third equation:
2 x  y  3 3x  3 y  19
z 1 
5 5
 x  8 y  59
z
5
And finally we have   x  8 y  5z  59  0

Alternative method for determining Cartesian equation:

x  2 3 1
  y7 1 2  0
z 1 1  3
  x  2 3   y  7  1   z  1 6  2x  2  9 y  7 
 3x  6  y  7  6 z  6  z  1  2 x  4  9 y  63  0
  x  8 y  5 z  59  0
And finally,   x  8 y  5z  59  0

(2) One of the direction vectors is AB  B  A  1,4,8

Let X x, y, z  represent any point of plane α. O0,0,0 is the origin and r and s be the parameters.
The vector equation:
 x   3   1  1
          

OX  OA r AB  t u or  y     2   r  4   t  1 
 z    2   8   3
       

 x  3 r t

Parametric equations:  y  2  4r  t
 z  2  8r  3t


Cartesian equation

171 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

   x y 5
 x  3 r t r  3
 
 y  2  4 r  t 4 x  y  14

 3

  x  y  5   4 x  y  14 
z  1  8   3 
 3   3 
 3  8 x  8 y  40  12 x  3 y  42
z
3
4x  5 y  5
z ,
3
And finally,   4 x  5 y  3z  5  0

Alternative method
x 3 1 1
  y2 4 1  0
z 1 8 3
   12 x  36  8 y  16  z  1  4 z  4  8 x  24  3 y  6  0
And finally,   4 x  5 y  3z  5  0
 
(3) Let A be the starting point. Then, the two direction vectors are AB   3,2,1 and AC  2,9,10
The vector equation:
 x   1    3  2 
         
 
  OX  OA r AB  t AC or  y    3   r  2   t   9 
 z   5    1    10 
       

 x  1  3r  2s

Parametric equations:  y  3  2r  9s
 z  5  r  10s

Cartesian equation
 11  2 x  3 y
 x  1  3r  2t....  2  s 23
 
 y  3  2r  9t...  3  9 x  2 y  15
r 
 23
Now,
  9 x  2 y  15   11  2 x  3 y 
z  5   10 
 23   23 
 23z  115  9 x  2 y  15  110  20  30 y
 29 x  32 y  23z  10  0
172 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Then the Cartesian equation is   29 x  32 y  23z  10  0
Alternative method,
x 1  3 2
  y 3 2 9  0
z 5  1  10
 20x  1   1 y  3  27z  5  4z  5  9x  1  30 y  3  0

 20 x  20  2 y  6  27 z  135  4 z  20  9 x  9  30 y  90  0
 29 x  32 y  23z  10  0
Then   29 x  32 y  23z  10  0
 
(4) Direction vectors of the plane ABC are AB  1,2,3 and AC  2,2,3 where A is the starting point.

The direction vector of line PQ is PQ  2,1,3

 x  1  r  2t

(a) The parametric equations of plane ABC are ABC   y  1  2r  2t
 z  1  3r  3t


 x  3  2s

The parametric equations of line PQ are PQ   y  s
 z  3  3s

Point M lies on plane ABC and on line PQ, then we need to equate the parametric equations of plane ABC and
line PQ.
 1  r  2t  3  2s  r  2t  2s  2
 
That is;  1  2r  2t  s   2r  2t  s  1
1  3r  3t  3  3s 3r  3t  3s  4
 

r  2 / 3

Thus, the values of parameters for point M to lie on both plane and line are   t  1 / 3
 s  1

Replace these values on the parametric equations of the line x  1, y  1, z  0

Hence, the coordinates of M are 1,1,0

(b) Cartesian equations of plane ABC

173 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 x 1 1 2
ABC  y  1 2  2  0
z 1 3 3
ABC  12 x  3 y  6 z  9  0

x 3 z 3
Cartesian equations of line y
2 3
Coordinates of M: From Cartesian equations of the line PQ, we have
 x  3  2 y 3  9  6 y
 x  3  3x   3  3 y
 2
2
Putting these values into the Cartesian equation of the plane ABC, we have
12(3  2 y)  3 y  6(3  3 y)  9  0  y  1

And then x  1, z  0 , hence M 1,1,0

Task 22: (Group discussion),

(1) Find vector, parametric and Cartesian equations of the plane, α , passing through the point A2,4,1 with
 
direction vectors u  1,3,1 and v  2,1,3

(2) Find the vector, parametric and Cartesian equation of plane β containing points A2,1,1, B 2,4,3 and

the direction vector u  4,2,1 .

(3) Find vector, parametric and Cartesian equation of plane β passing through points: A3,6,0, B1,0,1 and

C 5,1,7 .

Note: The general equation of the plane is ax  by  cz  d , a, b, c   0,0,0 . This equation is also called the
scalar equation of the plane.

8.3.2. Condition of co-planarity of four points:

Consider four points a1 , a2 , a3  , b1 , b2 , b3  , c1 , c2 , c3  and d1 , d 2 , d3  .These points are coplanar (meaning that
they lie on the same plane) if the following condition is satisfied.

a1 b1 c1 d1
a1  d1 b1  d1 c1  d1
a2 b2 c2 d2
 0or a2  d 2 b2  d 2 c2  d 2  0
a3 b3 c3 d3
a3  d 3 b3  d 3 c3  d 3
1 1 1 1

Task 23: (Individually),

174 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  9 
Show that the points 4,0,0 , 0,6,0 , 0,0,3 and 1, ,0  are coplanar
 2 

Expected answer:

4 1 0 1 0 1 3 1 1
9 9 9 9 3 9  27   27 
0 6 0       0  0   0  0    0
2 2 2 2 2 2  2   2 
00 00 30 0 0 3

Thus, the given points are coplanar.

Task 24: (Group discussion),

(1) Determine if the points A1,2,3 , B4,7,8 , C 3,5,5 , D 1,2,3 and E 2,2,2 are coplanar.

(2) Calculate the value of 𝑥 for the coplanar set of points A0,0,1 , B0,1,2 , C  2,1,3 ,and Dx, x  1,2 are
coplanar.
(3) What is the condition for 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 so that the points A1,0,1 , B1,1,0 , C 0,1,1 ,and Da, b, c  are
coplanar?
(4) Calculate the value of a for the points a,0,1 , 0,1,2 , 1,2,3 ,and 7,2,1 so that they are coplanar. Also,
calculate the equation of the plane that contains them.

8.3.3. Position of a line and a plane

  
Consider the line L whose direction vector u and the plane α whose direction vectors v and w .

A line L is perpendicular to plane α if and only if:

      
 u is perpendicular to v and w ( u  v and u  w )
   
 u . v  0 and u . w  0
 
 Since u is perpendicular to the plane α u is called normal or orthogonal vector of the plane.
   
 The normal vector n of the plane is given by n  v  w .

 the Cartesian equation of plane passing through the point a1 , a2 , a3  with normal vector n  a, b, c  is

given by ax  a1   b y  a2   cz  a3   0

A line and a plane are parallel if the direction vector of the line is perpendicular to the normal vector of the
plane.

Task 25: (In pairs),

175 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (1) Find the Cartesian equation of plane α passing through the point 2,3,4 and perpendicular to the line

defined by the points A1,5,7  and B 2,2,3 .

(2) Find the equation of plane β passing through the point P6,1,9 and perpendicular to the line

 4 x  3  5 z  13

6 x  7 y  4 z  23

(3) Find the equation of plane passing through the point A2,3,6 with the vectors u   1,5,5 and

v  4,4,1 as directions vectors.

 x  2  2t

(4) Show that the plane 2 x  y  3z  4 is parallel to the line  y  1  4t
 z4


 x  1 t

(5) Consider the plane 2 x  y  4 z  4 and the line  y  4  2t . Find all points of intersection.
 zt


 xt

(6) Consider the plane 2 x  y  4 z  4 and the line  y  2  3t . Find all points of intersection.
 zt


 xt

(7) Consider the plane 2 x  y  4 z  4 and the line  y  4  2t . Find all points of intersection.
 zt


Expected answers:

(1) Direction vector of the line AB is AB  B  A   3,3,4

Since line AB is perpendicular to the plane , n   3,3,4
Thus,
  3x  2  3 y  3  4z  4  0
  3x  3 y  4 z  13  0
  
i j k
   
(2) The direction vector of the line is u  4  3 5  23 i  46 j  46 k   23,46,46
6 7 4


We can take u  1,2,2 since  23,46,46  231,2,2

176 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 Then the equation of plane is
  x  6  2 y  1  2z  9  0
  x  2 y  2 z  10  0
  
i j k
       
(3) The normal vector n of the plane is n  u  v  u   1 5 3  17 i  13 j  16 k  17,13,16
4 4 1

Then the equation of plane is

  17x  2  13 y  3  16z  6  0
  16 x  13 y  16 z  169  0
 
(4) Normal vector of the place n  2,1,3 and direction vector of the line is u  2,4,0
 
n . u  4  4  0  0 thus the line is parallel to the plane.
For 𝑡 = 0, the point  2,1,4 is on the line.

Plague  2,1,4 into the plane we get 2 2  1 1  34  4  15  4
?

Then, this point does not lie on the plane. Hence, the line and the plane are parallel and distinct.
(5) The direction vector of the line is 1,2,1 and the normal vector of the plane is 2,1,4

We see that 1,2,1

. 2,1,4  2  2  4  0
Then the line is parallel to the plane. So the line may be contained in the plane or strictly parallel to the plane.

For the line if t=0, we get 1,4,0 replace it into the plane we get 21  14  40  4  6  4
?

Then, this point does not lie on the plane. Hence, the line and the plane are parallel and distinct.
(6) The direction vector of the line is 1,3,1 and the normal vector of the plane is 2,1,4

We see that 1,3,1

. 2,1,4  2  3  4  0 .
Then the line intersects the plane. So there is a point of intersection.
Insert the parametric equations of the line into the plane to obtain the point of intersection
2t  2  3t   4t  0  t  2
Now, using t =2 into equations of the line we get 2,8,2

(7) The direction vector of the line is 1,2,1 and the normal vector of the plane is 2,1,4

We see that 1,2,1

. 2,1,4  2  2  4  0
Then the line is parallel to the plane. So the line may be contained in the plane or strictly parallel to the plane.

For the line if t=0, we get 0,4,0 replace it into the plane we get 20  14  40  4  4  4
?

177 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 Thus the line is contained on the plane and all the points of the line are the points intersection.

Task 26: (Group discussion),


   
(1) Find equation of plane through point 0,2,1 normal to n   3 i  2 j  k 
 
(2) Find equation of plane through point P2,4,5 perpendicular to the line x  5  t , y  1  3t , z  4t
(3) Determine whether the line x  3  8t , y  4  5t , z  3  t is parallel to the plane x  3 y  5z  12 .

(4) Find parametric equations of the line through 5,0,2 that is parallel to the planes x  4 y  2 z  0 and
2x  3 y  z  1  0
x 1 y z
(5) Find the intersection between the line   and the plane x  2 y  3z  1  0
2 1 1
x 1 y z  2
(6) Find the intersection between the line   and the plane  x  3 y  2 z  5  0
5 1 1
(7) Find the intersection between the line x  1  t , y  3t , z  1  t and the plane 2 x  2 y  3z  6
(8) Find the intersection between the line x  0, y  t , z  t and 6 x  y  4 z  0

8.3.4. Angles of lines and planes

(a) Angle between a line and a plane

 
The angle  between a line with a direction vector u and the plane with normal vector n is given by
  
 
1  n . u 
  sin  
 
 n.v 
 
(b) Angle between two planes

   
 
 
1  n . m 
The angle  between two planes whose normal vectors n and m is given by   cos
   
 n.m 
 

Task 27: (In pairs),

178 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  x  1 r

(1) Find the angle between the plane x  y  z  4 and the line  y  1  2r
 z  1  3r

(2) Find the angle between the planes x  y  z  4 and x  2 y  3z  5

Expected answers:
 
(1) The normal vector to the plane is n  (1,1,1) and the direction vector of the line u  1,2,3

 1.1  1.2  1.3 

Then   sin 1    67.80
 3 14 
 
 1.1  1.2  1.3 
(2) The normal vectors are n  (1,1,1) and m  (1,2,3) , then   cos 1    22.20
 3 14 

Task 27: (Group discussion),

(1) Find the angle between the planes: x  y  1 and 2 x  2 y  z  5

(2) Find the angle between the planes: 2 x  2 y  2 z  3 and 2 x  2 y  z  5
x 1 y  1 z
(3) Determine the angle between the line   and the plane x  y  1  0
2 1 2
x  3 y  z  3  0
(4) Determine the angle between the line  and the plane 2 x  y  3z  1  0
2x  y  z 1  0
 y2
(5) Determine the angle between the line  and the plane x  1
3x  3 z  0

8.3.5. Shortest distance from a point to a plane

ab1  bb2  cb3  d

The distance from point B Bb1 , b2 , b3  to plane   ax  by  cz  d is given by d B,   
a 2  b2  c2

Transform an equation of a plane to a normal equation

The equation lx  my  nz  t  0 is called normal equation of the plane if l.l  m.m  n.n  1

ax  by  cz  d
Given the plane   ax  by  cz  d , the normal equation is given by   0
a 2  b2  c2

179 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 2
2  2
For example: 0.5 x  0.5 y  z  5  0 is called normal equation of the plane since 0.52  0.52    1

2  2 

Shortest distance between two planes

When calculating the distance between two planes:

 Check if the planes are parallel.

