Maths s5 Draft
Maths s5 Draft
MATHEMATICS
October, 2020
GENERAL PRESENTATION
This year 2020, mathematics teachers organized a hard work to make common
class notes. We tried to make summaries for each of units proposed by the
common CBC Syllabus provided by REB.
This copy is a draft that we provide to teachers so that it should help them at
the time that secondary schools will be reopened, the final copy is still being
under finalization and will be distributed to teachers at the end of all required
works.
This copy is not editable and all works are monitored by a specific team of
mathematics teachers until the final copy would be finished. Any question will
be asked using the given phone and whatsapp number:
1.0.INTRODUCTION
From S4, we have seen that we have two basic trigonometric functions sine, and cosine and others derived
from these basic ones as follows:
sin 1 cos 1 1
tan cot sec cosec
cos tan sin cos sin
A a b
ˆ
cos B ˆ
cos A
c c
c b
ˆ b ˆ a
sin B sin A
B a C c c
ˆ b
tan B ˆ a
tan A
a b
For any triangle ABC:
A Cosines rule:
ˆ
a 2 b2 c2 2bc cosA
b c
ˆ
b2 a 2 c2 2ac cosB
ˆ
c2 a 2 b2 2ab cosC
C a B
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Sinus rule:
sin  sin B̂ sin Ĉ a b c
or
a b c ˆ
sinA ˆ
sinB ˆ
sinC
Task 1: Individually, prove the following identities:
cos2 x sin2 x (b) tan θ + cotan θ = sec θcosec
(a) − 1+tan2 x = 1 − 2sin2 x
1+tan2 x
(a) A
B C
(b) A
The angle 𝐴𝐵̂ 𝐶 = 580 and 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐵 = 390 .
Find the length AC If AB=12cm.
B C
1. A six-meter-long ladder learns against a building. If the ladder males an angle of 600 with the ground .
(a) How far up the wall does the ladder reach?
(b) How far from the wall is the base of the ladder?
2. An angle of elevation of a cloud prom the point ℎ meters above the lake is 𝜃 the angle of its reflection in
the lake is 450 . Find the height of the cloud in meters.
3. Linda measures the angle of elevation from a point on the ground to the top of the tree and find it to be
35 degrees. She then walks 20 meters towards the tree and find the angle of elevation from this new
point to the top of the tree to be 45 degrees. Find the height of the tree in meters.
4. Determine the area of the triangle whose : a 4, b 4, C 1200
5. Two weather tracking stations on the equator 127km apart. A weather balloon is located on a bearing of
N 380E from the western station and on the bearing of N 140E from the eastern station. How far is the
balloon from the western station?
6. Two cars leave the same station at the same time, moving along straight tracks that form an angle of 30°.
If one car travels at an average speed of 50 km/hour and the other at an average speed of 60 km/hour,
how far apart are the two cars after two hours?
Amplitude change:
Task 4: Group discussion
On the same graph, make a graphical representation of the following functions
1
a) y sin x , y 2sin x , y sin x
2
1
b) y cos x , y 2cos x , y cos x
2
1
c) y 2cos x , y cos x
2
The graphical representation should be done using the Microsoft office excel or other graphing
tools.
a)
y 2sin x y sin x
1
y sin x
2
c)
1
y 2cos x y cos x
2
Period changes:
Task 5: Group discussion
On the same graph, make a graphical representation of the following functions:
1
y sin x , y sin 2 x , y sin x
2
Solution:
1
y sin x y sin 2 x x y sin
2
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Horizontal shift changes:
Task 6: Group discussion
On the same graph, make a graphical representation of the following functions:
a) y sin x , y sin x
2 2
b) y cos x , y cos x
4
Solution:
a)
y sin x y sin x
2 2
b)
y cos x y cos x
4
b) y 3 cos x
(i) Determine the amplitude, period, horizontal shift and vertical shift.
i. Addition formulas: these are formulas describing the trigonometric function value of
the sum/difference of angles.
cosa a cos 0 1
3. sin a b cos ( a) b cos a cos b sin a sin b
2 2 2
sin a cos b sin b cos a
4. sina b sina (b) sin a cos b sin b cos a
Task 9: (Individually),
Determine exact value of:
a) sin150 b) cos 750
Linearization formulas: Linearization formulas are formulas that work for changing the product to sum.
cos a cos b
1
cosa b cosa b
2
sin a sin b
1
cosa b cosa b
2
sin a cos b
1
sina b sina b
2
sin b cos a
1
sina b sina b
2
Taking a b , we get, from:
The basic linearization formulas:
1 cos 2a 1 cos 2a
cos 2 a or cos a
2 2
1 cos 2a 1 cos 2a
sin 2 a or sin a
2 2
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1 cos 2a
Adding these two equations we get: cos 2 a
2
1 cos 2a
Subtracting the two equations we get: sin 2 a
2
sin 2a
Also tan a
1 cos 2a
iii. Simpson’s formulas: These are formulas used to transform a sum into a
product form.
x y x y
2. cos y cos x 2sin sin
2 2
x y yx
cos x cos y 2sin sin
2 2
x y x y
3. sin x sin y 2 sin cos
2 2
x y x y
4. sin x sin y 2 sin cos
2 2
7 A A A
(d) If cos A , find the value of cos , sin and tan
25 2 2 2
0
1 10 10
(e) Find the value of cos 22 , sin 22 and tan 22
2 2 2
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Task 14: Group discussion
Trigonometric equations
Trigonometric equations are the equations involving trigonometric functions we will use inverse trigonometric
functions to get the required angle. The inverse trigonometric functions are sin 1 or arcsin , cos 1 or arccos
and tan 1 or arctan .
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Task15: Group discussion
(iii) cosx =
√3 (vii) secx = 2
2
√2
(iv) cosx = − 2
Expected answers:
(i) θ is an acute angle and 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱 is equal to a posive number implies that 𝑥 lies in 1st or 2nd quadrant
𝜋 𝜋
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝑥1 = 6 + 2𝑘𝜋
As sin𝜃 = 2 , 𝜃=𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (2) , sinx={ 𝜋 { 5𝜋 principle solutions are:
sin(𝜋 − 6 ) + 2𝑘𝜋 𝑥2 = + 2𝑘𝜋
6
𝜋 5𝜋
𝑎𝑛𝑑
6 6
𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
And the general solutions are: 6 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 2𝑘𝜋, k∈ 𝑍
6
π
√2 π
x1 = π + 4 5π 7π
(ii) As sinθ = ,θ = then { π x1 = and x2 =
2 4 x2 = 2π − 4 4 4
𝜋
√3 𝜋
𝑥1 = 6
(iii) As 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ,𝜃 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 { 11𝜋
2 6
𝑥2 = 6
𝜋
√2 √2 𝜋
𝑥1 = 𝜋 − 4 3𝜋 5𝜋
(iv) As cos𝜃 = ,𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( 2 ), 𝜃= { 𝜋 , 𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 =
2 4 𝑥2 = 𝜋 + 4 4 4
√3 √3 π
(v) cosx = − is negative , 𝑥 lies in the 2nd or 3rd quadrant. Here cosθ = , θ = 6,
2 2
π π
cosx= cos (π − 6 ) or cos(π + 6 )
5π 7π 5π 7π
cosx = cos or cos Thus, x = or x =
6 6 6 6
1
(vi) sinx = is positive, x lies the 1st or 2nd quadrant.
√2
π
1 π
x1 = π 3π
4
Here sinθ = , θ= { π x1 = and x2 =
√2 4 x2 = π + 4 4 4
1 1
(vii) secx = 2, =2 cosx = 2 is positive, thus 𝑥 lies in 1st or 4th quadrant cosθ = 1/2
cosx
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𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
𝜃 = 3 𝑥1 = 3 𝑜𝑟𝑥2 = − 3 𝑜𝑟2𝜋 − 3 = 3
We get:
𝑥 =𝜃
tanx = c, { 1
𝑥2 = 𝜋 + 𝜃
(ii) If tangent of angle is negative, angle is in 2nd or 3rd quadrant.
We get:
𝑥1 = 𝜋 − 𝜃
tanx = c , {
𝑥2 = 2𝜋 − 𝜃
(i) tanx = 1
(ii) tanx = −√3
Expected answer
π
π
x1 = 4
(i) Since tanθ = 1, θ = { 5π
4
x2 = 4
𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
𝑥1 = 𝜋 − 3 𝑥1 =
3
(ii) Since tan𝜃 = √3 𝜃 = 3 , then { 𝜋 ,{ 5𝜋
𝑥2 = 2𝜋 − 3 𝑥2 = 3
1
(b) cos 𝑥 cos 300 − sin 𝑥 sin 300 = 2
(i) 2 cos 2 x 5 sin x 1 0
(c) cos(𝜃 + 600 ) = sin 𝜃 (j) sin 2 x sin x 2 0
(d) sin2 x + sin xcos x = 0 (k) cos 2 sin x cos x 0
(e) sin 3x = sinx
(l) 2 cos 2 x cos x 1 0
(f) sinx − sin3x + sin2x − sin4x = 0
(m)
π
(g) sin2x = cos (x − 3 ) (n) tan3 x 3 tan x
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(c)The solution of equations reducible to the form 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐧𝐱 = 𝐤, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐧𝐱 = 𝐤 and 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐧𝐱 = 𝐛, 𝐟𝐨𝐫|𝒌| ≤
𝟏 and b∈ 𝑹.
For the trigonometric equations reducible to the form sin nx = k sin nx = k, cos nx = k and tan nx = b
remember to divide the period by 𝑛 while computing the general solutions.
Expected answers
√3 √3 π
(i) cos2x = is positive as cosθ = θ=
2 2 6
8x 2x
(ii) Sin3x + sin5x = 0 transform into product sin3x + sin5x = 2sin cos(− 2 ) = 2sin4xcosx therefore:
2
kπ
then, x = {π 4 , kϵZ
+ kπ
2
π π
+ 2kπ + kπ
6 12
2x = { π π , x={ π
− 6 + 2kπ or 2π − 6 + 2kπ − 12 + kπ
𝜋 𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
(iii) Since tan(3x) = 1, 3𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) ⇒ 3𝑥 = 4 + 2𝑘𝜋 ⟹ 𝑥 = 12 + 3
8x 2x
transform into product sin3x + sin5x = 2sin cos(− 2 ) = 2sin4xcosx therefore: sin3x + sin5x = 0 =
2
2sin4xcosx = 0
Sin4xcosx = 0, sin4x = 0 or cosx = 0 , sin4x = 0 since sine is zero at 0 and π, we can write 4x = kπ, x =
kπ
, kϵZ
4
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π 3π π
cosx = 0 since cosine is zero at 2 and we can write x = 2 + kπ , kϵZ
2
kπ
then, x = {π 4 kϵZ
+ kπ
2
𝑏 sin 𝛼
Step III: Replace 𝑎 by cos 𝛼 multiply each side by cos 𝛼 then use the addition formula
Expected answer:
√3
Since 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑏 = √3, and 𝑐 = 3 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + cos 𝑥 =1
3
√3 𝜋
then tan 𝛼 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛼 =
3 6
𝜋
sin
sin 𝑥 + 6
𝜋 cos 𝑥 = 1
cos
6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
⇒ sin 𝑥 cos 6 + sin 6 cos 𝑥 = cos 6
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 √3 𝜋
+ 2𝑘𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋
3
⇒ sin(𝑥 + 6 ) = ⇒ 𝑥+6= {2𝜋 ⇒ 𝑥 = {𝜋6 ∀𝑘 ∈ ℤ
2 + 2𝑘𝜋
+ 2𝑘𝜋 2
3
Trigonometric inequalities
When solving inequalities, first replace the inequality sign with equal sign and then solve. Find all
nonequivalent angles in [0,2𝜋]replace these angles on a trigonometric circle. They will divide the circle into two
arcs. Choose the arcs containing the angles corresponding to the given inequality
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1 1
(c) sin2x ≤ 2 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 ≥ 2
Expected answers:
π
1
+ 2kπ 1 π 5π
6
(a) sinx < 2 , 𝑥 = {5kπ solution for sinx < 2 is xϵ ]0 + 2kπ, 6 + 2kπ[ U ] 6 + 2kπ, 2π +
+ 2kπ
6
π 5π
2kπ[ or xϵ ]2kπ, 6 + 2kπ[ U ] 6 + 2kπ, 2π(1 + k)π[ , kϵZ
1 π 5π
Solution for sinx > 2 , x ∈ ] 6 + 2kπ, + 2kπ[ , kϵZ
6
√2 π
(b) cosx ≥ , x = ±4
2
Since, we are given the condition 𝑥 ∈ [0,2𝜋].The angle (– 𝜋)/4 we will be replaced by its positive equivalent
7π
angle in the given interval which is .