 If they are not, they intersect and the distance is zero.
 If they are parallel, find an arbitrary point in one of the planes and calculate its distance to the other
plane.
 If two planes coincide (identical) the shortest distance is zero.

Shortest distance between a line and a plane

When calculating the distance between a line and a plane:

 Check if the line is parallel to the plane.

 If not, they intersect and the distance is zero.
 If they are parallel, find a point on the line and calculate its distance to the plane.

Task 28: (In pairs),

(1) Find the distance from the point P(2,4,7) to the plane   3x  5 y  6 z  18
(2) Calculate the distance between the two planes   2 x  3 y  3z  12 and   6 x  9 y  9 z  27

 x  2  2t

(3) Find the shortest distance between the plane   2 x  y  3z  4 and the line L   y  1  4t
 z4


Expected answers:

3  2  5  4  6  7  18
The distance d P,   
34
(1)  units of length
3  5  (6)
2 2 2
70
 
(2) Their normal vectors of the planes are n  2,3,3 and m   6,9,9
 
Since m  3 n ,the planes are parallel
Let x  y  0 , z  3 , the point on the second plane is P0,0,3

2  0  3  0  3  3  12
Now the distance between the two planes is d P,   
21
 units of length
22  (3) 2  32 22

(3) Check if the line is parallel to the plane.

180 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  
The normal vector to the plane is n  2,1,3 and the direction vector of the line u  2,4,0
 
Since n . u  2  2  1 4  3  0  0 , then, the line and the plane are parallel.
For the line if t  0 the point is A 2,1,4

2  (2)  (1)  3  (4)  4

Then the distance between a line and a plane is d  A,   
19
 Units of length
2  (1)  3
2 2 2
14

Task 29: (Group discussion),

(1) Find the distance from the point (2, −3,4) to the plane x  2 y  2 z  13
(2) Find the distance from the point (0, −1,0) to the plane 2 x  y  2 z  4
(3) Find the shortest distance between the planes x  2 y  6 z  1 and x  2 y  6 z  10
(4) Find the shortest distance between the planes  2 x  y  z  0 and 6 x  3 y  3z  0

8.3.6. Projection of a line onto the plane

To find the projection of the line AB on the plane α, we need a plane β containing the given line AB and
perpendicular to the given plane α.

Task 30: (Individually),

x 1 y 1 z  3
Find the equation of the projection of the line   on the plane x  2 y  z  12
2 1 4

Expected answers:

A point on the given line is P1,1,3 and The direction vector of the line is u  2,1,4

The normal vector of the given plane is n  1,2,1

Any plane  through the given line is ax  1  b y  1  cz  3  0

  2a  b  4c  0
Since this plane is perpendicular to u and n , 
 a  2b  c  0

Solve this simultaneously we get a  9, b  2, c  5

Hence the plane   9x  1  2 y  1  5z  3  0 or   9 x  2 y  5z  4  0

181 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  x  2 y  z  12
Therefore the equation of the projection is given by 
9 x  2 y  5 z  4

Task 31: (Group discussion),

x  15 y  12 z  17
(1) Determine the projection of the line   on the plane 13x  9 y  16 z  69  0
15  15 11
x 1 y 1 z  7
(2) Determine the projection of the line   on the plane 2 x  3 y  z  30  0
2 2 1

8.3.7. Finding image of a point onto the plane

When finding the image of a point P with respect to the plane α, we need to:

 Find the line L, through point P and perpendicular to the plane α.

 Find the intersection N of line L and plane α.
 Now, if Q is the image of P, the point N is the midpoint of PQ. Then find the coordinate of Q.

Task 32: (Individually),

Find the image of the point P2,3,4 with respect to the plane 4 x  2 y  4 z  3  0

Expected answers:

 x  2  4t


Direction vector of the line is equal to n  4,2,4 , hence L   y  3  2t
 z  4  4t


Putting these values in the equation of the plane and solving for t ,

11
8  16t  6  4t  16  16t  3  0  t 
36
Back to the parametric equations of the line, we have

 x  2  4 11 / 36  x  58 / 18
 
 y  3  2 11 / 36   y  43 / 18
 z  4  4 11 / 36  z  50 / 18
 

 58 43 50 
Hence intersection of the plane and its perpendicular line passing through the given point is  , , 
 18 18 18 

 2  a 3  b 4  c   58 43 50 
Let the image of P2,3,4 be Qa, b, c  , then  , ,  , , 
 2 2 2   18 18 18 

 40 16 14 
Solving for a, b, and c we get Q , ,  which is the image of P.
 9 9 9
182 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 Task33:(Groupdiscussion)
Find the orthogonal projection of the point 5,6,3 onto the plane 3x  2 y  z  2  0

FURTHER EXERICISES

(1) Find the intersection of   2 x  y  3z  2 and   2 x  y  3z  21

(2) Find the intersection of   6 x  10 y  14 z  38 and   3x  5 y  7 z  19
(3) Find the intersection of   4 x  3 y  7 z  3 and   5x  2 y  6 z  25

3x  7 y  4
(4) Given the Cartesian equations of the line L   , find the direction vector
 5x  2 z  1
(5) Find the equation of the intersection line of planes 3x  6 y  2 z  15 and 2 x  y  2 z  5 in standard
form.
(6) Find the equation of plane γ passing through the point A(3,5,2) and perpendicular to the plane
 4x  y  z  4
(7) Find the equation of plane β passing through the point P(5,8,1) and parallel to the plane
  3x  5 y  7 z  12
(8) Find the equation of plane β passing through the points A3,2,1 and B0,5,3 , perpendicular to the
plane 3x  4 y  6 z  13
(9) Find the intersection between   5x  7 y  8z  57 ,   4 x  y  9 z  78 and   9 x  8 y  7 z  77 .

ANSWERS:
 
(1) The normal vectors are n  2,1,3 and m  4,2,6
 
Since m  2 n and 2  21 the two planes are parallel and distinct and hence no intersection between them.
(2) We see that   23x  5 y  7 z  19  2 So, the two planes coincide and the intersection is any one of
them.
 
(3) The normal vectors are n1  4,3,7  and n2  5,2,6
 
n1 and n2 are not proportional, hence the two planes intersect at a line.
  
i j k
   
Direction vector of the line is u  4  3 7  4 i  59 j  23 k  4,59,23
5 2 6

4 x  3 y  7 z  3
For the equation  , let z  0 , solving for others gives x  3, y  5
5 x  2 y  6 z  25
183 | P a g e M A T H S 5 M A T H T E A C H E R S G R O U P
Thus, the point on the line is (3,5,0)
 x  3  4r

The equations of the line of intersection are  y  5  59r , r is a parameter
 z  23t

  
i j k
   
(4) u  4  7 0  14 i  6 j  35 k   14,6,35
5 0 2

  
i j k
   
(5) Direction vector of intersection line is u  3  6  2  14 i  2 j  15 k  14,2,15
2 1 2

3x  6 y  2 z  15
For the equation  , let z  0 , solving for others gives x  3, y  1
 2x  y  z  5
Thus, the point on the line is (𝟑, −𝟏, 𝟎)
x  3 y 1 z  3
Hence the equation is  
14 2 15
 
(6) The normal vector of plane  n1   4,1,1 , let also the normal vector of the plane  is n1  a, b, c 
Since the planes are perpendicular  4a  b  c  0
If a  1, b  2, c  5

Then   1x  3  1 y  5  5z  2  0 or   x  y  5z  18

(7) Since the planes are parallel, they have the same normal vector.
Then,   3x  5  5 y  8  7z  1  0 or   3x  5 y  7 z  12

(8) The direction vector of the plane is AB  3,3,2

Since the planes are perpendicular then n  3,4,6 is another vector parallel to the plane β
Thus
x - 3 y - 2 z 1
  -3 3 -2  0
3 -4 6
  18x  3  6 y  2  12z  1  9z  1  8x  3  18 y  2  0
  10 x  12 y  3z  51  0
(9) The intersection of 3 planes is point, is obtained by solving the system

184 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 5 x  7 y  8 z  57

 4 x  6 y  9 z  78 , gives the point 3,8,2
 9 x  8 y  7 z  77


8.4. SPHERE IN 3 DIMENSIONS

8.4.1. Equation of a sphere
A sphere is the locus of a point in space which remains at a constant distance called the radius from a fixed
point called the Centre of the sphere.

The equation of a sphere of Centre (𝒌, 𝒍, 𝒎) and the radius 𝒓 is given by x  k 2   y  l 2  z  m2  r 2

The general equation of a sphere is: x 2  y 2  z 2  ax  by  cz  d  0

 a b c 1 2
From this equation, the Centre is C   , ,  and radius is given by r  a  b 2  c 2  4d
 2 2 2  2

Task 34: (Individually),

(1) Find the equation of the sphere whose Centre is (−6,1,3) and radius 4.
(2) Find the coordinates of Centre and radius of the sphere 4 x 2  4 y 2  4 z 2  8x  16 y  20 z  9  0

(3) Find the equation of sphere which passes through the points 1,2,3 , 0,2,4 , 4,4,2 and 3,1,4 .

(4) Prove that the equation of sphere described on the line segment joining the points 2,1,4 and  2,2,2

as diameter is x 2  y 2  z 2  x  2 y  14  0

Expected answers:
(1) The required equation is given by:
 x  6   y  1  z  3  42
2 2 2

 x 2  y 2  z 2  12 x  2 y  6 z  30  0
(2) We put this equation in general form by dividing both sides by 4.
9
That is, x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  4 y  5 z  0
4

 2 4 5  5 1 9
Now the Centre is C   , ,   1,2,  and radius is given by r  (2) 2  42  52  4   3
 2 2 2  2 2 4

 5
Thus, the Centre is 1,2,  and the radius is 3.
 2
Alternative method

We could get the Centre and radius by completing the squares.

185 | P a g e M A T H S 5 M A T H T E A C H E R S GROUP
 9
x2  y 2  z 2  2x  4 y  5z  0
4
    
 x2  2x  y 2  4 y  z 2  5z    9
4
2
 5  25
 x  1  1   y  2   4   z   
9

2 2

 2 4 4
2
 5
 x  1   y  2    z      1  4 
2 2 9 25
 2 4 4
2
 5
 x  1   y  2    z    9
2 2

 2
2
 5
 x  1   y  2    z    32
2 2

 2

 5
Thus, the Centre is 1,2,  and the radius is 3.
 2

(3) Let the equation of sphere be x 2  y 2  z 2  ax  by  cz  d  0

Substituting these four points into this equation gives:
 1  4  9  a  2b  2c  d  0  a  2b  3c  14
 0  4  16  0  2b  4c  d  0   2b  4c  d  20
 
  
16  16  4  4a  4b  2c  d  0 4a  4b  2c  d  36
 9  1  16  3a  b  4c  d  0  3a  b  4c  d  26

Solving gives a  4, b  2, c  2 and d  8

Thus, the equation is x 2  y 2  z 2  4 x  2 y  2 z  8  0

(4) The midpoint of the points 2,1,4 and  2,2,2 which is the center of the sphere is

 2  2 1  2 4  2   1 
 , ,    0, ,1
 2 2 2   2 
The radius of the sphere is a half the distance between the given two points:
1 1 1
r (2  2) 2  (2  1) 2  (2  4) 2  16  9  36  61
2 2 2
2 2
 1 1 
The equation of sphere is x  0   y    z  1  
2 2
61 
 2 2 

Or x 2  y 2  z 2  x  2 y  14  0 as required.