4
π 7π
Thus, xϵ [0, ] U [ , 2kπ]
4 4
−𝜋 𝜋
If the condition was not given the answer should be 𝑥 ∈ [ 4 + 2𝑘𝜋, 4 + 2𝑘𝜋]
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1 1
(c) sin2x ≤ 2 and sin2x ≥ 2
𝜋 𝜋
1
+ 2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑘𝜋
6 12
sin 2𝑥=2 , 2𝑥 = {5𝜋 , 𝑥= {5𝜋
+ 2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑘𝜋
6 12
As it can be seen, there are more than two values in the interval [0,2𝜋]. To see them substitute k with different
integers starting with 0:
𝜋 𝜋 13𝜋 𝜋 25𝜋
12
+𝜋 = + 2𝜋 =
{12
12 12 12
K=0 x={5𝜋 , 𝑘 = 1𝑥 = {5𝜋 17𝜋 , 𝑘=2 𝑥= 5𝜋 29 𝑡
12
+𝜋 = + 2𝜋 = 12
12 12 1,2
𝜋 5𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
Hence the values that fall in the interval [0,2π]are , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑
12 12 12 12
SIGN TABLE
X 𝜋 5𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
0 2𝜋
12 12 12 12
1 _ __ 0 + ++ 0 __ __ 0 +++++0 __ __ __ __ __ _ __
Sin2x-2
𝜋 11𝜋 23𝜋
− 7𝜋 11𝜋
K=0 x={ 7𝜋12 , 𝑘 = 1 𝑥 = {19𝜋
12 12
, 𝑘 = 2 𝑥 = {31𝜋 𝑤𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 12
12 12 12
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Case2:
Sign table
𝜋 7𝜋 11𝜋
X 0 𝜋
2 12 12
1+2sin2x + + + + + 0 __ __ __ __ 0 + + + + + + +
Sin2x 0+ + + + 0 __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ 0
1 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 II + + + + +II __ __ __ __ 0 + + + + + + 0 __ __ __ __ __ 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
𝝅 𝟕𝝅 𝟏𝟏𝝅
Thus, x∈ ] 𝟐 , 𝟏𝟐 [ 𝑼 ] 𝟏𝟐 , 𝝅[
1.3. APPLICATIONS
Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M)
The distance of the object moving in simple harmonic motion from the origin is at time t is given by
d A cos t or d sin t
2
Where a Amplitude of the motion, Angular velocity, and T Time period.
T
NOTE: if the body doesn’t start in the origin the equation is d A sint or d A cost and is
called the phase angle of the motion.
(1) If the instantaneous voltage in a current is given by the equation E = 204sin3680t, where E is expressed
in volts and 𝑡 is expressed in seconds, find E if t = 0.27 seconds
(2) The horizontal displacement d of the end of a pendulum is d = Ksin2πt. Find K if d = 12centimeters
and t = 3.25seconds.
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Expected answers:
E = 154volts
12
(b) 𝑑 = 𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑡, 12 = ksin(2 × 3.143.25), 12=ksi20.42, k=𝑠𝑖𝑛20.42 . 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑘 = 12
Refraction of light
In optics, the degree of bending of the light’s path depends on the angle that the incident beam of light makes
with the surface and on the ratio between the refractive indices of the two media (Snell’s law). If the light is
traveling from a rarer region (lower n) to a denser region (higher n) it will bend towards the normal but if it is
traveling from a denser region(higher) to a rarer region (lower n), it will bend away from the normal.
Snell’s law states that: 𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐
Expected answers:
(1) (a) Since the light is traveling from a rarer region (lower n) to a denser region (higher), it will bend towards
the normal.
(b) We will identify air as medium2.
𝑛1 = 1.00(𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟), 𝑛2 = 1.44 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝜃1 = 220 , 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2, 𝑠𝑖𝑛22 = 1.44𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
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𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝟐
sin𝜽𝟐 = , 𝜽𝟐 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟐𝟔), ( 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 ),
𝟏.𝟒𝟒
n1 =1.00 θ2 =15
o
θ1 =22 n2 =1.44
(2) Let the needed angle but use Snell’s law to write:1.52sin25=1,32sint,
1.52sin25 1.52sin25
sint = , t = sin−1 ( ) . ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡 = 29.10
1.32 1.32
1.33𝑠𝑖𝑛41
⟹ 𝑟̂ =𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) = 35.50
1.50
(4) A weight is attached to a spring and reaches its equilibrium position ( x = 0). It is then set in motion
𝜋 3𝜋
resulting in a displacement of x =10cost. Find the spring’s displacement when t = 0, t = 4 and t = 4
(5) A mass of 0.5 kg oscillates on the end of a spring on a horizontal surface with negligible friction
according to the equation y = Acos(wt). The graph of F vs. x for this motion is shown below.
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The last data point corresponds to the maximum displacement of the mass.
Determine the:
(a) Angular frequency ω of the oscillation,
(b) Frequency f of oscillation,
(c) Amplitude of oscillation,
(d) Displacement from equilibrium position (x = 0) at a time of 2 s.
(6) An object oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the x axis. Its position varies with time
according to the equation x 4.00m cos(t ) . Where t is in seconds and the angles in the
4
parentheses are in radians.
a. Determine the amplitude, frequency, and period of the motion.
b. Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the object at any time t.
c. Using the results of part (b), determine the position, velocity, and acceleration of the object at t = 1.00 s.
d. Determine the maximum speed and maximum acceleration of the object.
e. Find the displacement of the object between t = 0 and t = 1.00 s.
(7) Prove the following identities
1 sin x sin x 1
(a) 4 sec x tan x
1 sin x 1 sin x
1 cos 2 x
(b) 2 csc 2 x 1
sin 2 x
(8) In a two dimensional system given two straight lines l1 y m1 x b1 and l2 y m2 x b2 , the slopes
m1 and m2 are the tangents to angles 1 and 2 that the two lines form with positive direction of the
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abscissa axis respectively.
(a) Determine the formula that should be used to get an angle to get angle between the two lines
(b) Use the formula in (a) to find the angle between the lines
(i) l1 2 x 3 2 y (ii) l1 3 y 3 x 3
l2 x y 5 l2 y 3 x 2
(9) The monument cast a shadow 793m long when the angle of elevation of the sun is 350 . How tall is the
monument?
(10) Suppose that you are a civil aviation pilot at the point A of the horizontal truck(runway), you notice that
you have to divert at an angle of 210 around a group of the clouds. After x distance (at point B) from
the truck again you divert to intercept the initial truck about an angle 350 at point C of the truck. The
distance from A to C is 70km
(a) Determine the travelled distance from A to B.
(b) Find the area covered by the triangle ABC.
(c) How long does the airplane rise from the initial truck?
(11) Two radar stations 2.7km apart are trucking an airplane. The distance between an airplane and the
station A is 7.4km , the distance between the station B and the plane is 6.9km . What is the angle of
elevation from the station A to the plane?
(12) Solve in IR :
(a) cos 4 x 2 (c) 2 sin x 4 sin cos x 0
3 (d) 3 cos x sin x 0
(b) sin 2 x cos x
2
(e) sin 3x cos 3x 2
(13) Change from sum to product:
a) cos 4 x cos 3x b) sin x sin 2 x sin 3x sin 4 x c) cos 2 x cos 5x
(14) Using trigonometric circle with radius r , show that the circle should parametrically be describes by:
x r cos
y r sin
(15) Express the following to the half angle: (a) sin (b) cos (c) tan
2
(16) Convert 1, to the rectangular coordinates.
3
(17) Convert x 2 y 2 10 to the polar coordinates.
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UNIT 2: SEQUENCES (MISMATHEMTICAL INDUCTION)
1.0.INTRODUCTION
(a) Revision on mathematical induction:
From S4, we have seen natural numbers are the counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
Mathematical induction is a technique for proving a statement /a theorem, or a formula that is asserted about
For example,
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 𝑛 = ½𝑛(𝑛 + 1).
This asserts that the sum of consecutive numbers from 1 to n is given by the formula on the right. We want to
prove that this will be true for n = 1, n = 2, n = 3, and so on. Now we can test the formula for any given
number, say n = 3:
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = ½· 4· 5 = 10.
k 1 6 k 1 4
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2.1.GENERALITIES ON SEQUENCES
Definition
i)
The sequence of squares : i 2 1,4,9,, n 2 , (n 1) 2 ,
The general term is a n n 2
Classification of sequences
Finite sequences:
A sequence whose number of terms is countable like the sequence 2, 4,8,16,..., 256 .
Infinite sequence:
The sequence whose number of terms is uncountable like a series of natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6..…
(a) List the first five terms of the sequence {2𝑛 }+∞
𝑛=1
Determine 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 and 𝑢3
Expected answers:
(a) Here, we substitute n =1, 2, 3, 4, 5 into the formula 2n . This gives 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ,... Or,
equivalently, 2, 4,8,16, 32,...
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(b) Since u0 1 and un1 3un 2 replace n with 0,1, 2 to obtain u1 , u2 , u3 respectively.
n 0, u01 u1
u1 3 1 2 5
u1 3u0 2
n 1, u11 u 2
u2 3 5 2 17
u 2 3u1 2
n 2, u 21 u3
u3 3 17 2 53
u3 3u 21 2
𝑢1 = 5
Thus, { 2 = 17
𝑢
𝑢3 = 53
Divergent sequence: The sequence is said to be divergent if: lim an We say that the sequence diverges.
n
𝑛 +∞
(a) Determine whether the sequence {2𝑛+1} converges or diverges.
𝑛=1
Expected answers:
𝑛 +∞ 1
Thus, {2𝑛+1} converges to 2
𝑛=1
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an 1
The sequence ai is said to be increasing iff : an an1 i.e an1 an 0 or 1 The
an
an 1
sequence ai is said to be decreasing iff: an an1 i.e an1 an 0 or 1
an
Task 3: (Individually)
1 2 3 𝑛
(a) Prove that the sequence 2 , 3 , 4 , … 𝑛+1 is an increasing sequence.
Expected answers:
𝑛 𝑛+1
(a) Here, 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛+1 and 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑛+2 Thus, for 𝑛 ≥ 1
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛2 +2𝑛−𝑛2 −2𝑛−1 1
𝑢𝑛 − 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑛+1 - 𝑛+2 = =-(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2) < 0
(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)
Second way:
𝑛+1
an 1 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 (𝑛+1)2
We have to check if 1 i.e 𝑛+2
𝑛 = 𝑛+2 × = >0
an 𝑛 𝑛2 +1
𝑛+1
Quadratic sequence
Arithmetic sequences
Geometric sequences
2.2.1.Quadratic sequence
Before you begin working on arithmetic and geometric sequence, let us take into consideration about
quadratic sequence.
Definition: A quadratic sequence is a sequence in which the second difference is constant. The
general term of this sequence is
Where
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a=is the constant term which is equal to the half of the second difference
b= is constant term
c= is a constant term
Expected answer:
1.
2. Begin by identifying the sequence. Since the sequence doesn’t have a common first difference
or a constant ratio, we check to see if the sequence is quadratic.
Equation 1
Now substitute
Equation 2
This is not true for any values of thus the sequence will not have a term less than
The general formula or nth term of an arithmetic sequence is given by Tn a1 (n 1)d where 𝒂𝟏 is
Generally, if ap is any pth term of a sequence, then the nth term is given by
Tn a p (n p)d
Note:
(1) 𝑑 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 and 𝑇1 = 𝑎1 𝑇2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑 𝑇3 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑑 𝑒𝑡𝑐
(2) In some books they use 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , 𝑢4 , 𝑢5 , 𝑢6 , … … to name the terms of the sequence instead of using 𝑻𝒏 or
𝒂𝒏
(2) Given:
(a) Calculate the sum of the given series.
(b) Hence calculate the sum of the following series
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(3) If the first and tenth terms of an arithmetic sequence are 3 and 30 respectively, find the fiftieth
term of the sequence.
(4) If the 3rd term and the 8th term of an arithmetic sequence are 5 and 15
respectively, find the common difference.
(5) Calculate the sum of first 100 terms of the sequence 2, 4, 6,8,...
Expected answers:
(1) (a)
(2) (a)
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(3) 𝑎1 = 3 and 𝑎10 = 30 but Tn a p (n p)d and 𝑝 = 1 and 𝑛 = 10
Therefore 30 = 3 + 10 − 1)𝑑 ⟹ 𝑑 = 3
Now 𝑢50 = 𝑢1 + (50 − 1)𝑑
𝑢50 = 3 + 49𝑑 = 3 + 49 × 3 = 150
(4) Given 𝑢3 = 5 and 𝑢8 = 15
Since Tn a p (n p)d then 15 = 5 + (8 − 3)𝑑, 5𝑑 = 10, 𝑑 = 2
(5) 𝑢1 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 2 , 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢𝑘
𝑢𝑘 = 2 + (𝑘 − 1) × 2 = 2𝑘
𝑘
The 𝑆𝑘 = 2 (2 + 2𝑘), 𝑆𝑘 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
Arithmetic means
If three or more than three numbers are in arithmetic sequence, then all terms lying between the first and
the last numbers are called arithmetic means. If B is arithmetic mean between A and C,
𝐀+𝐂
then 𝐁 =
𝟐
To insert k terms called arithmetic means between two terms u1 and un is to form an arithmetic
sequence of 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 2 terms whose first term is 𝑎1 and the last term is 𝒂𝒏
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(5) Between 3 and 54, n terms have been inserted in such a way that the ratio of 8𝑡ℎ mean and
3
(𝑛 − 2)𝑡ℎ mean is 5. Find the value of 𝒏
Expected answers:
Then, 𝑢5 = 𝑢1 + (5 − 1)𝑑 ⟹ 23 = 7 + 4𝑑 ⟹ 𝑑 = 4
Harmonic sequences
Harmonic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which the reciprocals of the terms are in arithmetic
sequence.
1 1 1
Example of harmonic sequence is 3 ′ 6 ′ 9
If you take the reciprocal of each term from the above harmonic sequence, the sequence will
become 3, 6, 9, ... which is an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of 3.
1 1 1
Another example of harmonic sequence is 6, 3, 2. The reciprocals of each term are 6 ′ 3 ′ 2 which is
1
an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of 6
Remark: To find the term of harmonic sequence, convert the sequence into arithmetic sequence then do
the calculations using the arithmetic formulae. Then take the reciprocal of the answer in arithmetic
sequence to get the correct term in harmonic sequence.
The 2nd term of a harmonic progression is and 6th term is − 6 . Find the 20th term and nth
1 1
(1) 6
term.
Expected answer:
1 1
In harmonic progression, ℎ2 = 6 and ℎ6 = − 6
1
Hence,𝑎20 = 6 + 18(−3) = −48 , ℎ20 = − 48
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1
Thus 𝑎𝑛 = 6 + (𝑛 − 2)(−3) = 12 − 3𝑛 ⟹ ℎ𝑛 = − 12−3𝑛
The general term formula allows you to determine any specific term of a geometric sequence.
𝑇1 = 𝑎1 , 𝑇2 = 𝑎1 𝑟, 𝑇3 = 𝑎1 𝑟 2
If 𝑎𝑝 is the pth term of the sequence, then the nth term is given by
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒑 𝒓𝒏−𝒑
Geometric series
A geometric series is the sum of geometric sequence terms. We get the nth sum of a geometric sequence as follows:
S n a1 a1r a1r 2 a1r n1
rS n S n a1r n a1
S n r 1 a1 r n 1
Sn
a1 r n 1 or S n
a1 1 r n
r 1 r 1
1 r r 1
a1
When, r 1 and n , we get: S n
1 r
Task7: (Group discussion)
(1) In a geometric sequence in which all terms are positive, the sixth term is and the eighth
term is . Determine the first term and constant ratio.
(2) If the first and tenth terms of a geometric sequence are 1 and 4, respectively, find the
nineteenth term.
If the 2nd term and the 9th term of a geometric sequence are 2 and ,− 64 respectively. Find the
1
(3)
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common ratio
(4) Find the number of terms in sequence 2, 4,8, 16,..., 256
(5) Find the sum of the first 20 terms of a geometric sequence if the first term is 1 and common ratio
is 2.
Expected answers:
(1) Since T6 3 and T8 27 ,then ar 5 3 and ar 7 27
ar 7 27
3 r2 3 r 3
ar 5 3
5
a 3 3a
1
1
3 4
9
(2) 𝑢1 = 1 and 𝑢1 = 4
1
9
But 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑈𝒑 𝑟 𝑛−𝒑 then 4 = 1𝑟 9 ,𝑟 = √4or 49
1 18
Now, 𝑈19 = 𝑈𝟏 𝑟 19−𝟏 = 1 (49 ) = 16 .Thus, the nineteenth term of the sequence is 16.
1
(3) 𝑢2 = 2 and 𝑢9 = − 64
1 1
Using the general formula: 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑈𝒑 𝑟 𝑛−𝒑 ⇒ 𝑈2 = 𝑈𝟗 𝑟 2−𝟗 ⟹ 2 = − 64 𝑟 −𝟕 ⇔ 128 = − 𝑟 7 ⇔ 𝑟 7 =
1 7 1 1 1
− 128 ⇔ 𝑟 = √− 128 ⇒ 𝑟 = − 2 .The common ratio is 𝑟 = − 2
Geometric means
To insert k terms called geometric means between two terms 𝑢1 and 𝑢𝑛 is to form a geometric sequence of
𝑛 = 𝑘 + 2 terms whose first term is 𝑢1 and the last term is 𝑢𝑛 . While there are several methods, we will
use our 𝑛𝑡ℎ term formula 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑈𝟏 𝑟 𝑛−𝟏
As 𝑈𝟏 and 𝑈𝑛 are known, we need to find the common ratio r taking n k 2 where k is the number
of terms to be inserted.
Note that if three terms are consecutive terms of a geometric sequence, the square of the middle
term is equal to the product of extreme terms. That is, for a geometric sequence 𝑈𝑛−1 , 𝑈𝑛 , 𝑈𝑛+1 , we have
𝒖𝟐𝒏 =𝑼𝒏−𝟏 . 𝑼𝒏+𝟏
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𝟏𝟐𝟐 = 𝟔 × 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒
Expected answers:
𝑥
(2) Let the three terms be ,𝑥, 𝑎𝑥 .
𝑎
3
⟹ 𝑎 + 3 + 27𝑎 = −79
𝑈5 = 𝑈𝟏 𝑟 𝑛−𝟏 ⟺ 48 = 3𝑟 4 ⟹ 𝑟 = 2
Inserting three terms using common ratio r=2 gives 3, 6,12, 24, 48
1 1 1
(4) Here 𝑘 = 3 then 𝑛 = 5 , u1 3 and =𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢5 = − 128 𝑢8 = 𝑢𝟏 𝑟 𝑛−𝟏 ⟺ − 128 =1𝑟 7 ⟺ − 128
1
1 1 7 1
=𝑟 7 ⟺ 𝑟 7 = − (2)7 ⟺r =[− (2)7 ] = − 2
1
Inserting 6 terms using common ratio 𝑟 = − 2 gives
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
1, − 𝟐, , − 𝟖 , 𝟏𝟔 , − 𝟑𝟐 , 𝟔𝟒 , − 𝟏𝟐𝟖
𝟒
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Consider the following geometric series:
If we continue adding progressive terms, it is clear that the decimal obtained is getting closer and closer to 1.
The series is said to converge to 1. The number to which the series converges is called the sum to infinity of the
series.
There is a useful formula to help us calculate the sum to infinity of a convergent geometric series.
The formula is
A geometric series will converge only if the constant ratio is a number between negative one and positive one.
In other words, the sum to infinity for a given geometric series will exist only if If the constant ratio
lies outside this interval, then the series will not converge.
For example, the geometric series will not converge since the sum of the
progressive terms of the series diverges because which lies outside the interval
(1)
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(a) Determine the nth term of the series.
(b) For what value(s) of will the series converge?
3
(c) Calculate the sum of the series to infinity if x
2
(2) Given the geometric progression 16, 12, 9, …. Find the sum to infinity of this sequence.
Expected answer:
(a)
(b)
3
(c) Calculate the sum of the series to infinity if x
2
2
3
2 8
72
a 8x 2
S
1 r 1 x 13
1
2 22
Sigma Notation
Sigma means sum of, for example means the sum of the five terms in the sequence n+1. We
determine the number of terms in this sequence by subtracting the number at the bottom, 2, from the
number at the top, 6, and as seen below. There are 5 terms in the sequence.
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From the question we can see that the sequence is arithmetic and further more we have the last term
𝒏
therefore, we can use the formula 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟐 (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 ) to calculate the sum:
6
We can now write the series in sigma notation as follows: 2k 1
n1
2.3.APPLICATIONS
There are many applications of sequences such as calculation of interest portion of monthly payment, population
growth, half-life and decay in radioactivity.
kt
r
The compound interest formula is : A P1 , and The simple interest formula is 𝐈 = 𝐏𝐫𝐭
k
where P= The principal amount T= time in years, r= annual rate, k= number of period per year.