Task 35: (Group discussion)

(1) Find the equation of the sphere with:

186 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

(a) Centre 1,2,3 and radius 4

(b) Centre 3,1,1 and radius 3

(c) Centre 4,0,1 and radius 7

(2) Find the Centre and radius of the sphere:
(a) x 2  y 2  z 2  22 x  6 y  66  0

(b) x 2  y 2  z 2  8x  16 y  14 z  93  0

(c) 3x 2  3 y 2  3z 2  54 y  18z  318  0

(3) Describe the sets of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the given inequalities:
(a) x2  y 2  z 2  4

(b) x2  y 2  z 2  2x  6 y  2

8.4.2. Position of point and sphere

Consider a sphere S with radius r and Centre C a, b, c  and any point Pa1 , a2 , a3 

 If d C, P   r ,the point lies inside the sphere S

 If d C, P   r ,the point lies on the sphere S.

 If d C, P   r , the point lies outside the sphere S.

Task 36: (Individually),

Find the position of point A(4,5,6) and the sphere x  2   y  1  z  1  37  0

2 2 2
(1)

Describe the position of point A1,2,1 and the sphere x  1   y  2  z  1  56

2 2 2
(2)

(3) Describe the position of point P(1,2,3) and the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  4 x  2 y  2 z  8  0

Expected answers:

(1) Centre of sphere is C 2,1,1 and its radius is r  37 .

Then d C, A  (4  2)2  (5  1) 2  (6  1) 2  69

Here d > r. Thus, the point lies outside the sphere.
(2) Centre of sphere is C  1,2,1 and its radius is r  57 .

Then d C, A  (1  1) 2  (2  2)2  (1  1)2  2

Here d < r. Thus, the point lies inside the sphere.

187 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 4 4 2
Centre of sphere is  , ,   2,1,1 and the radius is r 
1 56
(3) 16  4  4  32   14
2 2 2 2 2

Then d C, A  (1  2) 2  (2  1)2  (3  1) 2  14

Here d= r. Thus, the point lies on the sphere.

Task 35: (Group discussion)

Describe the position of:

(a) Point P(2,3,4) and the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  4 x  2 y  6 z  6

(b) Point P(1,1,2) and the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  4 x  2 y  6 z  6

(c) Point P(-1,2,0) and the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  44 x  2 y  2 z  3  0

(d) point P(6,3,1) and the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  4 x  2 z  4  0

8.4.3. Position of a sphere and a line

Consider a sphere S with radius r and Centre C a, b, c  and a line L

 If d C, L  r , there are two points of intersection.

 If d C, L  r , there is a single point of intersection.

 If d C, L  r there is no intersection.

Task 36: (Individually),

(1) Consider the sphere S passing through the point P2,1,3 and with Centre C 1,2,3 . Find the equations
of the line D tangents to the sphere S at point P.
(2) Consider the sphere S  x 2  y 2  z 2  16 and the line D passing through the points P1,2,4 and
Q 2,1,3 . Find the common point.

Expected answers:

(1) The vector from point P to the Centre of the sphere, i.e CP  1,3,6
 
We need also a direction vector of the line u  a, b, c  which is perpendicular to CP ,

188 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

   
Since CP u  0  a  3b  6c  0 , let b  1, c  1, a  3  u   3,1,1

 x  2  3t

Hence the equation of the line D   y  1  t
 z  3t


(2) The direction vector of the line is PQ   3,1,7  and the parametric equations are

 x  1  3r

 y  2r
 z  4  7 r

Putting these values into the equation of the sphere, we have

1  3r 2  2  r 2   4  7r 2  16
 1  6r  9r 2  4  4r  r 2  16  56r  49r 2  16  0
 59r 2  66r  5  0
33  794 33  794
Solving we get, r   1.04, or r   0.08
59 59
 x  1  3(1.04)  2.12

If r  1.04 , we have  y  2  1.04  0.96   2,12,0.96,3.28
 z  4  7(1.04)  3.28


 x  1  3(0.08)  0.76

If r  0.08 , we have  y  2  0.08  1.92  0.76,1.92,3.44
 z  4  7(0.08)  3.44

Then there are two points of intersection:  2,12,0.96,3.28 and 0.76,1.92,3.44

Task 37: (Group discussion)

x 3 y  4 z 8
Find the co-ordinates of the points where the line   intersect the sphere
4 3 5
x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  10 y  23 .

8.4.4. Position of a sphere and a plane

Consider a sphere S  x 2  y 2  z 2  ax  by  cz  d  0 with the Centre C k , l , m , the radius r and the plane
  hx  ny  pz  q their position appears in three cases.

189 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  If d C,   r , the plane cuts the sphere and the intersection is a circle whose Centre is on the plane.
 If P is the Centre of this circle, C is the Centre of the sphere and Q is any point on the circle which is also
a point on the sphere, then d C, Q  is the radius of the sphere, d C, P  is the distance from the Centre of the

sphere to the plane and d P, Q  is the radius of the circle. Then d P, Q   d C, Q2  d C, P2 .
 If d C,   r , there is no intersection

 If d C,   r , the plane is tangent to the sphere and the intersection, is the point.

hk  nl  pm  q
 The distance from the Centre of the plane is given by d C ,   
h2  n2  p 2

Note:

 x 2  y 2  z 2  ax  by  cz  d  0
 The circle of intersection of the sphere and the plane is given by 
 hx  ny  pz  q

 The equation of sphere through this circle is given by the sum of equation of sphere and that of the plane
using a constant k. thus x 2  y 2  z 2  ax  by  cz  d  k hx  ny  pz  q   0

Task 38: (Individually),

(1) Consider the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  15  0 and the plane   3x  2 y  5z  6 . Find their intersection.
Answer
The Centre of the sphere is 1,0,0 and its radius is r=4

3 0 06 3
The distance between the sphere and the plane is d  
9  4  25 38
Since this distance is less than the radius of the sphere, there is a circle of intersection.
2
 3  9 599
Then the radius of the circle of intersection is 4 
2
  16  
 38  38 38

The normal vector of the plane which is also the direction vector of the perpendicular line of the plane through
the Centre (1,0,0) of the sphere is (3, −2,5).
190 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
  x  1  3r

Then, the parametric equations of this perpendicular line are  y  2r
 z  5r

Putting them into the equation of the plane to find the value of the parameter r gives
3
3(1  3r )  2(2r )  5(5r )  6  r 
38
Putting this value of r into the parametric equations of the perpendicular line of the plane through the Centre of
 47 6 15 
the sphere to find the Centre of the circle of intersection gives  , , 
 38 38 38 
2
6   15   599 
2 2 2
 47  
Hence the circle of intersection is  x     y     z     
 38   38   38   38 

x2  y 2  z 2  2x  2 y  4z  3  0
(2) Find the equation to a sphere which passes through the circle  and
 2x  y  z  4

through the point 1,2,1 .

Answer
The equation of the sphere passing through the given circle is
x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  2 y  4 z  3  k 2 x  y  z  4  0

This sphere passes through the point 1,2,1 , so, 1  4  1  2  4  4  3  k 2  2  1  4  0  k  1

Hence, the equation is
x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  2 y  4 z  3  12 x  y  z  4  0
 x 2  y 2  z 2  3 y  5x  7  0

 x 2  y 2  z 2  2 y  4 z  11
(3) Find the Centre and the radius of the circle 
 x  2 y  2 z  15

Answer
The Centre of this sphere is 0,1,2 and its radius is r =4 .
Equation of the line through the Centre of the sphere and perpendicular to the plane are
 xt

 y  1  2t
 z  2  2t

Putting these values into the equation of the plane we will have the Centre of the circle:
t  2(1  2t )  2(2  2t )  15  t  1

Substituting this value of t in equation of line gives the Centre of the circle which is 1,3,4

191 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 0  2  4  15 9
The distance of the Centre of the sphere from the plane is d   3
9 3

Then the radius of the circle is 42  32  7

(4) Find the equation of the tangent plane to the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  4 y  6 z  6  0 at 1,2,3
Answer
The vector formed by the point (1,2,3) and the Centre of sphere is the normal vector of the needed plane.

Since the Centre C  1,2,3 , then n   1  1,2  2,3  3   2,4,0
Since the plane passes through the point (1,2,3) then the required equation is
 2x  1  4 y  2  0z  3  0
 2 x  4 y  10  0

Task 39: (Group discussion)

(1)  
Find the equation of the tangent plane to the sphere 3 x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  3 y  4 z  22  0 at the point

1,3,5
(2) Find the equation of the sphere through the circle x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  3 y  6  0, x  2 y  4 z  9  0 and the

centre of the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  4 y  6 z  5  0 .

8.4.5. Position of two spheres

Consider two spheres with centers C1 and C2 , radii r1 and r2 . The position of these two spheres depends on the

distance between their centers d C1 ,C2  .

 If d  r1  r2 Two spheres are exterior and hence no intersection.

 If d  r1  r2 Two spheres are exterior and hence no intersection.

 If d  r1  r2 . Two spheres are tangent exterior and hence there is a point of intersection.

 If d  r1  r2 Two spheres are tangent interior and hence there is a point of intersection.

192 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

  To find this point of intersection: We can find, by writing the parametric equations, the line through the
two centers of two spheres. Intersect that line with the two spheres we obtain four points of intersection (two for
each sphere). Among these four points, the common point will be the point of intersection of two spheres.
 If r1  r2  d  r1  r2 One sphere cuts another. The intersection is a circle.

Given two spheres we subtract one from the other to obtain a plane. This equation of plane together with one of
the equation of the spheres is the circle of intersection.

Note:

 Sphere through the intersection of two spheres

Given two spheres
x 2  y 2  z 2  a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1  0
x 2  y 2  z 2  a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2  0
And the equation of sphere through the intersection of these two spheres is
 
x 2  y 2  z 2  a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1  k x 2  y 2  z 2  a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2  0
 Condition of orthogonality of two spheres Given two spheres
Given two spheres
x 2  y 2  z 2  a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1  0
x 2  y 2  z 2  a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2  0

The two spheres are said to be orthogonal if d C1 , C2   r12  r22

2

193 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 Task 40: (In pairs),

(1) Sphere S1 has Centre C1 3,2,5 and radius 4. Find the equation of sphere S 2 with Centre C1 3,2,5

tangents to S1 exterior.
Answer

First we calculate the distance between the centers: d C1 , C2   42  82  (13) 2  249

Since one sphere is tangent to another exterior the radius of S 2 is 249  4

The equation of S 2 is x  7   y  6  z  8 
2 2 2
 249  4 
2

Or x 2  y 2  z 2  14 x  12 y  16 z  249  116  0

(2) Find the intersection between sphere S1  x 2  y 2  z 2  2 y  8 and S2  x 2  y 2  z 2  12 x  2 y  33

Answer
2 2 0
For S1 the centre is C1  , ,   1,1,0 and the radius r1 
1
4  4  0  136  6
2 2 2 2

8 2 0
For S 2 the centre C2  , ,   4,1,0 and the radius r2 
1
64  4  0  52  2
2 2 2 2

d C1 , C2   32  0  0  3 and r1  r2  6  2  8 . Thus d C1, C2   r1  r2

Since r1  r2  4 , r1  r2  d C1,C2 

Then the two spheres are interior and hence no intersection between them.
(3) Find the intersection between sphere S1  x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  6 y  1  0 and

S2  4 x 2  4 y 2  4 z 2  10 x  25 y  2 z  0
Answer
 2 6 0
For S1 the centre is C1   , ,    1,3,0 and the radius r1 
1
4  36  0  4  3
 2 2 2 2

 5 25 1  1 25 625 1 27
For S 2 the centre C2   , ,  and the radius r2    0 
 4 8 4 2 4 16 4 8

194 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 2 2
 1 1  1 3
d C1 , C2             and
27 51 27 3 3
r1  r2  3   , r1  r2  3    Thus
 4 8  4 8 8 8 8 8 8

d C1, C2   r1  r2
Then d C1, C2   r1  r2 , means that the two spheres are tangent interior. There is a point of intersection.