Note: the common terms used to name different number of periods are:
Annually 1
Tertiary 3
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Quarterly 4
Monthly 12
Weekly 52
Daily 365
Continuously 𝐀 = 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐭
(1) A child building a tower with blocks uses 15 for the bottom row. Each row has 2 fewer blocks than the
previous row.
Suppose that there are 8 rows in the tower.
(2) An insect population is growing in such a way that each new generation is 1.5 times as large as the
previous generation. Suppose there are 100 insects in the first generation.
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Expected answers
(1)
a) The number of blocks in each row forms an arithmetic sequence with u1 =15 and d = −2 n = 8,
u8 = u1 +(8−1)(−2) . There is just one block in the top row.
b) Here we must find the sum of the terms of the arithmetic sequence formed with u1 =15, n = 8, u8 =1
(2) (a) Here 𝑎1 = 100, and common ration 𝑟 = 1.5 then 𝑎5 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎5 = 100(1.5)5−1 = 50.6.25
(c) Since S n
a1 r n 1
or S n
a1 1 r n then 𝑆5 =
100(1−1.55 )
= 1318.75
r 1 r 1
1 r r 1 1−1.5
kt
r
(3) P =1300, r = 7% = 0.07, k =1 and since A P1
k
117
0.07
A 13001 4106.46
1
Question 2
The 13th and 7th terms of an arithmetic sequence are 15 and 51 respectively.
Question 3
In a geometric sequence, the 6th term is 243 and the 3rd term is 72.
Determine:
Question 4
Question 5
(a) Determine if :
(b) Prove
that:
∑𝑛𝑘=3(2𝑘 − 1)𝑛 = 𝑛3 − 4𝑛
Question 6
Consider the series
Question 7
A sequence of squares, each having side 1, is drawn as shown below. The first square is shaded, and
the length of the side of each shaded square is half the length of the side of the shaded square in the
previous diagram.
(b) What is the sum of the areas of the unshaded regions on the first seven squares?
41 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Question 8
2
A plant grows 1,5 m in 1st year. Its growth each year thereafter, is of its growth in the previous
3
year. What is the greatest height it can reach?
Question 9
A mathematical child negotiates a new pocket money deal with her unsuspecting father in which she
receives 1 pound on the first day of the month, 2 pounds on the second day, 4 pounds on the third day, 8
pounds on the fourth day, 16 pounds on the fifth day, until the end of the month. How much would the
child receive during the course of a month of 30 days? (Give your answer to the nearest million
pounds).
42 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
UNIT 3: LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
3.0. INTRODUCTION
In S4, we have seen decimal logarithm,
The logarithm of a positive number, in base 10, is its power of 10, this means that log 10X = x . For
instance:
(A) 100 = 102, we write log10 100 = 2 or log 100 = 2
(B) 0.001 = 10–3, we write log10 (0.001) = −3 or log (0.001) = –3
In algebraic form, A = 10logA for any A > 0.
Note: If no base is indicated we assume that it is base 10
Properties of logarithms
For all positive real numbers x and b, b 0, and , b 1, y log b x if and only if x b y
If x, y, and , a are positive real numbers, a 1 and n is any real number, then
x
ii) log a log a x log a y
y
iii) log a x n n log a x
1
iv) log a log a y , since log a 1 0
y
v) log a a 1
1
vi) log bn x log b x
n
vii) (log a x) log a x log a x 2 (log a x)2
log a x
(i) log b x . This means, it is possible to express the logarithm of x to the base b in terms of
log a b
logarithms to some other base a.
1
(ii) log b x
log x b
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Basic rules for exponents
Expected answers:
44 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(5) Calculate to 3 significant figures, the value of log 2 10
(6) Prove the following:
1 (b) log 2,000 = 4 – log 5
(a) log ( ) = −5 log 2
32
2
(7) Find the numerical value of log 3 √9
The graph of a logarithmic function is found by reflecting the graph of the corresponding exponential function in
the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Task 3: In pairs,
In the same Cartesian plane, sketch the curve of the function f ( x) 3x for 2 x 2 and its inverse f 1 ( x)
Expected answer:
Table of coordinates of f ( x) 3x
𝑦 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.4 3.7 5.8 9.0
Table of coordinates of f 1 ( x)
𝑥 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.4 3.7 5.8 9.0
45 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Sketching the curve
Task 5: (Individually),
Solve the following logarithmic equations
1 1 1
(ii) log 2 y from, y log a x x a y , then log 2 y 2 y
16 16 16
2 y 24 y 4
b4 81 b4 34 b 3
(iv) log 3 3x 8 2 ? 3x 8 52 3x 8 25 3x 33 x 11
46 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Task 6: (In pairs),
Solve the following logarithmic equation
2 log x y 1
(f) Solve the following equation ,
xy 64
Expected answer:
x 2 x 2 101 x 2 x 12 0 x 4x 3 0
(b)
log 2 x log 2 x 3 2 log 2 xx 3 2 log 2 x 2 3x 2
x 2 3x 22 x 2 3x 4 0 x 4x 1 0
(d) Condition: x 0
log 8 log8 log8
Method 1: log x log x log 10 3 x 10 3
3
Method 2: 3 log x log 8 log x 3 log 23 x 2 , S x 2
S x 1
2 log x y 1 64 64
(f) y 2 log x 1
xy 64 x x
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2 2
64 64 64
2 log x 1 log x 1 x1 642
x x x 2 x 64 x3
2
x
64
x3 4096 x 3 4096 16 x 16 and y 4
16
The solution set is x 16, y 4
2 log 2 (2 x 1) 2 log 2 y
3) x y 22
(b)Natural logarithms
1) ln( xy ) ln x ln y
x
2) ln ln x ln y
y
3) ln x n n ln x
4) ln e x x ln e
5) ln e 1
6) ln 1 0
1) ln x 2 ? ln x ln e2 x e2
2) ln x 2 1 0 Condition: x 2 1 0 x 2 1, x 1, or, x 1
48 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
ln x 2 1 ln 1 x 2 1 1 x 2 2 0 x 2 . The solution set is 2 , 2
Task 9: (Group discussion)
In pairs, Solve the following equations
1) ln x 2 ln 2
2) 4 ln x 16
3)
ln 2 x 3 ln x 4 ln 2 x 2 11
4) ln 2 x ln x 6 0
5) 3 ln 2 x 2 ln x 1 0
ln 6 ln x 3 2 ln y
6)
2 y x 3
x y 3e
7)
ln x ln y 2 ln 2
ln xy 7
8) x
ln y 1
2 ln x 3 ln y 2
9)
3 ln x 5 ln y 4
Expected answers:
1)
ln x 2 ln 2 ln x ln e 2 ln 2 ln x ln e 2 2
ln x 2 ln e 2 x 2e 2
2) 4 ln x 16
3)
ln 2 x 3 ln x 4 ln 2 x 2 11
ln 2 x ln x 6 0 ln x ln x 6 0 . Let ln x y
2
4)
y 2 y 6 0 y 3 y 2 0 y 3, or, y 2
When y=-3
When y 3 ln x 3 ln x ln e 3 x e 3
5) 3 ln 2 x 2 ln x 1 0
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1
Let ln x y 3 y 2 2 y 1 0 y 1 y 0
3
1
y 1, or , y . When y 1 ln x 1 x e
3
1 1
1 1
When y ln x ln x ln e 3 x e 3
3 3
ln 6 x 18 ln y 2
ln 6 x 3 ln y 2
ln 6 ln x 3 2 ln y 3 x
2 y x 3 y
(6) 2 y x 3 2
6 x 18 y 2
3 x
2
6 x 18 9 6 x x
1
3 x 6 x 18
2
y 2 4
2
x 2 18x 81 0 18 4181 324 324 0
2
3 9 12
18 0 x 9 y 6
x1 x2 9 x1 x2 9 When 2 2
2
The solution is x 9, y 6
(7) This is a system containing unknowns x and y . To solve this system we follow the conditions that:
ln x y ln 3e ln x y ln 3e x y 3e
x 0 and y 0 ,
ln xy ln e ln 2 ln xy ln 2e xy 2e
2 2 2
x 3e y
Solving by comparison method, 2e 2 : Equal results!
x
y
2e 2
3e y 3ey y 2 2e 2 , ⟺ y 2 3ey 2e 2 0 : Quadratic equation in y .
y
3 9 9
Solving by completing of squares, we get: y 2 2 e y e 2 e 2 2e 2 0
2 4 4
9e 2 8e 2 y 2e
2 2
3 3 e2 3 e
y e , ⟹ y e y e
2 4 2 4 2 2 y e
x 3e 2e e x 3e e 2e
For y 2e 2e 2
: Verified!, For y e 2e 2 : Verified!
x e x 2e
2e
e
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Then, S x1 , y1 , x2 , y 2 e,2e, 2e, e
The function f ( x) e x is called the natural exponential. Equations that contain one or more exponential
expressions are called exponential equations. Some exponential equations can be solved by using algebraic
techniques such as factoring.
1) 2 x 64
2) 25x 5
3) 5x3 1
25
4) 22 x 2 x 6 0
Expected answers:
1) 2 x 64 2 x 26 x 6
5x3 1
5 2 5 52 x 3 2 x 1
x 3 1 x 3
1) 25 5
3)
2
22 x 2 x 6 0 2 x 2 x 6 0 Let y 2 x we have y 2 y 6 0 y 3, and , y 2 , when
1)
1
9
5 x 7 4)
2 52 x 5x 6
27
5) 3x 2 42 x 1
2) 32x
3
x 1
40
6) 42 x 1 27 0
323 8x 12
x
3) 7) 8x 15
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Expected answers
1)
1
27
9
5 x7
33 32 5 x 7
33 3
10 x14
3 10 x 14 10 x 11 x
11
10
2) 32 x 3x1 4 0
5) xe x 0
6) 6 x 2e3 x xe3 x 2e3 x
Expected answers
1). 2 xe 4e 0
x x
2 xe x 4e x 0 2 x 4e x 0 2 x 4 0, or, e x 0
52 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
e x 0 there is no value of x for which e x 0 , and 2 x 4 0 x 2
2). 3e x e x 2 to eliminate negative exponents, multiply both sides by e x 0 , then we have
3e x (e x ) e x (e x ) 2(e x ) 3 e2 x 2e x e2 x 2e x 3 0 , this equation becomes quadratic in e x . Solving
ex 5
3) x 5 e x 5(e x 1) e x 5e x 5 e x 5e x 5 4e x 5 e x
e 1 4
5 5 5
ln e x ln( ) x ln e ln x ln( ) 0.22 since ln e 1
4 4 4
4) e2 x e3 x6 e2 x 0 e2 x e3 x6 e2 x e2 x 0 e2 x3 x6 e2 x2 x 0 e x6 e0 0
6) 6 x 2e3 x xe3 x 2e3 x 6 x 2 e 3 x xe 3 x 2e 3 x 0 e 3 x 6 x 2 x 2 0 e 3 x 0 there is no value of x
2 1 2 1
for which e 3 x 0 or 6 x 2 x 2 0 x x 0 x , or , x
3 2 3 2
2 1
Therefore, the solution set is ,
3 2
3.4. APPLICATIONS
(a) Exponential growth model
A population whose rate of increase is proportional to the size of the population at any time obeys a law of the
form P Ae kt . This is known as exponential growth law.