The plane, say α, through the point of intersection is given by S1  S2 i.e   2 x  y  2 z  4  0

The normal vector of this plane is the direction vector of its perpendicular line which passes through the centers

of the two spheres, that is u   2,1,2

 x  1  2t

Thus this line is  y  3  t
 z  2t

Intersecting this line and the plane will give us a point of intersection of two spheres:
Putting the equations of the line into the equation of the plane gives 2  4t  3  t  4t  4  t  1
Replace 𝑡 = 1 in the line we get the point 1,2,2 .

8.5. END OF UNIT ACTIVITIES(Practice Questions)

 
(1) Find in terms of A and B the position vector of the point P which divides the line segment [AB]:

(a) Internally in the ration 2:1

(b) Internally in the ration 4:3

(c) Externally in the ratio 5:2

(2) State the vector equations of the line which is parallel to the vector 2,3,1 which pass through the point

1,1,1
 x  2r

(3) If the point Aa,b,3 , lies on the line L   y  4  r , find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏
 z  1  r


(4) given the point A2,1,1 and B5,2,2 .Find


(a) AB

(b) the vector equation of the line that passes through A and B.

(5) Find the Cartesian equations of the line with vector equations x, y, z   2,3,1  r 2,3,1

(6) Find the vector equation of the line with parametric equations x  2  3r, y  5  2r, z  4  r

195 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 x  2 y  2 z 1
(7) Find the vector equations of the lines with the following symmetric equations  
3 2 4

(8) Find the vector, symmetric and parametric equations of the line passing through P1,0,3 and parallel to the
line with parametric equations x  1  2t , y  2  t , z  3  3t
 
(9) Write down the vector equation of the plane passing through the point A and parallel to the vectors p and q
 
in each of the following: A2,3,4, p  2,3,2 and q  0,1,2

(10) In each of the following, find an equation of the plane determined by the data:

(a) Through the point A2,3,4 and perpendicular to u  2,3,4

(b) Through the points A6,0,0, B0,0,3 and C 3,6,0

(c) Through the points 5,2,7,  2,4,2 and the origin.

 
(d) Through the points A1,1,1 and containing the vectors u  2,1,2 and v  0,5,4

(10) Find the equation of the plane which is parallel to the plane x  5 y  4 z  22  0 and whose sum of
intercepts on the coordinates axes is 19.

(11) Obtain the equation of the plane passing through the point (2,2,2) and containing the line joining the
points ( ) (1,1,1) and (1,1,2) .

(12) Find the equation of the plane through the point (2,3,4) and parallel to the plane 5x  6 y  7 z  3

 x  3  2r  s

(13) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane with parametric equations  y  r  s
 z  1 r


 x   4  1   2  7 
         
(14) The plane has vector equation  y    3   r   1  s 3  . Show that the point with position vector   7 
 z   2    1  1    5
         
lies on this plane.

(15) Find the shortest distance from the origin to each of the following lines: x  1  t , y  2  t , z  3  t.

4 x  5 y  8 z  23  6x  5 y  z  8
(16) Calculate the angle between the lines A   and B  
 x  7 y  3z  10 2 x  2 y  3z  124

 x  4 y  1z  10
(17) Calculate the angle between the line A   and the plane   3x  6 y  8z  21
2 x  3 y  5 z  8
196 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
 (18) Calculate the angle between the planes   2 x  3 y  z  10 and   x  2 y  3z  12  0

(19) Find the Centre and radii of spheres x 2  y 2  z 2  6 x  8 y  10 z  1  0

(20) Find the equation of the sphere whose Centre (1,2,3), radius 2.

(21) If x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  6 y  2 z  d  0 is the equation of a sphere with the points (−1,0,2) and (3,6,0) as
extremities of one of its diameter, find the value of d.

(22) Find the equation to the sphere through the points 0,0,0, 0,1,1,  1,2,0, 1,2,3 .

(23) Find the equation of the sphere on the join of (1,2,3) and (0,4,−1) as diameter.

 
(24) Find the equation of the tangent plane to the sphere 3 x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  3 y  4 z  22  0 at the point
(1,3,5).

(25) Find the value of a for which the plane 2x  2 y  z  a touches the sphere

x2  y 2  z 2  2x  2 y  2z  6  0 .

UNIT 9: BIVARIATE STATISTICS

9.0. INTRODUCTION
In S4, we have seen that the measures of central tendency (mean, median or mode) is usually not by itself a
sufficient measure to rival the shape of a distribution of a data set. We also need measure that can provide some
information about the variation among data set values.

The measure that help us to know the spread of data set are called “measures of dispersion”
We consider 3 measures of dispersion: range, variance and standard deviation

Definitions:
(1) Mean: is the average of a set of numerical values, as calculated by adding them together and dividing by
the number of terms in a set.

(a) If the frequencies are the same and is 1 the formula is X 

x1  x2  x3  .............xn
or X 
x i

n n

(b) If the frequencies are different the formula of mean is given by X 

 fx i

n
(2) Median: here we have two cases:

197 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 n+1
(i) For ungrouped data: if number of observations 𝑛 is odd median = value of the position and if
2
𝑛 𝑛+1
(𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )+(𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
2 2
number of terms 𝑛 is even 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 2

n
 cf
(ii) For grouped data: Median  Lm  2 ( w) where 𝐿𝑚 =lower class boundary, 𝑐𝑓 = cumulative
fm
frequency of the preceding median class, 𝑓𝑚 =frequency of the median class, 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
1 𝑓 −𝑓0
(3) Mode: is the observation which is most repeated. For grouped data mode = 𝑙 + (2𝑓 −𝑓 ) 𝑤 where 𝑙 =
1 0−𝑓2

lower class of the model class, 𝑓0= frequency of the class preceding the model class 𝑓1 = frequency of the model
class 𝑓2 =frequency of the class succeding the modal class and 𝑤 =class width.
(4) Range(R): for any set of data the range of the set is given by:
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑅) = (𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡) − (𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡)
(5) Variance(σ2 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑥)): for any set of data the variance of the set is given by:
∑ fx2 ∑ f(x−x̅)2
σ2 = Var(x) = ̅)2 or Var(x) =
− (X
n n

(6) Standard deviation(SD): Is a quantity expressing by how much the members of a group differ from the
∑ f(x−x̅)2 ∑ fx2
mean of the group. SD(x) = σ = √Var(x) = √ or 𝑆𝐷(𝑥) = √ ̅) 2
− (X
n n

Task 1: Individually,
(1) Find mean, median, range, variance and the standard deviation of the sample set: 1,2,8,11,13
(2) Find the mean, mode, median and the standard deviation of each of the following data set using the
calculated formula where appropriate. For (c) find mean and SD(X) only.
(a)
𝑥 1 2 8 11 1
3

𝑓 7 9 14 12 8

(b)
Time (mins) 1-5 6- 11- 16- 21-25
10 15 20
𝑓 7 9 14 12 8

(c) 10 observations where  x  432 and  x 2

 18912

Expected answers:

198 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 n+1
(1) Since the number of terms 𝑛 is odd the median is given by is median = value of the position 2

5+1 𝑡ℎ
 Then 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = ( ) = 3𝑟𝑑 = 8
2

 The mean X 
x i

1  2  8  11  13
7,
n 5
∑ x2
 Since the frequency is the same and is 1,the variance σ2 = Var(x) = ̅) 2
− (X
n
359
∑ 𝑥 2 = 12 + 22 + 82 + 112 + 132 = 359, then Var(x) = − 72 = 22.8 and
5

SD(X)=√22.8 = 4.77
 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 13 − 1 = 12
(2) (a) Consider the table below,

𝒙 𝒇 𝒇𝒙 𝒇𝒙𝟐

1 7 7 7

2 9 18 36

8 14 112 896

11 12 132 1452

13 8 104 1352

∑= 50 373 3743

 Then the mean X 

 fx i

373
 7.46 ,
n 50
 The mode is 8,
(25)𝑡ℎ +(26)𝑡ℎ 8+8
 Median= = =8
2 2

∑ fx2
 The standard deviation SD(x) = √ ̅)2 , 𝑆𝐷(𝑥) = √3743 − 7.462 = √18.2084 = 4.2671
− (X
n 50

(b) Consider the table below,

Class 𝒙 𝒇 𝒄𝒇 𝒇𝒙 𝒇𝒙𝟐

1-5 3 7 7 21 63

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 6 - 10 8 9 16 72 576

11 - 15 13 14 30 182 2366

16 - 20 18 12 42 216 3888

21 - 25 23 8 50 184 4232

∑= 65 50 675 11125

 Then the mean X 

 fx i

675
 13.5 ,
n 50
 To find the median, let’s first identify the median class which is 11 – 15, the formula is
n 50
 cf  16
Median  Lm  2 ( w) ,then Median  11  2 (5)  14.21
fm 14

 To find the median, let’s first identify the median class which is 11 – 15, the formula is Mode = 𝑙 +
1 𝑓 −𝑓0 14−9
(2𝑓 −𝑓 ) 𝑤 = 11 + (2×14−9−12) 5 = 14.5714
1 0−𝑓2

∑ fx2 11125
 The standard deviation SD(x) = √ ̅)2 , 𝑆𝐷(𝑥) = √
− (X − 13.52 = √40.25 = 6.3443
n 50

(c) Given that  x  432 ,  x  18912 and 𝑛 = 10

2

 The mean X
 x  432  43.2
i

n 10
∑ x2
 The standard deviation SD(x) = √ ̅)2 , 𝑆𝐷(𝑥) = √18912 − 43.22 = √24.96 = 4.996
− (X
n 10

Task 2: Group discussion,

(1) The values 4, 6, 12, 4, 10, 12, 3, 𝑥, 𝑦 have a mean of 7and 4 for mode.
(a) Find the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦
(b) Find the median for the set of nine numbers given.
∑ f(x−x̅)2 ∑ fx2
(2) Show that Var(x) = is the same as Var(x) = ̅) 2
− (X
n n

(3) Calculate the variance and the standard deviation for the following values: 1, 3, 5, 6, 6, 8, 9, and 10.
(4) Ten different teams played football during one season. At the end of the season the top goal scorers from
each team scored the following number of goals: 10, 5, 18, 2, 𝑋, 4, 10, 15,11, 4. If the mean number of goals
scored is 9, what is the:
(a) value of X? (b) mode?

200 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (c) median? (e) standard deviation?
(d) range?

9.1. SCATTER DIAGRAM

This diagram is used to find the correlation between these two variables(X,Y), how they are related. After
determining the correlation, you can then predict the behavior of the dependent variable based on the measure of
the independent variable. A scatter chart is useful when one variable is measurable and the other is not.

Types of Scatter Diagram

You can classify scatter diagrams based on correlation and slope of the trend.

 Perfect positive correlation (𝒓 > 𝟏)

 Perfect negative correlation (𝒓 > 𝟏)
 Scatter diagram with strong positive correlation/ Higher degree of positive correlation
 Scatter diagram with weak positive correlation / Lower degree of positive correlation
 Scatter diagram with strong negative correlation / Higher degree of negative correlation
 Scatter diagram with weak negative correlation / Lower degree of positive correlation
 Scatter diagram with weakest (or no) correlation (𝒓 = 𝟎)

201 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 Line of the best fit: A line of best fit is a straight line drawn through the maximum number of points on a
scatter plot balancing about an equal number of points above and below the line. It is used to study the nature of
relation between two variables.

Task 2: In pairs,

(1) Draw a line of best fit for the scatter plot given

(2) From the following draw the scatter diagram, state the type of correlation between the variables X and Y
and represent the line of the best fit and state the type of correlation.
(a)
x 1 2 3 4 5

202 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 y 5 10 15 20 25

(b)
Math 38 62 18 75 38 59 66 92 52 75 48
mark
Englis 74 44 85 19 88 69 50 33 29 32 56
h mark

Expected answer:

(1) Draw a line through the maximum number of points, balancing about an equal number of points above
and below the line.

That is Scatter diagram with weak positive correlation / Lower degree of positive correlation

(2) (a) the scatter graph of x and y

203 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (b)

Task 4: Group discussion

(1) The value of cars in a used car garage are recorded below. The scatter graph shows this information.