Expected answer,
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From P Ae kt where P is the number of population after a time t. The quantity A is the initial value, k is called
the growth rate, and t is the time. From the given data, A 4billion , k 2% 0.02 , time, t 45 years , since
2020-1975=45. It follows that the world population by the year 2020 is given by P 4e0.0245 4e0.9 billion.
P 42.459603 9.838412billion . Therefore, the world’s population by the year 2020 is approximately 9.8
billion.
If a quantity has an exponential growth model, then the time required for it to double in size is called the
doubling time. Similarly, if a quantity has an exponential decay model, then the time required for it to reduce in
value by half is called the halving time. For radioactive elements, halving time is called half-life.
1.The radioactive element carbon 14 or (C614 ) , has a half-life of 5750 years. If 100 grams of this element are
present initially, how much will be left after 1000 years?
Expected answer:
54 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Radioactive decay obeys a law of the form P(t ) P0e kt , where t is the time, k is the decay constant, P0 is the
initial value and P(t) is the value after a time t.
1 1 1 1
As T ln 2 , the decay constant is k ln 2 (ln 2) (0.693147181)
k T 5750 5750
k 0.00012 where k is the decay constant.
Radioactive decay obeys a law of the form P(t ) P0e kt . Thus, if we take t=0 to be the present time, then
P0 100 g . Then, the amount of carbon 14 after 1000 years will be:
P(1000) 100e(0.00012)(1000)
Thus, about 88.692 grams of carbon 14, will remain after 1000 years.
(c)Compound interest
kt
r
The formula for interest that is compounded is A P1 Where A represents the amount of money after a
k
certain amount of time.
P is the principle or the amount of money you start with, r is the interest rate and is always represented as a
decimal and t represents the amount of time in year. The quantity 𝑘 is the number of times interest is compounded
in one year.
Note: Below are some terms used in compound interest and their corresponding 𝒌
55 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
𝐈𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐝 ∶ 𝐂𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐤
𝐀𝐧𝐧𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝟏
𝐇𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐨𝐟 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝟐
𝐓𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝟑
𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝟒
𝐌𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐡𝐥𝐲 𝟏𝟐
𝐖𝐞𝐞𝐤𝐥𝐲 𝟓𝟐
𝐃𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐲 𝟑𝟔𝟓
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐨𝐮𝐬𝐥𝐲 𝐏 = 𝐏𝟎 𝐞𝐫𝐭
Expected answer:
nt
r
(1) We will use the formula, A P1 and let P=10000, r=0.04, n=4, t=18
n
nt 4 18
r 0.04
A P1 A (10000)1 20471
n 4
Thus, the amount of money in the college account after 18 years is 20,471 FRW.
56 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
2. If $3000 is borrowed at a rate of 12% interest per year, find the amount due at the end of 5years if the
interest is compounded annually? Monthly?
(d)Richter scale
Magnitude of Earthquake is measured using the Richter Scale. On this scale , the magnitude R of an earthquake
I
is given by R log where I 0 is a fixed standard intensity of earthquake being measured.
I0
Expected answer:
I I
(1) If an earthquake measures R=3 on Richter scale , then log 3 103
I0 I0
I 103 I 0 I 1000I 0 Therefore, the intensity is 1000times the standard, that is I 1000I 0
I
(2) The Sun Francisco earthquake of 1906 registered R=8.2 on Richter scale, it means that log 8.2 or
I0
I
108.2 I 108.2 I 0 which express intensity in terms of the standard intensity.
I0
57 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
3.5. END OF UNIT 3 ACTIVITIES (Practice Questions)
a) log 𝑥 5 = log 5 𝑥
c) log 3 5x 12 log 3 x 2 g) log 2 x log 8 x 4
i) 5 log 3 x 2 log 3 x 3
3
log 4 x log 4 7
e) 2
q) ln x 2 5
k) e 13e 36 0
4x 2x
r) 106 x 102 x 2 0
x y 3e
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 130
{
ln x ln y 2 ln 2
s)
l) ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 = ln 63
m) 9 x 2 3x1 27
n) 2 log 2 x log x 2 3
o) ln 2 x ln x 6 0
3.5.2. Count on the following
I. Evaluate:
1
a) 4 log 3 2 log 27 9 b) log1001 7 log100111 log100113
3
c) log12 log 9 log 5 log 2 32 e) 3e
ln x
d) e 2 ln 3 f) ln 3 e
II. Solve in IR
2 x 1
x x
1
6. 8 log 2 x 9 log x 1 0
2. 2 9 2
4 2
3 x4 0
3. 106 x 103 x 2 0 7. 3 ln 2 x 2 ln x 1 0
4. 9 x 3 x 12 0 8. ln x ln( x 2 2 x 1) ln 2 0
58 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
9. ln 2 x ln x 6 0 16. ln x 2 5
10. ln 2 x 9 ln x 1 0 17. ln ln x 1 3
11. 2 ln x ln( x 5) ln 3 18. e x 6e x 5
12. 2 ln( x 3) ln x ln 5 19. ln x 3 1
13. ln( x 3) ln( x 2) ln( x 11) 20. ln x 1 0
14. e 2 x 2e x 8 0 21. log 3 xlog x 2xlog 2 x y log x y 2
15. ln x ln 2 ln 4 ln( x 7)
(2) Scientists who do carbon-14 dating use a figure of 5,700 years for its half-life. Find the age of a sample in
which 10% of the radioactive nuclei originally present have decayed?
(3) If the half-life of radium is 1,690 years, what percentage of the amount present now will be remaining after
(4) In the first few weeks after birth, a baby gains weight at a rate proportional to its weight. A baby weighing
4kg at birth weighs 4.4 kg after 2 weeks. How much did the baby weigh 5 days after birth?
(5) How much money needs to be invested today at a nominal rate of 4% compounded continuously, in order
that it should grow to in 7 days?
(6) If the purchasing power of the dollar is decreasing at an effective rate of 9% annually, how long will it take
for the purchasing power to be reduced to 25 cents?
(7) Suppose that the bacteria in a colony can grow unchecked, by the law of exponential change. The colony
starts with 1 bacterium and doubles every half hour. How many bacteria will the colony contain at the end of 24
hours?
(8) The number of people cured is proportional to the number that is infected with the disease.
59 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
a) Suppose that in the course of any given year the number of cases of disease is reduced by 20 %. If there are
10,000 cases today, how many years will it take to reduce the number to 1,000?
b) Suppose that in any given year the number of cases can be reduced by 25% instead of 20% .
(i) How long will it take to reduce the number of cases to 1,000?
(ii) How long will it take to eradicate the disease, that is, to reduce the number of cases to less than 1?
(8) A bank pays compound interest on money invested in an account. After n years, a sum of $2,000 will rise
to $2,000𝑥10.08𝑛 .
(a) How much money is in the account after three years?
(b) After how many years will the original $2,000 have nearly doubled?
(9) Kamali’s bike is ill. Its computer controlled ignition system has a virus. The doctor has advised Kamali to
keep the bike warm, in which case the number of germs in the bike will decay exponentially and will be
1000000 × 2−𝑛 after 𝑛 hours.
(a) How many germs will be there after 10 hours?
(b) The bike will be cured when it contains less than one germ. After how many hours will it be cured?
𝑡
(10) The speed V(t), of a certain chemical reaction at t 0C is given by𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉(0) × 530 . At what temperature
will the speed of reaction be twice that at 0 0C?
(11) The population of a country grows according to the law 𝑃 = 12𝑒 𝑘𝑡 where P million is the population at
time t years and k is a constant. Given that when P=7, t=15, find the time for which the population will be
(a) 20 million (b) 30 million (c) 35 million
(12) The law of cooling for a bath of water is 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑒 −0.5𝑡 where θ is excess of temperature of the water over
the temperature of the bathroom at time t minutes and A is a constant. Given that at time 0 t = the temperature of
the water is 600C and that the bathroom has a constant temperature of 150C , calculate the value of t when the
temperature of the water is a) 50 0C b) 35 0C c) 27 0C
(13) How long does it take $5000 to grow to $10,000 at 6% compounded continuously?
(14) How long does it take to earn $1000 interest on a deposit of one million dollars at 9% compounded
continuously?
(15) An investment of $10,000 in Dell Computer stock in 1995 grew to $231,800 in 1998.
a) Assuming the investment grew continuously, what was the annual growth rate?
b) If Dell continues to grow at the same rate, then what will the $10,000 investment be
worth in 2002?
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(16) An investment of $10,000 in 1980 in Hershey stock was worth $563,000 in 1998. Assuming the
investment grew continuously, what was the annual growth rate?
1
(17) Find the amount that must be invested at 5 % today in order to have $100 000 in 20 years if the
2
investment is compounded continuously.
(18) The population of a certain city has a relative growth rate of 9% per year. The population in 1978 was
24,000. Find the projected population of the city for the year 2010.
(19) The relative growth rate for a certain bacteria population is 75% per hour. A small culture is formed and 4
hours later a count shows approximately 32,500 bacteria in a culture. Find the initial number of bacteria in the
culture and estimate the number of bacteria 6 hours from the time the culture was started.
(20) If $2500 is invested at an interest rate of 6.5%, compounded monthly, how long will it take for the
investment to reach $7500?
x4
a) log x 4 log 3 log 3x 2 log log 3x 2
x4
3x 2 x 4 9 x 2 x 4 9 x 2 0 x 2 x 2 9 0
3 3
x 2 x 3x 3 0 x 2 0 x 0 to be rejected!
x 3 0 x 3, or, x 3
3
b) log 3 5x 12 log 3 x 2 Answer: x 3, or , x
5
log x log
3
2
3 32 3 log 3 x log 3 x 2 2 3 log 3 x
log 3 x 1 x 3 or log 3 x 2 x 9
2nd Method
61 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
1 1
using the change of base formula, from, log b x log 3 x
log x b log x 3
1 1 1
log 3 x log x 9 3 log x 9 3 log x 32 3 2 log x 3 3
log x 3 log x 3 log x 3
1
Let y log x 3 2y 3 1 2 y 2 3 y 2 y 2 3 y 1 0 solve this equation
y
1
2 y 2 3 y 1 0 y 1 y 0 y 1, or , y ,
1
2 2
when y 1 log x 3 1 3 x1 x 3
3
d) log 4 x log 4 7 Answer: x 56
2
1
h) 5 log 3 x 2 log 3 x 3 Answer: x
3
4.0. INTRODUCTION
In S4, we have seen that to solve linear equations and quadratic equations, we use either by factorising, by
formula or by completing the square.
Task 1: In pairs,
Solve the following linear equations,
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(2) The polynomial x3 4 x 2 7 x k where k is a constant, is denoted by f (x)
(a) Given that ( x 2) is a factor of f (x) , find the value of k
(b) Express f (x) as product of linear factors.
(c) Solve f ( x) 0
(3) Consider the polynomial f ( x) ax3 x 2 5x b where a and b are constants. When f (x) is divided by
( x 2) the remainder is 36 and when f (x) is divided by ( x 2) the remainder is 40. Find the value of a and b .
hence solve f ( x) 0
NOTE: In some instances, it may be almost impossible to use an exact method to solve an equation for example,
x 1 sin x precisely. In such cases, we may be able to use other techniques which give good approximations to
the solution.
y y1 y2 y1 ( x x1 )( y2 y1 )
The Linear Interpolation Formula is given as, or y y1
x x1 x 2 x1 ( x2 x1 )
Task 2: Individually,
f (x) 2 8 1
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(3) A curve y f (x) passes through the point (4,1.88) and (5,1.84) .Find the value of f (4.2)
Expected answers:
(1)
x 1 1.15 2
f (x) 2 f (1.15) 8
( x x1 )( y2 y1 ) (1.15 1)(8 2)
Here y y1 , then y 2 2.9 , therefore f (1.15) 2.9
( x2 x1 ) (2 1)
(1) In experiment to measure the rate of cooling of an object, the following temperature 𝜃℃ against time 𝑇 in
seconds, were recorded;
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝜃℃ 80 70.2 65.8 61.9 54.2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇 0 10 15 20 30
64 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(2) The table shows the value of function at a set of points
𝑥 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
In the graph below, the three points x1 , x2 and x3 are given and the value of point x4 is extrapolated.
Task 4: Individually,
(1) The two given points lie on a straight line is (1,5) and (4,10). Determine the value of y at x=5 on the
straight line using extrapolation method.
(2) From the following table, find (3.363) 2
x x2
3.35 11,2225
3.36 11.2896
Expected answers:
( x x1 )( y2 y1 )
(1) Given x1 1, y1 5 and x2 4, y2 10 , since y y1
( x2 x1 )
(5 1)(10 5)
Then y 5 11.65
(4 1)
y y1 y2 y1 y 11.2225 11.2896 11.2225
(2) Using , then
x x1 x 2 x1 3.363 3.35 3.36 3.35
65 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
0.0671 y 11.2225
6.17 0.013 y 11.2225
0.01 0.013
y 11.2225 0.082
y 11.3097
The root of f ( x) 0 lies in interval ]𝑎, 𝑏[, if f (a). f (b) 0 ; in other words, f (a) and f (b) are of opposite
sign.
Task 6: In pairs,
Expected answers:
(1) Let f ( x) x3 x 1
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
f ( x) x3 x 1 -25 -7 -1 -1 -1 5
(1) Show that the equation x3 3x 12 0 has a root between 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3. Hence, use linear
interpolation once to get the first approximation to the root.
(2) Show that the equation x3 x 5 0 has a root between 1 and 2. Hence, use linear interpolation to
calculate the root to 2 decimal places.
(b)Graphical method
66 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
To solve the equation f ( x) 0 , graphically, we draw the graph of y f (x) and read from it the value of 𝑥
for which f ( x) 0 , i.e. the x-coordinates of the points where the curve y f (x) cuts the x-axis.
Alternatively, we would rearrange f ( x) 0 , in the form h( x) g ( x) , and find the x-coordinates of the
points where the curves y h(x) and y g (x) intersect.
Task 8: In pairs,
y x3
x -1 0 1 2
y x 1
Using one pair of axes, draw the graphs of y x3 and y x 1 , 1 x 2 . Use your graphs to find an
Expected answers:
(1)
x −1 0 1 2
0 0 2 3
y x 1
67 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
From the intersection of the graphs, an approximate solution to the equation x3 x 1 0 in the range
1 x 2 is 1.3
f ( x) x3 6 x 13 0
(2) f (1) 1 6 13 18 0, f (2) 8 12 13 17 0
f (3) 27 18 13 4 0, f (4) 64 24 13 27 0
From the intersection of the graphs, an approximate solution to the equation x3 6 x 13 0 in the range
3 x 4 is 3.2.
x3 2 x 20 0 .
(4) Solve graphically x3 2 x 5 0 .
(5) Solve graphically the equation x 1 sin x .
Suppose you need to find the root of continuous and differentiable function f (x) ,and you know the root
you are looking for is near the point x x0 . Then Newton-Raphson method (Newton’s method) tell us that
f ( x0 )
the better approximation of the root is x1 x0
f ' ( x0 )
f ( xn )
Generally, for any value xn the next value is xn1 xn for n 1,2,3,4,5,.........
f ' ( xn )
NOTE:
If the near point x x0 is not given, we guess two numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that f (a). f (b) 0 . Then
(1) Find the root of the equation x 2 4 x 7 0 near x0 5 to the nearest thousandth.
(b) Using the formula given in part(a) with x0 1 find the value of x1 and x2
(c) Explain why for this question the Newton-Raphson cannot be use with x0 0
(3) Use the Newton-Raphson method to approximate the real solution of the equation x3 x 1 0
(4) Use the Newton-Raphson method to find the next approximate root of the equation x3 5x 3 0
Expected answers:
69 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(1) Given that f ( x) x 2 4 x 7 0 , i.e f ' ( x) 2 x 4 . Then Newton-Raphson formula can be written
xn2 4 xn 7 3x 2 8 xn 7
xn1 xn or xn1 n and x0 5
2 xn 4 2 xn 4
n 0, x1 6
n 1, x2 6.625
By using this formula, For
n 2, x3
.
(2)
xn3 xn 1
(3) Let f ( x) x3 x 1, f ' ( x) 2 x 2 1 . Newton-Raphson formula becomes xn1 xn ,
3xn2 1
2 xn3 1
after combining the terms xn1
3xn3 1
f (1) 13 1 1 1 0
then the first approximation x0 lies between 1 and 2.
f (2) 23 2 1 5 0
2(1.5) 2 1
n 0, x1 1.34782609
2(1.5) 2 1
Let us use 1.5, gives
2(1.34782609) 2 1
n 1, x2 1.342520040
3(1.34782609) 2 1
x3 1.32471817
If we continues this process, until we two approximation on the same value we get x4 1.32471796
x5 1.32471796
2 xn3 3
formula becomes xn1 , f (0) 3 0 and f (1) (1)3 5(1) 3 1 0
2 xn2 5
then the first approximation lies between 0 and 1, let now use x0 0.5
2(0.5)3 3
for n 0, x1 0.647059
2(0.5) 2 5
2(0.647059)3 3
n 1, x2 0.656573
2(0.647059) 2 5
2(0.656573)3 3
n 2, x3 0.65662
2(0.656573) 2
2(0.65662)3 3
n 3, x4 0.65662
2(0.65662) 5
The solution is approximately x 0.65662
70 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Task 11: Group discussion,
(1) Solve the following equations by Newton-Raphson method
(a) e x 3 x , to three decimal places
(b) x3 x 2 , to three decimal places
(2) Apply Newton-Raphson method to find an approximate solution of the equation e x 3x 0 Correct
up to three significant figure, (assume x0 0.4 as an approximate root of the equation).
When trying to solve an equation f ( x) 0 by an iterative method, you first rearrange f ( x) 0 into a form
4 x3 4 xn3
For example if f ( x) x3 6 x 4 , x and xn
6 6
(1) Use iterative method to find the solution 0f x 2 x 5 0 to 2 decimal places(2dp) starting with
x0 1 .
(2) Starting with x1 2 use iterative formula xn1 3 6 x 5 to find the solution to x3 6 x 5 0 to 2
decimal places(2dp).
3
(3) Starting with x1 4 use the iterative formula xn1 2
3 to find the solution to 3x 2 x3 3 0 to
( xn )
3dp.
Expected answers:
If x0 1 ,
x1 5 1 2.4495
x2 5 2.4495 2.7294
x3 5 2.7294 2.7802 , thus the solution rounding to 2dp x 2.79
x4 5 2.9802 2.7893
x5 5 2.7893 2.7909
71 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
x2 3 6(2) 5 2.572128
x3 3 6(2.57128) 5 2.733
x4 3 6(2.733) 5 2.7741
Since x1 2 , , thus the solution rounding to 2dp x 2.79
x5 3 6(2.7741) 5 2.78746
x6 3 6(2.78746) 5 2.790
x7 3 6(2.790) 5 2.991
3
(3) Given 3x 2 x3 3 0 , the iterative formula xn1 3 and x1 4
( xn ) 2
3
x2 3 3.1875
(4) 2
3
x3 3 3.29527
(3.1875) 2
3
x4 3 3.27627
(3.29527) 2
Then , thus the solution rounding to 3dp x 3.279
3
x5 3 3.27949
(3.27627) 2
3
x6 3 3.27903
(3.27949) 2
3
x7 3 3.27903
(3.27903)
x p
2
(c) Using the iteration formula xn1 n together with your values of p and q, starting at x1 0.5
q
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1
(2) Using the iteration formula xn1 2 and starting with x2 2 , find the value, to 4 significant
xn2
figures, to which the sequence x1 , x2 , x3 ,.......xn tends. This sequence leads to one root of an equation. State the
equation.
sin( xn )
(3) x 2 sin x 0 has a root lying between 0.5 and 1. Using iteration formula xn1 , find this
xn
root to
3 significant figures.
p xn
(1) Using the iteration formula xn1 2
together with your values of 𝑝, starting at x0 2.5 , find,
xn 2
(2) Approximate 3
6 by applying the Newton-Raphson method to the equation x3 6 0 .
(3) Solve the following equations by the Newton-Raphson method
(a) xe x 2 0
(b) x 2 sin x 0
(4) Consider the equation ln x 4 x 0
(a) Show graphically, or otherwise, that the equation ln x 4 x 0 has only one real root and prove
that this root lies between 2.9 and 3.
(b) By taking 2.9 as first approximation to this root and applying the Newton-Raphson process once to
the equation ln x 4 x 0 , or otherwise, find a second approximation, giving your answer to 3 significant
figures.
(5) Solve graphically x 2 sin x 0
1
(6) Use the iteration formula to solve xn1 3 with x1 1.5 to find the value, to 3 significant figures,
xn
to which the sequence x1 , x2 , x3 ,.......xn tends. This sequence leads to one root of an equation. State the
equation.
(7) The equation x 2 4 x 2 has two roots, one near x 0 and the other near x 4
2
(a) Using xn1 with x0 0 find the root (correct to 2 decimal places).
xn 4
2
(b) Why could we not use the formula xn1 with x0 4 ?
xn 4
2
(c) Using xn1 with x0 4 , find the root near x 4 (correct to 2 decimal places).
xn
73 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
UNIT5 : TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The trigonometric functions include the following 6 functions: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
sin 1 cos 1 1
and cosecant where tan cot sec cosec
cos tan sin cos sin
Moreover , there are rules involving these functions into a triangle :
A a
ˆ
cos B ˆ b
cos A
c c
c b
ˆ b
sin B ˆ a
sin A
c c
B a C
ˆ b
tan B ˆ a
tan A
a b
Note: For each of these functions, there is an inverse trigonometric function which will be discussed
later.