(a) Another car arrives at the garage. It is 4 years old and worth £5000. Show this information on the scatter
graph.
(b) Describe the correlation between the value of the car and the age of the car.
(c) The next car that arrives is 6 years old. Estimate the value of the car.

(2) The table shows the time spent revising and the test scores of ten students.

204 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (a) Draw the scatter diagram.
(b) Describe the relationship shown in the scatter diagram.
(c) Draw a line of best fit on your scatter diagram.
(d) Another student has spent 4.5 hours revising. Use your line of best fit to estimate their test result.
(3) The scatter graph shows information about the heights and arm spans of ten students in a school.

(a) What type of correlation does this scatter graph show?

(b) Another student has a height of 150cm. Estimate the arm span of this student.

(4) The table shows the charge (£) by plumbers for jobs of different duration (hours).

(a) Plot the data on the scatter graph below.

(b) Describe the correlation.
(c) Draw a line of best fit on the scatter graph.
(d) Use your line of best fit to estimate the charge for a 4 hours’ job.
(e) Explain why it may not be appropriate to use your line of best fit to estimate the charge for a job lasting 12
hours.

(5) Match each scatter graph to the best description of the type and strength of correlation.

205 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (6) The table below shows information about the monthly rent of an apartment and the distance of the
apartment from a city Centre, in miles.

(a) Plot the data on the scatter graph. Clearly label your axes.
(b) An apartment is 2.2 miles from the city Centre.
(c) Find an estimate for the monthly rent

(7) Some rugby players take two tests, one measuring speed and the other measuring strength. Each
test is marked out of 200.The scatter graph compares the results.

206 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (a) What type of correlation does this scatter graph show?
(b) Draw a line of best fit on the scatter graph.
(c) Brian scores 40 in Test 2. Estimate his score in Test 1.

9.2. COVARIANCE
In case of two variables, say x and y, there is another important result called covariance of x and y, denoted
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚). The covariance of variables x and y is a measure of how these two variables change together.

Covariance of variables x and y, where the summation of frequencies f i  n are equal for both variables, is

̅)(𝒚−𝒚
∑ 𝒇(𝒙−𝒙 ̅)
defined to be 𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒏

Developing this formula, we have

∑ 𝒇(𝒙𝒚−𝒙𝒚
̅−𝒙
̅𝒚+𝒙
̅𝒚̅)
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒏

∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚
̅ ∑ 𝒇𝒚𝒙
̅ ∑ 𝒇𝒙
̅𝒚̅
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) = − − +
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏

∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒇𝒙 ∑ 𝒇𝒚 ∑𝒇
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) = ̅
−𝒚 ̅
−𝒙 ̅𝒚
+𝒙 ̅ ,
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏

𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) =
∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚
̅𝒙
−𝒚 ̅−𝒙
̅𝒚̅+𝒙
̅𝒚̅ ( Since 𝑦̅𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅ ,
 fx  x ,  fy  y and  f  n)
𝒏 n n
∑ 𝐟𝐱𝐲
𝐜𝐨𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐧
− 𝐲̅𝐱̅ which is also another formula of calculating the covariance

Task 5: In pairs,
207 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(1) Find the covariance of x and y in the following data sets

x 3 5 6 8 9 11

y 2 3 4 6 5 8

(2) Find the covariance of the following distribution

0 2 4
𝒙

1 2 1 3

2 1 4 2

3 2 5 0

Expected answers:
(1) Consider the following table:
𝒙 𝒚 (𝒙 − 𝒙
̅) (𝒚 − 𝒚
̅) (𝒙 − 𝒙
̅)(𝒚 − 𝒚
̅)

3 2 −4 −2.6 10.4

5 3 −2 −1.6 3.2

6 4 −1 −0.6 0.6

8 6 1 1.4 1.4

9 5 2 0.4 0.8

11 8 4 3.4 13.6

∑ 𝑥 = 42 ∑ 𝑦 = 28 ̅)(𝒚 − 𝒚
∑(𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅) = 𝟑𝟎

X
x i

42
7 X
y i

28
 4.6
Here n 6 and n 6
∑ 𝐟(𝐱−𝐱̅)(𝐲−𝐲̅) 𝟑𝟎
Thus 𝐜𝐨𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = = =𝟓
𝐧 𝟔

(2) First, convert the double entry into a simple table and compute the arithmetic means.

𝒙 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙𝒇 𝒚𝒇 𝒙𝒚𝒇

208 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎

𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎

𝟎 𝟑 𝟐 𝟎 𝟔 𝟎

𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟖 𝟖 𝟏𝟔

𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟑𝟎

𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝟏𝟐

𝟒 𝟐 𝟐 𝟖 𝟒 𝟏𝟔

𝟒 𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

∑ 𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎 ∑ 𝒇𝒙 = 𝟒𝟎 ∑ 𝒇𝒚 = 𝟒𝟏 ∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚 = 𝟕𝟔

Then X 
 fx i

40
 2 and X   fy i

41
 2.05 .
n 20 n 20
∑ 𝐟𝐱𝐲 𝟕𝟔
Hence 𝐜𝐨𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = − 𝐲̅𝐱̅ = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟐 × 𝟐. 𝟎𝟓 = −𝟎. 𝟑
𝐧

Task 6: Group discussion,

(1) The scores of 12 students in their mathematics and physics classes are
Mathematic 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 1 1
s 0 0

Physics 1 3 2 4 4 4 6 4 6 7 9 1
0

Find the covariance of the distribution.

(2) The values of two variables x and y are distributed according to the following table. Calculate the
covariance.

100 50 25
𝒙

14 1 1 0

18 2 3 0

209 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 22 0 1 2

9.3. REGRESSION LINES

We use the regression line( line of the best fit) to predict a value of 𝑦 for any given value of 𝑥 and vice versa.

We have two types of regression lines:

 Regression line of 𝒚 𝒐𝒏 𝒙 which is expressed in the form 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃

 Regression line of 𝒙 𝒐𝒏 𝒚 which is expressed in the form 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒚 + 𝒅

Regression line of 𝒚 𝒐𝒏 𝒙 is given by the equation Ly / x  y  y 

cov(x, y )
 x2
x  x while the regression line
𝒙 𝒐𝒏 𝒚 is given by equation Lx / y  x  x 
cov( x, y )
 y2
y  y 
Short cut method of finding regression line

(a) Regression line 𝒚 𝒐𝒏𝒙 is 𝑳𝒚/𝒙 ≡ 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 and the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 are found by solving the
∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛
simultaneous equations: {
∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑓𝑥
, where f i  n and these equations are called the normal

equations for y on x.
(b) Regression line 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑦 is 𝐿𝑥/𝑦 ≡ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦 + 𝑑 and the values of 𝑐 and 𝑑 are found by solving the
∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 + 𝑑𝑛
simultaneous equations: {
∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 2 + 𝑑 ∑ 𝑓𝑦
, where f i  n and these equations are called the normal

equations for x on y.

Task 7: In pairs,
Find the regression line of y on x for the following data and estimate the value of y for 𝑥 = 4, 𝑥 = 7, 𝑥 = 16
and the value of x for y = 7, y = 9, y = 16.
x 3 5 6 8 9 1
1

y 2 3 4 6 5 8

Expected answer:
(1) Consider the following table:
𝒙 𝒚 (𝒙 − 𝒙
̅) (𝒚 − 𝒚
̅) ̅) 𝟐
(𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅ )𝟐
(𝒚 − 𝒚 (𝒙 − 𝒙
̅)(𝒚 − 𝒚
̅)

3 2 −4 −2.6 16 6.76 10.4

210 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 5 3 −2 −1.6 4 2.56 3.2

6 4 −1 −0.6 1 0.36 0.6

8 6 1 1.4 1 1.96 1.4

9 5 2 0.4 4 0.16 0.8

11 8 4 3.4 16 11.56 13.6

∑𝑥 ∑𝑦 ∑ 𝑥2 ∑ 𝑦2 ̅)(𝒚 − 𝒚
∑(𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅) = 𝟑𝟎

= 42 = 28 = 42 = 23.36

X
x i

42
7 X
y i

28
 4.6
Now, n 6 and n 6

∑ 𝐟(𝐱−𝐱̅)(𝐲−𝐲̅) 𝟑𝟎 ∑(x−x̅)2 42 ̅)2

∑(y−y 23.36
Thus 𝐜𝐨𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = = = 𝟓 and 𝝈𝒙 𝟐 = = = 7, 𝝈𝒚 𝟐 = = = 3.89
𝐧 𝟔 n 6 n 6

Therefore Ly / x  y  y 
cov( x, y)
 x2
x  x
 Ly / x  y  4.7 
5
x  7  Ly / x  y  5 x  0.3 and
7 7

Lx / y  x  x 
cov( x, y )
 y2
y  y  

Lx / y  x  7 
5
 y  4.7  Lx / y  x  1.3x  1
3.89

Alternative method

𝒙 𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝒚

𝟑 𝟐 𝟗 𝟒 𝟔

𝟓 𝟑 𝟐𝟓 𝟗 𝟏𝟓

𝟔 𝟒 𝟑𝟔 𝟏𝟔 𝟐𝟒

𝟖 𝟔 𝟔𝟒 𝟑𝟔 𝟒𝟖

𝟗 𝟓 𝟖𝟏 𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟓

𝟏𝟏 𝟖 𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝟔𝟒 𝟖𝟖

∑ 𝑥 = 42 ∑ 𝑦 = 28 ∑ 𝑥 2 = 336 ∑ 𝑦 2 = 54 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 = 226

211 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 Regression line 𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑥 is 𝑳𝒚/𝒙 ≡ 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 , where 𝒂 and 𝒃 are obtained by solving the equations:

∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛  28  42a  6b  5
a
{ Then    7
∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 226  336a  42b b  0.3

5
Thus, the line of y on x is Ly / x  y  x  0.3 .
7

 x  4  y  2.5

 If  x  7  y  4.7
 x  16  y  11.1


Regression line 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑦 is 𝐿𝑥/𝑦 ≡ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦 + 𝑑 where 𝑐 and 𝑑 are obtained by solving the equations:
∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 + 𝑑𝑛  42  28c  6d c  1.3
{ Then  
∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 2 + 𝑑 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 226  154c  28d  d 1

Thus, the line of x on y is Lx / y  x  1.3x  1 .

 y  7  x  10.1

 If  y  9  x  12.7
 y  16  x  2.8


Task 8: Group discussion,

(1) Consider the following table:
𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟏 𝟔𝟐 𝟔𝟑 𝟔𝟓

𝒚 𝟑. 𝟏 𝟑. 𝟔 𝟑. 𝟖 𝟒 𝟒. 𝟏

(a) Find the regression line of y on x

(b) Calculate the approximate y value for the variable 𝑥 = 64.
(2) The values of two variables x and y are distributed according to the following table.

𝒙 100 50 25
𝒚

14 1 1 0

18 2 3 0

22 0 1 2

Find the regression lines.

212 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 9.4. COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
The Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (or product moment coefficient of correlation or simply coefficient
of correlation), denoted by 𝒓, is a measure of the strength of linear relationship between two variables. The
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚)
coefficient of correlation between two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 is given by 𝒓 = 𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚

Where, 𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) =is covariance of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦, 𝝈𝒙 =is the standard deviation for x and 𝝈𝒚= is the standard
deviation for y.
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−(∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)
We can also find 𝒓 as 𝑟 =
√[𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 −(∑ 𝑥)2 ] [𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 2 −(∑ 𝑦)2 ]

Properties of the coefficient of correlation

 The coefficient of correlation does not change the measurement scale. That is, if the height is expressed
in meters the coefficient of correlation does not change.
 The sign of the coefficient of correlation is the same as the covariance.
 The square of the coefficient of correlation is equal to the product of angular coefficients (slopes) of two
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚) (𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚))𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚) 𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚)
regression lines. In fact, 𝒓 = , squaring both sides gives, 𝒓𝟐 = = ×
𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒙 𝟐 𝝈𝒚 𝟐 𝝈𝒙 𝟐 𝝈𝒚 𝟐

 The coefficient of correlation takes value ranging between −1 and +𝟏. That is,−1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 1
 If the linear coefficient of correlation 𝒓 takes values closer to −1, the correlation is strong and negative.
 If the linear coefficient of correlation takes values close to 1, the correlation is strong and positive.
 If the linear coefficient of correlation takes values close to 0, the correlation is weak.
 If 𝒓 = 𝟏 or 𝒓 = −𝟏, there is perfect correlation and the line on the scatter plot is increasing or
decreasing respectively.
 If 𝑟 = 0, there is no linear correlation.

Task 9: Individually,
(1) The table below shows the age of 6 persons and their corresponding glucose level.
𝑨𝒈𝒆 (𝒙) 𝟒𝟑 𝟐𝟏 𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟐 𝟓𝟕 𝟓𝟗

𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍(𝒚) 𝟗𝟗 𝟔𝟓 𝟕𝟗 𝟕𝟓 𝟖𝟕 𝟖𝟏

Find the coefficient of correlation of this information.

(2) The table below shows the temperature (𝒕) applied on a molecules and their corresponding neutrons(𝒏)
released. Find the coefficient of correlation of this information.

𝒕 𝟖 𝟐 𝟔 𝟒 𝟐

213 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 𝒏 𝟗𝟖 𝟕𝟒 𝟖𝟕 𝟖𝟐 𝟕𝟐

(3) If two regression coefficients are 0.8 and 0.2, what would be the value of coefficient of correlation?

Expected answers:

(1) Consider the table below

𝒙 𝒚 𝒙𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐

𝟒𝟑 𝟗𝟗 4257 1849 9801

𝟐𝟏 𝟔𝟓 1365 441 4225

𝟐𝟓 𝟕𝟗 1975 625 6241

𝟒𝟐 𝟕𝟓 3150 1764 5625

𝟓𝟕 𝟖𝟕 4959 3249 7569

𝟓𝟗 𝟖𝟏 4779 3481 6561

∑𝒙 ∑𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 ∑ 𝒚𝟐

= 𝟐𝟒𝟕 = 𝟒𝟖𝟔 = 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟗 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐

∑𝒙 𝟐𝟒𝟕 ∑𝒚 𝟒𝟖𝟔
 Thus 𝒙 = = = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟔 and 𝒚 = = = 𝟖𝟏
𝒏 𝟔 𝒏 𝟔
∑ 𝐱𝐲 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟓
 Also 𝐜𝐨𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = − 𝐲̅𝐱̅ = − 𝟒𝟏, 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟖𝟏=80.207
𝐧 𝟔

∑ x2 11409
 The standard deviation of x 𝜎𝑥 = √ ̅) 2 = √
− (X − (41.16)2 = √207.35 = 14.4
n 6

∑ y2 40022
 The standard deviation of y 𝜎𝑦 = √ − (y̅)2 = √ − (81)2 = √109.33 = 10.46
n 6

𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚) 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝟓𝟎.𝟓
 Hence 𝒓 = = 14.4×10.46 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑
𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚

Alternative method
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−(∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦) 6(20485)−(247×486) 2868
Simply 𝑟 = ,𝑟= = 5413.27 = 0.529806 ≈ 0.53
√[𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 −(∑ 𝑥)2 ] [𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 2 −(∑ 𝑦)2 ] √[6(11409)−(247)2 ] [6(40022)−(486)2 ]

(2) Consider the table below

214 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 𝒕 𝒏 𝒕𝒏 𝒕𝟐 𝒏𝟐

8 98 784 64 9604

2 74 148 4 5476

6 87 522 36 7569

4 82 328 16 6724

2 72 144 4 5184

∑ 𝒕 =2 ∑ 𝒏 =4 ∑ 𝒕𝒏 =19 ∑ 𝒕𝟐 =1 ∑ 𝒏𝟐 =345
2 13 26 24 57
𝒏 ∑ 𝒕𝒏−(∑ 𝒕)(∑ 𝒏) 𝟓(𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟔𝟎−(𝟐𝟐×𝟒𝟏𝟑) 𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝟓𝟒𝟒
Therefore, 𝒓 = = = = 𝟓𝟒𝟖.𝟗𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗
√[𝒏 ∑ 𝒕𝟐 −(∑ 𝒕)𝟐 ] [𝒏 ∑ 𝒚𝟐 −(∑ 𝒚)𝟐 ] √[𝟓(𝟏𝟐𝟒)−(𝟐𝟐)𝟐 ] [𝟓(𝟑𝟒𝟓𝟓𝟕)−(𝟒𝟏𝟑)𝟐 ] √(𝟏𝟑𝟔)(𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟔)

(3) 𝒓𝟐 = 𝜶 × 𝜷 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟐, then 𝒓 = √𝟎. 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟒

Task 10: Group discussion,

(1) The following are the marks obtained by 10 students, in mathematics(𝒎) and physics(𝒑). Determine the
coefficient of correlation of this information and interpret it.(𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐫 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏)

𝒎 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟑 𝟖 𝟐𝟗 𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟏 𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟏

𝒑 𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟏 𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟔 𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟏 𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟔

(2) The values of y and their corresponding values of y are shown in the table below

𝒙 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

𝒚 𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟒 𝟔

(a) Find the Pearson’s coefficient of correlation

(b) Discuss the type of correlation from the above information.

9.5. APPLICATIONS

Bivariate statistics can help in prediction of a value for one variable if we know the value of the other.

Task 11: In pairs,

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 (1) One measure of personal fitness is the time taken for an individual’s pulse rate to return to normal after
strenuous exercise; the greater the fitness, the shorter the time. Following a short program of strenuous exercise,
Norman recorded his pulse rates 𝑃 at time 𝑡 minutes after he had stopped exercising. Norman’s results are given
in the table below:

𝒕 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏. 𝟎 𝟏. 𝟓 𝟐. 𝟎 𝟑. 𝟎 𝟒. 𝟎 𝟓. 𝟎
𝒑 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝟗𝟒 𝟖𝟏 𝟖𝟑 𝟕𝟏

Estimate Norman’s pulse rate 2.5 minutes after stopping the exercise program.

Expected answer:

(1) Consider the table

𝑷𝟐
𝒕 𝑷 𝒕𝑷
𝒕𝟐

𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟐𝟓

𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝟑 𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟗

𝟏. 𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟑 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟒

𝟐 𝟗𝟒 𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝟒 𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟔

𝟑 𝟖𝟏 𝟐𝟒𝟑 𝟗 𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟏

𝟒 𝟖𝟑 𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝟏𝟔 𝟔𝟖𝟖𝟗

𝟓 𝟕𝟏 𝟑𝟓𝟓 𝟐𝟓 𝟓𝟎𝟒𝟏

∑ 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟕 ∑ 𝑷 = 𝟔𝟔𝟗 ∑ 𝒕𝑷 ∑ 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓 ∑ 𝑷𝟐

= 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟔. 𝟓 = 𝟔𝟔𝟏𝟐𝟓

 To obtain pulse rate 2.5 minutes after stopping the exercise program, we need the regression line 𝒐𝒏 𝒕 ,
∑ 𝑓𝑃 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛  669  17a  7b  a  11
𝑷 = 𝒂𝒕 + 𝒃. We us the formula { 2 Then  
∑ 𝑓𝑡𝑃 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑡 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑓𝑡 1446  57.5a  17b b  122.3
 Then 𝑃 = −11𝑡 + 122.3. Hence, Norman’s pulse rate 2.5 minutes after stopping the exercise program is
estimated to be 𝑃 = −11(2.5) + 122.3 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟖.

216 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 9.6. END OF UNIT 9 ACTIVITIES
(1) As part of a conservation project, Darren was asked to measure the circumference of trees that were
growing at different distances from a beach. His results are shown in the following table
Distance, x (meters) 6 14 20 25 35 48 46 48 52

Circumference, y(centimeters) 52 57 57 68 65 70 75 80 82

(a) State whether distance from the beach is a continuous or discrete variable.

(b) On graph paper, draw a scatter diagram to show Darren’s results. Use a scale of 1 cm to represent 5 m on the
x-axis and 1 cm to represent 10 cm on the y-axis.
̅ of the trees from the beach.
(c) Calculate the mean distance, 𝒙
(d) Work out the mean circumference, 𝒚 of the trees.
(e) Plot and label the point M ( x, y) on your graph.
(f) Write down the Pearson’s product–moment correlation coefficient,𝒓 , for Darren's results.
(g) Find the equation of the regression line 𝒚 𝒐𝒏 𝒙, for Darren’s results.
(h) Draw the regression line 𝒚 𝒐𝒏 𝒙 on your graph.
(i) Use the equation of the regression line 𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 to estimate the circumference of a tree that is 42 m from the
beach.

(2) The table below shows the scores for 12 students on two Mathematic exam papers. For the first paper
calculators were allowed and for the second paper they were not.
𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝟏 (𝒙) 74 73 65 75 68 72 69 71 83

𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝟐 (𝒚) 75 83 69 77 71 77 68 76 84

(a) Write down the mean score on Paper 1.

(b) Write down the standard deviation of the scores for Paper 1.
(c) Find the number of students that had a score of more than one standard deviation below the mean on Paper
1.
(d) Write down the correlation coefficient, 𝑟.
(e) Write down the equation of the regression line of y on x.
(f) Another student scored 75 on Paper 1. Calculate an estimate of his score on Paper 2
(g) Another student scored 75 on Paper 1. Determine whether you can use the equation of the regression line to
estimate his score on Paper 2. Give a reason for your answer.

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 (3) A pair of twins, Percy and Patsy, take Math’s assessment tests each week. Their teacher records their scores
in this table:
𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝟏 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝟐 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝟑 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝟒 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝟓 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝟔 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝟕 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝟖

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒚 (𝒙) 52 60 58 61 65 60 70 72

𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒔𝒚 (𝒚) 50 60 61 59 64 64 68 73

(a) Find an equation of the regression line of x on y. The equation should be written in the form x = ay + b.
(b) Find an equation of the regression line of y on x. The equation should be written in the form y = ax + b
(c) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of these two lines.
(d) discuss about this point.

(4) In a survey of insect life near a stream, a student collected data about the number of different insect species
(y) that were found at different distances (x) in meters from the stream.
Distances (x) 5 8 11 14 17 22 33 39
Insects species(y) 25 11 19 14 9 5 3 2
(a) Draw a scatter diagram to show the data.
(b) Using your scatter diagram, describe the correlation between the number of different insect species and the
distance from the stream.
̅ of the distances from the stream;
(c) Find the mean 𝒙
(d) Find the mean y number of insect species.

(e) Plot the point ( x, y ) on your scatter diagram. Label this point M.
(f) Write down the equation of the regression line 𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 for the above data.
(g) Draw the regression line 𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 on your scatter diagram.
(h) Estimate the number of insect species to be found 30 meters from the stream.

(5) The scatter graph shows the maximum temperature (0C) and the number of bowls of soup sold at a sandwich
shop on twelve randomly selected days last year.

218 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (a) One of the points is an outlier. What temperature does this outlier represent?
(b) For all the other points write down the type of correlation.
(c) On another day of the year, the temperature was 20oC. Estimate the number of bowls of soup sold on that
day.

(d) The shop owner says "We sell more bowls of soup the higher the temperature". Does the scatter graph
support this statement? Give a reason for your answer.

(6) The following table shows the relationship between the number of workers and the amount of time in
minutes it takes them to harvest the sugar cane in a particular field.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑠 (𝑛) 3 4 5 6 7 7 9
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡) 799 303 645 570 422 322 241
(a) Find the equation of the regression line of 𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑛.
(b) Find the value of the Pearson’s product–moment correlation coefficient, 𝑟.
(c) Use the regression equation to find how long it would take seven workers to harvest the sugar cane
(7) The following is a summary of the results of given two variables:
∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 500 , ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 300, ∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 = 27818, ∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 16837, ∑ 𝑓𝑦 2 = 10462.
Find the equation of regression line of y on x. Estimate the value of y for 𝑥 = 60

(8) The following results were obtained from lineups in Mathematics and Physics examinations:
Mathematics(x) Physics(y)

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 475 39.5
Mean
16.8 10.8
Standard deviation

If the coefficient of correlation 𝑟 = 0.95, Find both equations of the regression lines. And also estimate the
value of y for x= 30.
(9) In a partially destroyed laboratory record of an analysis of correlation data, the following results only are
legible: Variance of x is 9. Equations of regression lines 8𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 66 = 0 and 40𝑥 − 18𝑦 − 214 = 0
(a) the mean values of x and y.
(b) the standard deviation of y, and
(c) the coefficient of correlation between x and y.
(10) The following results were obtained from records of age (x) and systolic blood pressure (y) of a group of
10 men:
(x) (y)

53 142
Mean
130 185
Variance

If ∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )(𝑦 − 𝑦̅) = 1220, Find both equations of the regression lines. Also estimate the blood pressure of
a man whose age is 45.