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Graph of the cosine function, y cos x
Hence for y tan x , Domain IR \ 2k 1 and Range IR or Range ,
2
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For y sec x , Domain IR \ 2k 1 and Range ,1 1,
2
y sin x ℝ 1,1
y cos x ℝ 1,1
y tan x 𝜋
ℝ\ { + 𝑘𝜋} , 𝑘𝜖ℤ IR ,
2
y csc x ℝ\{𝑘𝜋}. 𝑘𝜖ℤ ,1 1,
y sec x 𝜋
ℝ\ { + 𝑘𝜋} , 𝑘𝜖ℤ ,1 1,
2
76 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(5) f(x) = cos x + tanx (6) f(x) = cos
√x
x
Expected answers:
IR ,
IR IR \ k IR \ k , k IZ
(1)
(5)
(2) IR \ 0 or ,0 0, 2
IR \ 0 0, 0,
IR \ 0 or ,0 0,
(6)
(3)
1 1
Remember that while solving trigonometric function, sin x , we write x sin 1 . The term
2 2
1
sin 1 is called trigonometric inverse.
2
sin x and cos x are defined on the entire interval , . They have the inverses called inverse sine
and inverse cosine denoted by sin 1 x and cos 1 x respectively.
Note:
1 1
That the symbols sin 1 x and cos 1 x are never used to denote and respectively.
sin x cos x
Remark:
The inverses of the trigonometric functions are not functions, they are relations. The reason why they are
not functions is that for a given value of x , there are an infinite number of angles at which the trigonometric
77 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
functions take on the value of x . Thus, the range of the inverses of the trigonometric functions must be
restricted to make them functions. Without these restricted ranges, they are known as the inverse
trigonometric relations.
π π
To define sin 1 x and cos 1 x , we restrict the domain of sin x and cos x to the interval [− 2 , 2 ] and
sin sin 1 x x if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
cos cos 1 x x if−1 ≤ x ≤ 1
Inverse tangent
Tangent of x denoted tan x , it has the inverse called inverse tangent and is denoted by tan 1 x .
To define tan 1 x , we restrict the domain of tan x to ,
2 2
Because tan x (restricted) and tan 1 x are inverse to each other, thus:
tan tan1 x x if, −∞ < 𝑥 < +∞
Inverse secant
The inverse secant, denoted sec1 x , is defined to be the inverse of restricted secant function.
If we let y sec1 x , then, the domain is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1,+∞) and the range is 0, , .
2 2
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For y cot x we obtain its inverse cot 1 x if we restrict the domain y IR , and range y 0,
For csc1 x the restricted domain is x ,1 1, and the range is y ,0 0,
2 2
Notice
If α and β are acute complementary angles, then from basic trigonometry, sin α and cos β are equal. Let us
write x sin cos so that sin 1 x and cos 1 x . Since we obtain the following:
2
sin 1 x cos 1 x
2
tan1 x cot 1 x
2
sec1 x csc 1 x
2
sin 1 x sin 1 x
y sin 1 x 1,1
2 , 2
79 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
y cot 1 x IR , y 0,
1 1
(1) Find: (a) sin 1 (b) sin 1
2 2
(2) Simplify the following trigonometric inverses:
(a)
cos sin 1 x (b)
sec2 tan 1 x (c)
tan 2 sec1 x
(d)
(3) For which value of x is true that:
(a) tan1 tan x x (b)
tan tan1 x x (c)
csc csc1 x x
Expected answers:
1 1
(1) Find: (a) sin 1 (b) sin 1
2 2
1 1
(a) Let y sin 1 , this equation is equivalent to sin y for y , . The only value
2 2 2 2
1
satisfying these conditions is y , so sin 1
6 2 6
1 1
(b) Let y sin 1 , this equation is equivalent to sin y . The only value satisfying these
2 2
1
conditions is y , so sin 1
4 2 4
(2) Simplify:
(a)
First we transform cos sin 1 x in function cosine only. We know sin 2 cos 2 1, thus
cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x or cos x 1 sin 2 x . Then cos sin 1 x 1 sin 2 sin x 1 x 2
(b)
Since sec2 1 tan2 , then sec2 tan1 x 1 tan2 tan1 x 1 x 2
(3) (a) x , (b) x , (c) x ,1 1,
2 2
(4) For csc1 x the domain is ,1 1, and for tan 1 x domain is IR , , hence the
80 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(1) Find the domain of the following:
f ( x)
1
sin 1 2 x x 1
(a) (b) f ( x) cos 1 (c) f ( x) sin 1
x x x
Even functions
f ( x) cos( x) cos x f ( x)
Odd function
x Domf , x Domf
f ( x) f ( x )
The graph of such function looks the same when rotated through half a revolution about 0. This is
called rotational symmetry.
f ( x) sin( x) sin x f ( x)
x2
(1) f(x) = cosx ;
81 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(2) f(x) = x + sin4x ;
3 tanx
(3) f(x) = √x + sinx ; 4) f(x) = x+1
A function f (x) is called periodic if there is a positive number P such that f ( x P) f ( x) whenever
x and x P lie in the domain of f (x) . We call P a period of the function.
The smallest positive period is called the fundamental period (also primitive period, basic period, or
prime period) of f (x) A function with period P repeats on intervals of length P, and these intervals
are referred to as periods.
The most important examples of periodic functions are the trigonometric functions.
Task 5 : (Individually)
Find the period of the following functions:
(a) sin x (c) tan x
(b) cos x (d) sin 3x
EXPECTED ANSWERS:
x P x 2k , k IZ
82 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
3x 3P 3x 2k
3P 2k
2k
P
3
2
For k 1 , P
3
Note
2𝜋
If a ≠0 and b ≠0 , then the functions a sin bx and a cos bx we may use the fornula |𝑏|
to obtain the
fundamental period.
Expected answers:
For f(𝑥) , we have 2 sin 6 (𝑥 + 𝑃) = 2 sin 6x ⇔ 6𝑥 + 6𝑃 = 6𝑥 + 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘𝜖ℤ
⇔ 6𝑃 = 2𝑘𝜋.
𝜋
Since k =1, P = 3
⇔ 3𝑥 + 3𝑃 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘𝜖ℤ
⇔ 3𝑃 = 2𝑘𝜋.
2𝜋
We take k =1, P = 3
83 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
If we have two functions f (x) and g (x) the resultant period is given by the lower common
multiple (LCM) of both periods of the two functions
If the periods are fractions, first multiply the denominator on both the two periods.
Expected answers:
𝑥+1 2𝑥+1
(1) For tan ( ) ,𝑃1 = 2𝜋 and for sin ( ) , 𝑃2 = 5𝜋
2 5
𝜋
(3) For 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑃1 = 2𝜋 for 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 , 𝑃1 = 2
2𝜋
⇒ P= LCM(2𝜋, ) hence P= 𝟐𝝅
3
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(a) lim sin x
x0
cos x
(d) lim
x0 x
sin x
(2) Consider the function f ( x) , where x is in radians. Use calculator to complete the following
x
tables:
x 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001
sin x
x
x −1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 −0.01 −0.001
sin x
x
sin x
(a) What is the limit of as 𝑥 approaches 0 from the right side?
x
(b) What is the limit of sinx x as x approaches 0 from the left side?
sin x
(c) What can you say about lim
x0 x
Expected answers:
(1) Evaluate:
(a) lim sin x sin 0 0 (c) lim cos x cos 0 1
x0 x0
x −1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 −0.01 −0.001
85 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
sin x 1 0.87 0.89 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 0.99 1 1
x
sin x
(a) lim 1
x0 x
sin x
(b) lim 1
x0 x
sin x
(c) As conclusion lim 1
x 0 x
sin x 1−cos𝑥
The result lim 1 and lim𝑥→0 𝑥 = 0,will help us to find limit of some other trigonometric
x 0 x
(a)
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
(b) lim𝑥→0 (e) lim𝑥→0
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥−3
(c) lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (f) lim𝑥→3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 1−2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
(d) lim𝑥→0 (g) lim𝑥→𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 3 𝑥−
3
Expected answers:
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑥 0
(a) lim𝑥→0 = Indeterminate case ( I.C.)
𝑥 0
𝑥 𝑥
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
lim𝑥→0 =lim𝑥→0 2 2
we know that [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2]
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= lim𝑥→0 2
lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = lim𝑥→0 2
𝑥 lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = lim𝑥→0 𝑥
2
lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = 1× 0 = 0,
𝑥 2
2 2
𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒙
Thus, 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒙→𝟎 =0
𝒙
𝑥 0
(b) lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 0 I.C
𝑥 𝑥 1 lim 1 1
lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 =lim𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 =1=1
𝑥 lim𝑥→0
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝒙
Thus, 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒙→𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 = 1
86 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 0
(c) lim𝑥→0 =0 I.C
𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1
lim𝑥→0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= lim𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = lim𝑥→0 = lim𝑥→0 lim𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1×1=1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
Thus, lim𝑥→0 =1
𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 ∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 1
(d) lim𝑥→0 =0 = ∞ Or lim𝑥→0 = lim𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = ∞×∞=∞
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
When finding limits of trigonometric functions, sometimes we need to change the variable.
𝑥−3 0
(e) lim𝑥→3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥 = 0 I.C
Let 𝑡 = 𝑥 − 3 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 3 . if 𝑥 → 3, 𝑡 → 0.
𝑥−3 𝑡 𝑡
lim𝑥→3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥 = lim𝑡→0 sin(𝜋𝑡+3𝜋)= lim𝑡→0 sin 𝜋𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜋+cos 𝜋𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜋)
𝑡
= lim𝑡→0 −sin 𝜋𝑡 [𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟑𝛑 = −𝟏 , 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑𝛑 = 𝟎 ]
𝑡 1
𝟏
= -lim𝑡→0 𝜋𝑡
sin 𝜋𝑡 = -lim𝑡→0 𝜋
sin 𝜋𝑡 = −𝝅
𝜋𝑡 𝜋𝑡
1−2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
(f) lim𝑥→𝜋 𝜋
3 𝑥−
3
1
1−2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 1−2× 0
lim 𝑥→
𝜋 𝜋 = 𝜋 𝜋
2
=0 I.C
3 𝑥− −
3 3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑡 𝑥 − 3 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 3 . if 𝑥 → 3 , 𝑡 → 0.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 √3
1−2cos(𝑡+ ) 1−2(cos𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 −sin 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) 1−2( cos𝑡− sin 𝑡)
lim𝑡→0 3
= lim𝑡→0 3 3
= lim𝑡→0 2 2
=
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
1−cos𝑡−√3sin 𝑡 1−cos𝑡 √3sin 𝑡
lim𝑡→0 = lim(𝑡→0 + )=
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
1−cos𝑡 √3sin 𝑡 1−cos𝑡 sin 𝑡
lim𝑡→0 + lim = lim𝑡→0 + √3lim = 0 + √3 × 1 = √𝟑,
𝑡 𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡→0 𝑡
𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
since [𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒙→𝟎 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒙→𝟎 = 𝟏]
𝒙 𝒙
87 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
𝑓(𝑥) 0 𝑓(𝑥) ∞
Recall that if lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 or lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞ , we remove this indeterminate case by
𝑓(𝑥) 0
differentiating function 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) and then evaluate the limit. That is, if lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 or
𝑓(𝑥) ∞ 𝑓(𝑥)
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞ then we evaluate lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) . We do this until the indeterminate case is removed, this
method is called l’Hôpital’s rule. Other methods used to remove indeterminate cases are also applied.