(11) For a set of 20 pairs of observation s of the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦, it is known that ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 250 , ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 140
and that the regression line of 𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 passes through (15,10). Find the equation of that regression line and use it
to estimate y when 𝑥 = 10.
(12) The heights h, in cm, and weights w, in kg, of 10 people are measured. It is found that ∑ 𝑓ℎ = 1710 ,
∑ 𝑓𝑤 = 760, ∑ 𝑓ℎ2 = 293162, ∑ 𝑓ℎ𝑤 = 130628, ∑ 𝑓𝑤 2 = 59390
(a) Calculate the coefficient of correlation between the value of h and w.
(b) What is the equation of the regression line of 𝑤 𝑜𝑛 ℎ?

UNIT 10: CONDITIOANAL PROBABILITY AND BAYES’ THEOREM

10.0.INTRODUCTION
(a)Revision on probability

220 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 In S4 we have seen that:
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐢𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐧 𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐧
 The probability the event A is happening 𝐏(𝐀) = and
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬

then 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐸) ≤ 1.
 Some definitions on sets:
1. Union: The union of two regions defines an event that is either in A or in B or in both regions.
2. Intersection: The intersection of two regions defines an event must be in both A and B.
3. Complement: The complement of A is everything in the event space that is not in A, i.e. A′.

The set S of all possible outcomes of a given experiment is called the sample space. Any subset of the sample
𝐧(𝐀)
space is called an event. Hence 𝐏(𝐀) = 𝐧(𝐒)

 The sum law of elementary probability is 𝐏(𝐀 ∪ 𝐁) = 𝐏(𝐀) + 𝐏(𝐁) − 𝐏(𝐀 ∩ 𝐁)

 Mutually exclusive event: Events are said to be mutually exclusive if they have no outcomes in
common. These are also called disjoint events, i.e 𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩) = 𝟎 and the sum law becomes 𝐏(𝐀 ∪ 𝐁) = 𝐏(𝐀) +
𝐏(𝐁)
 For the complement events A and A’𝐏(𝐀) + 𝐏(𝐀′ ) = 𝟏
 Independent events: Two events A and B are independent if the facts that A occurs does not affect the
probability of B occurring. For example landing a head after tossing a coin i.e 𝐏(𝐀 ∩ 𝐁) = 𝐏(𝐀) × 𝐏(𝐁)

NOTE: Permutations and combinations can be used to find probabilities of various events
particularly when large sample sizes occur. In everything we do, we have to use
the formula. In everything we do we have to use the formula
𝐧(𝐀)
𝐏(𝐀) = 𝐧(𝐒)

Task 1: In pairs, do the following

(1) What is the chance of getting a 4 when a die is rolled?

(2) There are 5 marbles in a bag: 4 are blue, and 1 is red. What is the probability that a blue
marble gets picked?

221 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP

 (3) A coin is tossed two times. Find the probability of obtaining (a)
A = {two heads} (b) B = {one head and one tail}
(4) A letter is chosen from the letters of the word ‘’MATHEMATICS’’. What is the probability that the letter
chosen is an ‘’A’’?
(5) Maria wants to take French or Spanish, or both. But classes are closed, and she must apply to enroll in a
language class. She has a 60% chance of being admitted to French, a 50% chance of being admitted to Spanish,
and a 20% chance of being admitted to both French and Spanish.
(6) An ordinary die of 6 sides is rolled once. Determine the probability of:
a) obtaining 5 b) not obtaining 5
c) obtaining 3 or 4 d) not obtaining 3 or 4
(7) An integer is chosen at random from
the set S = {x|x ∈ ,0 < x < 14}. Let A be the event of choosing a multiple of 2 and B the event of choosing a multiple
+

of 3. Find
(a) P(A ∪ B); (b) P(A ∩ B); (c) P(A - B).

(8) A bag contains 6 blue balls, 5green balls and 4 red balls. three balls are selected at random without
replacement. Find the probability that:
(a) They are all blue
(b) Two blue and one green
(c) There one of each colour
(9) If 4 people A, B, C, D sit in a row on a bench, what is the probability that A and B sit next to each other?
(10) A card is drawn from a pack of 52. A is the event of drawing an ace and B is the event of drawing a spade.
Find P(A), P(B), P(A ∩ B) and P(A ∪ B).
(11) A coin is weighted such that heads is three times as likely to appear as tails. Find P(T) and P(H).
(12) A marble is drawn from an urn containing 10 marbles of which 5 are red and
3 are blue. Let A be the event: the marble is red; and let B be the event: the marble is blue. Find P(A), P(B) and
P(A ∪ B).
1 2
(13) Given that 𝑃(𝐴) = 3 and 𝑃(𝐵) = 5. Find 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) if the events A and B are:

(a) Independent
(b) Mutually exclusive events
(14) A factory runs two machines, A and B. Machine A operates for 80% of the
time while machine B operates for 60% of the time and at least one machine
operates for 92% of the time. Do these machines operate independently?

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 Expected answers:

(1) Number of ways it can happen: 1 (there is only 1 face with a 4 on it) Total number of outcomes: 6 (there are
6 faces altogether) So the probability is 1/6
(2) Number of ways it can happen: 4 (there are 4 blues) Total number of outcomes: 5 (there are 5 marbles in
total) hence 𝑷(𝒃𝒍𝒖𝒆) = 𝟒/𝟓
(3) The sample space is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT},
A = {HH}, B = {HT, TH},
𝐧(𝐀) 𝟏 𝒏(𝑩) 𝟐 𝟏
(a) Since 𝐏(𝐀) = =𝟒 (b) 𝑷(𝑩) = =𝟒=𝟐
𝐧(𝐒) 𝒏(𝑺)
2
(4) Since we have 11 letters , n(S)=11 and we have 2 A i.e n(A)=2 then 𝑃(𝐴) = 11

(5) P(French or Spanish) = P(French) +P(Spanish) – P(both) =0.6 + 0.5 – 0.2 =0.9
(6) The sample space of possible outcomes is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
1 1 2
(A) 𝑃(5) = 6 (D) P(not 3 or 4) = 1 − 3 = 3
1 5
(B) P(not a 5) = 1 − 6 = 6 (7)
2 1
(C) P(3 or 4) = =3
6

C3 5 C0 4 C0
6
20 4
(7) (A) P(BBB)= 15
 
C3 455 91
6
C2 5 C14 C0 75 15
(B) P( BBG )  15
 
C3 455 91

C15 C14 C1 120 24

6
(C) P(1B1G1R)  15
 
C3 455 91
(8) 𝐧(𝐒) =The number of ways of arranging 4 peaples on a row is 4! = 24
𝐧(𝐀) = The number of ways so that A and B sit next to each other is 2 × 3! = 12

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 𝑛(𝐴) 12 1
Hence the 𝑃(𝐴) = = 24 = 2
𝑛(𝑆)
4 1 13 1
(9) 𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃(𝑎𝑐𝑒) = = , 𝑃(𝐵) = 𝑃(𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑒) = =
52 13 52 4
1
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑒) =
52
4 13 1 16 4
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = + − = =
52 52 52 52 13

(10) let 𝑃(𝑇) = 𝑝 then 𝑃(𝐻) = 3𝑝, since the events are compliments P(T)+P(H)=1, Then 4𝑝 = 1
1 3
𝑃(𝑇) = 4 and 𝑃(𝐻) = 4
5 1 3
(11) 𝑃(𝐴) = 10 = 2, 𝑃(𝐵) = 10 since the marble cannot be both red and blue, A and B are mutually
5 3 8
exclusive events . Then 𝐏(𝐀 ∪ 𝐁) = 𝐏(𝐀) + 𝐏(𝐁) = 10 + 10 = 10 = 4/5

(12)
1 2 2
(a) If the events are independents then P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B) = 3 × 5 = 15
1 2 2 9 3
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B) = + − = =
3 5 15 15 5
1 2 11
(b) If the events are mutually exclusive events 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0, Then 𝐏(𝐀 ∪ 𝐁) = 𝐏(𝐀) + 𝐏(𝐁) = 3 + 5 = 15

(13) We are given 𝑃(𝐴) = 0.8, 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.6 AND 𝑃(𝐴𝑈𝐵) = 0.92
Now 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 0.8 + 0.6 − 0.92 = 0.48
SINCE 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.48, Therefore the machines operate independently.

10.1. TREE DIAGRAM

A tree diagram is a mean which can be used to show the probabilities of a certain outcomes
occurring when two or more trials take places in succession. The outcome is written at the end of
the branch and the fraction on the branch gives the probability of the outcome occurring. In these
lessons, we will learn:
 how to draw probability tree diagrams for independent events (with replacement)
 how to draw probability tree diagrams for dependent events (without replacement)

Task 2: Individually,

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 (1) A bag contains 8 balls of which 3 are red and 5 are green, one ball is drawn at random and
its color is noted and the ball is replaced in the bag. A ball is again drawn at random and its color
is noted. Find the probability that the ball is drawn will be:
(a) Red followed by green
(b) Red and green in order
(c) Of the same color
(2) A bag contains 3 black balls and 5 white balls. Paul picks a ball at random from the bag and replaces it
back in the bag. He mixes the balls in the bag and then picks another ball at random from the bag.
(a) Construct a probability tree of the problem. Then Calculate the probability that Paul picks:
(i) Two blackballs
(ii) a black ball in his second draw
(3) Bag A contains 10 marbles of which 2 are red and 8 are black. Bag B contains 12 marbles of which 4 are
red and 8 are black. A ball is drawn at random from each bag.
(a) Draw a probability tree diagram to show all the outcomes the experiment.
(b) Find the probability that:
(i) Both are red.
(ii) Both are black
(iii) One black and one red
(iv) At rest one red
(4) A box contains 4 red and 2 blue chips. A chip is drawn at random and then replaced. A second chip is
then drawn at random.
(a) Show all the possible outcomes using the probability three diagram.
(b) Calculate the probability of getting:
(i) At least one blue
(ii) One red and one blue
(iii) Two of the same color

Expected answer:

(1) Since there are three red and 5 green balls, for the first trial the probability of choosing a
red ball is 𝐏(𝐑) = 𝟑/𝟖 and the probability of choosing a blue ball is 𝐏(𝐆) = 𝟓/𝟖.
Since the ball is replaced after being selected the probabilities are the same.

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 (a) 𝑃(𝑅𝐺) = (3 ÷ 8) × (5 ÷ 8) = 15/64
(b) 𝑃(𝑅𝐺 𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑅) = (3 ÷ 8) × (5 ÷ 8) + (5 ÷ 8) × (3 ÷ 8) = 15/32
(c) 𝑃(𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑠) = (3 ÷ 8) × (3 ÷ 8) + (5 ÷ 8) × (5 ÷ 8) = 17/32
(2)

a) Check that the probabilities in the last column add up to 1.

b) i) To find the probability of getting two black balls, first locate the B branch and then follow the second B
branch. Since these are independent events we can multiply the probability of each branch.

ii) There are two outcomes where the second ball can be black.
Either (B, B) or (W, B)

From the probability tree diagram, we get:

P(secondballblack)
=P(B,B)orP(W,B)
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=P(B,B)+P(W,B)

(3)
a) A probability tree diagram that shows all the outcomes of the experiment.

b)Theprobabilitythat:
(i) both are red.

P(R, R) =
(ii) both are black.

P(B, B) =
(iii) one black and one red.

P(R, B) or P(B, R) =
(iv) at least one red.

1-P(B,B)=

(4)
a) A probability tree diagram to show all the possible outcomes.

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 b) The probability of getting:
(i) at least one blue.

P(R, B) or P(B, R) or P(B, B) =

(ii) one red and one blue.

P(R, B) or P(B, R) =
(iii) two of the same color.

P(R, R) or P(B, B) =

Task 3: Group discussion

(1) Calculate the probability of three coins landing on: Three heads.
(2) A class consists of six girls and 10 boys. If a committee of three is chosen at random, find
the probability of:
(a) Three boys being chosen.
(b) Exactly two boys and a girl being chosen.
(c) Exactly two girls and a boy being chosen.
(d) Three girls being chosen.
(3) A bag contains 7 discs, 2 of which are red and 5 are green. Two discs are removed at
random and their colors noted. The first disk is not replaced before the second is selected. Find the
probability that the discs will be:
(a) both red
(b) of different colors
(c) the same colors.

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 (4) Three discs are chosen at random, and without replacement, from a bag containing 3 red,
8 blue and 7 white discs. Find the probability that the discs chosen will be:
(a) all red
(b) all blue

10.2. INDEPENDENT EVENTS

If probability of event B is not affected by the occurrence of event A, events A and B are said to be independent
and P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B) .This rule is the simplest form of the multiplication law of probability.

Task 4: individually

(1) A die is thrown twice. Find the probability of obtaining a 4 on the first throw and an odd number on the
second throw.
(2) A factory runs two machines. The first machine operates for 80% of the time while the second machine
operates for 60% of the time and at least one machine operates for 92% of the time. Do these two machines
operate independently?
(3) A coin is weighted such that heads is three times as likely to appear as tails. Find P(T) and P(H).
Expected answers:
1
(1) Let A be the event: “a 4 is obtained on the first throw”, that is A={4},then P( A)  . Let B be the event:
6
3 1
“an odd number is obtained on the second throw”. That is B = { 1,3,5} then P( B)  
6 2
Since the result on the second throw is not affected by the result on the first throw, A and B are independent
1 1 1
events. Hence P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)   
6 2 12
(2) We are given 𝑃(𝐴) = 0.8, 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.6 AND 𝑃(𝐴𝑈𝐵) = 0.92
Now 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 0.8 + 0.6 − 0.92 = 0.48
SINCE 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.48, Therefore the machines operate independently.
(3) let 𝑃(𝑇) = 𝑝 then 𝑃(𝐻) = 3𝑝, since the events are compliments P(T)+P(H)=1, Then 4𝑝 = 1
1 3
𝑃(𝑇) = 4 and 𝑃(𝐻) = 4

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 Task5: Group dicussion

(1) A coin is tossed and a single 6-sided die is rolled. Find the probability of landing on the head side of the
coin and rolling a 3 on the die.
(2) A husband and a wife appear in an interview for two vacancies in the same post. The probability of
husband’s selection is 1/7 and that of wife’s selection is 1 /5 What is the probability that:
(c) both of them will be selected?
(d) only one of them will be selected, and none of them will be selected?

10.3. CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY

The probability of an event B given that event A has occurred is called the conditional probability of B given A
P( A  B) P( A  B)
and is written P( A / B) and is calculated by P( A / B)  OR P( B / A)  for example Event A
P( B) P( A)
is that it is raining outside, and it has a 0.3 (30%) chance of raining today, and Event B is that you will need to
go outside, and that has a probability of 0.5 (50%).
A conditional probability would look at these two events in relationship with one another, such as the
probability that it is both raining and you will need to go outside.

Task 6: In pairs

(1) In a group of 100 sports car buyers, 40 bought alarm systems, 30 purchased bucket seats, and 20
purchased an alarm system and bucket seats. If a car buyer chosen at random bought an alarm system, what is the
probability they also bought bucket seats?
(2) A die is tossed. Find the probability that the number obtained is a 4 given that the number is greater than
2.
(3) At a middle school, 18% of all students play football and basketball, and 32% of all students play
football. What is the probability that a student who plays football also plays basketball?
(4) In a sample of 40 vehicles, 18 are red, 6 are trucks, and 2 are both. Suppose that a randomly selected
vehicle is red. What is the probability it is a truck?

Expected answers:
P( A)  0.4,
0.2
(1) P( B)  0.3 then P( B / A)   0.5 OR 50%
0.4  0.3
P( A  B)  0.2

1
(2) Let A= A number is 4, then 𝑃(𝐴) = 6

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 4 2 1
Let B= A number is greater than 2, then 𝑃(𝐵) = 6 = 3, here P( A  B) 
6

1
P( A  B) 6 1 3 1
Hence P( A / B)     
P( B) 2 6 2 4
3
(3) Let A be a set of students who play football and B a set of students who play basketball; then the set of
students who play both games is A∩B. We have P(A )= 32%= 0.32 , P(A∩B) =18% =0.18 We need the
probability of B known that A has occurred.

P( A  B) 0.18
Then P( B / A)    0.5625  56.25%
P( A) 0.32
Contingency table

Contingency table (or two-way table) provides a different way of calculating probabilities. The table helps in
determining conditional probabilities quite easily.

Task 7: (Individually),
Suppose a study of speeding violations and drivers who use car phones produced the following fictional data:

Speeding violation in last year None Speeding violation in last year Total

Car phone user 25 280 305

Not a car phone user 45 405 450

Total 70 675 755

Calculate the following probabilities using the table:

(a) P (person is a car phone user).
(b) P (person had no violation in the last year).
(c) P (person had no violation in the last year AND was a car phone user).
(d) P (person is a car phone user OR person had no violation in the last year).
(e) P (person is a car phone user GIVEN person had a violation in the last year).
(f) P (person had no violation last year GIVEN person was not a car phone user).
Expected answer:
number of car phone users 305
(a) P(person is a car phone user) = = 755
total number in study

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 number that had no violation 685
(b) P(person had no violation in the last year) = = 755
total number in study
280
(c) P(person had no violation in the last year AND was a car phone user) =
755
305 685 280 710
(d) P(person is a car phone user OR person had no violation in the last year) = (755 + 755) − 755 = 755

(e) The sample space is reduced to the number of persons who had a violation. Then
25
P(person is a car phone user GIVEN perso n had a violation in the last year) = 70

(f) The sample space is reduced to the number of persons who were not car phone users. Then
405
P(person had no violation last year GIVEN person was not a car phone user) = 450

Task 8: (Group discussion),

(1) Calculate the probability of a 6 being rolled by a die if it is already known that the result is even.
(2) A jar contains black and white marbles. Two marbles are chosen without replacement. The probability
of selecting a black marble and then a white marble is 0.34, and the probability of selecting a black marble on the
first draw is 0.47. What is the probability of selecting a white marble on the second draw, given that the first.
(3) Below, the contingency table shows the favorite leisure activities for 50 adults, 20 men and 30 women.

Dance Sports TVs Total

Men 2 10 8 20

Women 16 6 8 30

Total 18 16 16 50

Calculate the following probabilities using the table:

(a) A person is a man
(b) A person is a woman
(c) A person is a denser man
(d) A person is a TVs and Sports user woman

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10.4. BAYES THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS
P( A / B) P( B)
Bayes theorem is used the reverse probability P(B/A) if P(A/B) is given. Then P( B / A)  .
P( A)
Generally, Let B1, B2 , B3 ,...............Bn be incompatible and exhaustive events and A an arbitrary event. The

P( A / Bi ) P( Bi )
Bayes’ formula says that P( Bi / A)  n

 P( A / B ) P( B )
i 1
i i

Task 9: (Individually),

(1) Suppose that machines M1, M 2 , andM 3 produce respectively 500, 1000, and 1500 parts per day, of
which 5%, 6%, and 7% are defective. A part produced by one of these machines is taken at random, at the end of
a given workday, and it is found to be defective. What is the probability that it was produced by machine M 3 ?
(2) Two machines A and B produce 60% and 40% respectively of total output of a factory. Of the parts
produced by machine A, 3% are defective and of the parts produced by machine B, 5% are defective. A part is
selected at random from a day’s production and found to be defective. What is the probability that it came from
machine A?

Expected answers:

(1) Let Ai be the event “the part taken at random was produced by machine M i ”, for i  1,2,3 ; and let D be

500 1 1000 1 1500 1

“the part taken at random is defective”. Then P( M1 )   , P( M 2 )   , P( M 3 )  
3000 6 3000 3 3000 2
Also P( D / M1 )  0.05, P( D / M 2 )  0.06 and P( D / M 3 )  0.07

P( D / A3 ) P( A3 )
Using the Bayes formula P( A3 / D) 
P( D / A1 ) P( A1 )  P( D / A2 ) P( A2 )  P( D / A3 ) P( A3 )

1
0.07 
 2 
105 21

1 1  1  190 38
0.05   0.06   0.007 
6  3 2
Alternative method: Using tree diagram

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 1
0.07 
Hence P( M 3 / D)  2 
105 21

1 1  1  190 38
0.05   0.06   0.007 
6  3 2
(2) Let A be the event that the part came from machine A, B be the event that the part came from machine B
and D be the event that the part is defective. We require P(A/D). Now, P(D/A)=0.03, P(D/B)=0.05 Hence
P( D / A) P( A)
P ( A / D) 
P( D / A) P( A)  P( D / B) P( B)
0.6  0.03 0.018 9
P ( A / D)   
0.6  0.03  0.4  0.05 0.038 19

Task 10: Group discussion,

(1) 20% of a company’s employees are engineers and 20% are economists. 75% of the engineers and 50%
of the economists hold a managerial position, while only 20% of non-engineers and non-economists have a
similar position. What is the probability that an employee selected at random will be both an engineer and a
manager?

10.5. END OF UNIT 10 ACTIVITIES (Practice questions)

(1) A coin is biased so that it has 60%chance of landing on head. If it is thrown three times
find the probabilities of getting:
(a) Three heads
(b) Two heads and one tail
(c) At least one head.

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 (2) Jimmy has a bag with 7 green sweets and three red sweets in it. He picks up a sweet at
random from the bag, replaces it and then pick again at random. Draw a tree diagram to represent
this situation and use it to calculates the probabilities that he picks:
(a) Two red sweets
(b) No red sweet
(c) At least one blue sweet
(d) One sweet of each color
(3) Inside the bag there are 3 green balls, 2 red balls and 4 yellow balls. Two balls randomly
drown without replacement. Calculate the probability of drawing one red and one yellow.
(4) At Kennedy Middle School, the probability that a student takes Technology and Spanish is 0.087. The
probability that a student takes Technology is 0.68. What is the probability that a student takes Spanish given
that the student is taking Technology?
(5) The probability that it is Friday and that a student is absent is 0.03. Since there are 5 school days in a
week, the probability that it is Friday is 0.2. What is the probability that a student is absent given that today is
Friday?
(6) A car dealership is giving away a trip to Rome to one of their 120 best customers. In this group, 65 are
women, 80 are married and 45 married women. If the winner is married, what is the probability that it is a
woman?
(7) A card is chosen at random from a deck of 52 cards. It is then replaced and a second card is chosen.
What is the probability of choosing a jack and then an eight?
(8) A jar contains 3 red, 5 green, 2 blue and 6 yellow marbles. A marble is chosen at random from the jar.
After replacing it, a second marble is chosen. What is the probability of choosing a green and then a yellow
marble?
(9) A school survey found that 9 out of 10 students like pizza. If three students are chosen at random with
replacement, what is the probability that all the three students like pizza?
(10) A nationwide survey found that 72% of people in the United States like pizza. If 3 people are selected at
random, what is the probability that all the three like pizza?
(11) A bag contains 2 red, 3 green and 2 blue balls. Two balls are drawn at random. What is the probability
that none of the balls drawn is blue?
(12) For married couples living in a certain suburb, the probability that the husband will vote on a bond
referendum is 0.21, the probability that his wife will vote in the referendum is 0.28, and the probability that both
the husband and wife will vote is 0.15. What is the probability that:
(a) at least one member of a married couple will vote?
(b) a wife will vote, given that her husband will vote?
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 (c) a husband will vote, given that his wife does not vote?
(13) The probability that a patient recover from a delicate heart operation is 0.8. What is the probability that:
a) exactly 2 of the next 3 patients who have this operation will survive? b) all of the next 3 patients who have this
operation survive?
(14) In a certain federal prison, it is known that 2/3 of the inmates are under 25 years of age. It is also known
that 3/5 of the inmates are male and that 5/8 of the inmates are female or 25 years of age or older. What is the
probability that a prisoner selected at random from this prison is female and at least 25 years old?
(15) A certain federal agency employs three consulting firms (A, B and C) with probabilities 0.4, 0.35, 0.25,
respectively. From past experience, it is known that the probabilities of cost overrun for the firms are 0.05, 0.03,
and 0.15 respectively. Suppose a cost overrun is experienced by the agency.
(a) What is the probability that the consulting firm involved is company C?
(b) What is the probability that it is company A?
(16) In a certain college, 5% of the men and 1% of the women are taller than 180 cm. Also, 60% of the
students are women. If a student is selected at random and found to be taller than 180 cm, what is the probability
that this student is a woman?

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