Expcted answers:
1 1
(1) lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (∞) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0) = 0
𝑥→+∞
𝑥 2 −1 0
(2) lim𝑥→1 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1−𝑥) =0 I.C Remove this I.C by l’Hôpital’s rule
𝑥 2 −1 2𝑥 2
lim𝑥→1 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1−𝑥) = lim𝑥→1 1 = 1 = −2
− −
√2𝑥−𝑥2 √2−1
2 5
lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5) = lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 2 (1 − + 2) =
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥
2 5 𝝅
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [∞ (1 − + )] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (∞) =
∞ ∞ 𝟐
88 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Derivative of sine and cosine
The derivative of sine is denoted by (sin x ) ' = cos x and (cos x ) ' = sin x
If u is another function, then ( sin u ) '= u 'cos u and (cos u ) ' = u 'sin u
Task15: (Individually)
Expected answers:
(1)
'
f ' ( x) 3x 2 4 cos 3x 2 4 6 x cos 3x 2 4
(2) f ' ( x) (3x)' sin(3x) 3sin 3x
(3)
f ' ( x) 3 sin 2 x 2 4 sin x 2 4 ,'
'
f ' ( x) 3 x 2 4 sin 2 x 2 4 cos x 2 4
f ' ( x) 6 x sin 2 x 2 4 cos x 2 4
Task 16: (Group discussion)
(2) 3 2 3
.f (x) = sin ( x + 4 ) (4) f ( x) = cos 2x
sin x
The function f (x ) = tan x can be written as tan x
cos x
cos x cos x 2
2
x cos 2 x
tan x , sin 2
1
1 tan 2 x
cos x cos 2 x
89 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
𝒖′
If 𝒰 is another function then, (tan u ) ' = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒖 = 𝒖′ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒖 = 𝒖′ (𝟏 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒖)
'
cos x
In the same way cot x '
1
2 (1 cot x)
2
sin x sin x
𝒖′
If 𝓤 is another function, then (cot u ) ' = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒖 = −𝒖′ 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒖 = −𝒖′ (𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝒖)
(2) '
f ' ( x) x 2 csc2 x 2 2 x csc2 x 2
If 𝓤 is another function, then (sec u ) ' = u 'sec u tan u and (csc u ) ' = -u 'csc u cot u
(1) f ( x) sec2 x 1
(2) f ( x) cscx 1
Expected answers:
(1) f ( x) sec3x 2
(2) f ( ) 3 csc 2
𝐮′ −𝐮′
If 𝓤 is another function, (𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝐮)′ = and (𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝐮)′ =
√𝟏−𝐮𝟐 √𝟏−𝐮𝟐
(1) f (x ) = sin-1 x3
(5) y = (x 2 +1)sin -1 4x
Expected answers:
′
(𝑥 3 ) 3𝑥 2
(1) 𝒇′ (𝒙) = = √1−𝑥 6
√1−(𝑥 3 )2
−(2𝑥+1)′ −2 −1
(2) 𝒇′ (𝒙) = = √1−4𝑥 2 = √−𝑥2
√1−(2𝑥+1)2 −4𝑥−1 −𝑥
−2𝑥 −2𝑥
(3) y′ = = √−𝑥 4
√1−(1− 𝑥2 )2 +2𝑥 2
−2𝑥 −2𝑥
(4) y′ = 3 = √0.75−
√1−(𝑥 2 +0.5 )2 𝑥 2 −𝑥 4
4 4(𝑥 2 +1)
(5) y ′ = (2x) sin -1 4x+(𝑥 2 + 1) = √1−16𝑥 2
+ 2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 4𝑥
√1−(4𝑥 2 )2
91 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
𝟏 −𝟏
(𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱)′ = and (𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝐱)′ = 𝟏+𝐱𝟐
𝟏+𝐱 𝟐
𝐮′ −𝐮′
If 𝓤 is another function, (𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐮)′ = 𝟏+𝐮𝟐 and (𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝐮)′ = 𝟏+𝐮𝟐
4
(1) f (x)=(tan -1 2x )
(2) f (x ) = 2 cot-1 3x
Expected answers:
3
2 8(tan−1 2x)
(1) f ′ (x) = 4(tan−1 2x)3 (tan−1 2x)′ = 4(tan−1 2x)3 (1+4x2 ) = 1+4x2
−2(3x)′ −6
(2) f ′ (x) = 1+(3x)2 = 1+9x2
𝐮′ −𝐮′
If 𝒰 is another function , (𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝐮)′ = and (𝐜𝐬𝐜 −𝟏 𝐮)′ =
𝐮√𝐮𝟐 −𝟏 𝐮√𝐮𝟐 −𝟏
(1) f (x ) = sec-1 2x
(2) f (x ) = csc-1 √𝑥
Expected answers:
2
(1) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
2𝑥√4𝑥 2 −1
1
− −1
′ (𝑥) 2√𝑥
(2) 𝑓 = =
2 2𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
√𝑥√(√𝑥) −1
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(5) f(x) = cot −1 √x (8) f(x) = sec −1 (2x + 1)
(c)Successive derivatives
Successive derivative is the process of differentiating a given function successively times and the results of
such differentiation are called “successive derivatives”.
𝒅𝒚
First derivative: = 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒚′
𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
Second derivative: ( ) = 𝒅𝒙𝟐 = 𝒇′′ (𝒙) = 𝒚′′
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝐝 𝐝𝟐 𝐲 𝐝𝟑 𝐲
The third derivative : 𝐝𝐱 (𝐝𝟐 𝐱) = 𝐝𝐱 𝟑 = 𝐟 ′′′ (𝐱) = 𝐲 ′′ ′
.
.
.
𝐝 𝐝𝐧−𝟏 𝐲 𝐝𝐧 𝐲
And the nth derivative : ( 𝐧−𝟏
)= = 𝐟 (𝐧) (𝐱) = 𝐲 (𝐧)
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐧
Expected answers:
𝛑
1. y ′ = cosx = sin(x+𝟐 )
𝟐𝛑
y ′′ = −sinx = sin(x+ 𝟐 )
𝟑𝛑
y ′′′ = −cosx = sin(x+ 𝟐 )
⋮
𝐧𝛑
y (n) = sin(x+ 𝟐 )
𝐧𝛑
Thus, if y = sin x , 𝐲 (𝐧) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐱+ 𝟐 )
93 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
𝛑
2. y ′ = −sinx = cos(x+𝟐 )
𝟐𝛑
y ′′ = −cosx = cos(x+ 𝟐 )
𝟑𝛑
y ′′′ = sinx = sin(x+ 𝟐 )
⋮
𝐧𝛑
y (n) = cos(x+ 𝟐 )
𝐧𝛑
Thus, if y = sin x , 𝐲 (𝐧) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐱+ 𝟐 )
a) y =sin 2x sin 3x
b) y = arctan x
c) y = sin2x
d) y = tan2x
(2) Find the third derivative of:
a. y = x arctan x
b. y = sin 2x cos 3x
sin2x
c. y = sin3x
d. y = tan x tan 2x
5.4.APPLICATIONS
In simple harmonic motion (SHM), the displacement x ( t ) of a particle from its equilibrium
position is defined by the equation x= xm cos (𝜔t + 𝜙) in which xm is the amplitude of the
displacement, the quantity (𝜔t + 𝜙) is phase of the motion, and 𝜙 is the phase constant.
The angular frequency 𝜔 is related to the period and the frequency of the motion
𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝝎
by = = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 , 𝑻 = 𝒇 = and 𝒇 = 𝟐𝝅
𝑻 𝝎
The motion of an object moving up and down is an example of simple harmonic motion.
If the position of an object is S ( t ), then,
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𝐝𝐬
The velocity of the object is = .
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝟐 𝐬
The acceleration of the object is 𝐚 = .
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
𝐝𝟑 𝐬
The jerk of the object is = .
𝐝𝐭 𝟑
(1) A weight hanging from a spring is stretched down 5 units beyond its rest position and
released at time t = 0 to bob up down. Its position at any later time t is s(t)= 5 cos t . What are its
velocity, acceleration and jerk at time t ?
(2) A body oscillates with simple harmonic motion according to the equation
x 6m cos 3t . At time t=2s, what are:
3
(a) Determine the amplitude, frequency, period of motion and angular frequency.
(b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the object at any time.
(c) Find displacement, velocity and acceleration at t = 1.
(d) Determine the maximum speed and maximum acceleration
Expected answers:
𝑑𝑠 𝑑
𝑣= = (5 cos 𝑡) = −5sin𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
𝑎= = (−5 sin 𝑡) = −5cos𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(a) Position 6m cos 3 2 3m
3
d 6m cos 3t
3
, then v 18 sin 3 2s 48.94m / s
dx
(b) v
dt dt 3
dv
(c) a 54 2 cos 3t , then a 266.21m / s 2
dt 3
(d) The phse of the motion is
3
3
(e) Since 2f , f 1.5Hz
2 2
1 2 2
(f) T 0.67 s
f 3
𝜋
(3) Given 𝑥 = 4cos(𝜋𝑡 + 4 )
(a) Amplitude(A) is 4m
Angular frequency( )=
Frequency f 0.5Hz
2 2
1 1
Period T 2s
f 0.5
d 4m cos t
4
dx
(b) v 4 sin t
dt dt 4
dv
a 4 2 cos t
dt 4
(c) x 4 cos (1) 2.82m
4
v 4 sin (1) 8.88m / s
4
a 4 2 cos (1) 27.89m / s 2
4
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(d) The maximum velocity is obtained at sin t 1 , then vmax 4m / s
3
(e) The maximum acceleration is obtained at cos t 1 , then amax 4 2 m / s 2
4
(1) State whether each of the following functions is periodic. If the function is periodic, give its
fundamental period.
(a) f ( x) sin 3x
(b) f ( x) 1 tan x
(c) f ( x) cos( x 1)
(d) f ( x) cos 2 x
(e)
f ( x) cos x 2
(2) Study the parity of the following functions and state whether it is either even or odd or
otherwise.
(a) f ( x) cos x sin x
sin x
(b) f ( x)
x2 1
x sin x
(c) f ( x)
x2 1
(3) Find the limits of the following functions:
(a) limx→π (1 + cotanx) (h) limx→0
sin(a+x)+sin(a−x)−2sina
4 xsinx
1+cos3 x secθ−tanθ
(b) limx→0 (i) limθ→π π
sin2 x 2 −θ
2
1+sinx
(c) limx→0 1+cosx tan−1 x2
(j) limx→0 xsin−1 x
cosec2 x−2
(d) limx→π 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3𝑥 2
4 cotanx−1 (k) lim𝑥→0 7𝑥 2
sin7x
(e) limx→0 x
sin8x
(f) limx→0
sin5x
sin3xsin5x
(g) limx→0 7x2
(e)
y x cos 2 x
4
x
(f) y csc 1
2
(g) x 2 1 sec1 x
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(5) Suppose that the amount of money in a bank account is given by P(t ) 500 100 cos t 150 sin t
where t is in years.
(6) The equation 𝑆 = 2 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 gives the position of a body moving on a coordinate line (s in
meters, t in seconds). Find the body’s velocity, acceleration, and jerk at time t sec
4
(7) A weight is attached to a spring and reaches its equilibrium position (x=0). It is then set in
3
motion resulting in a displacement of x=10cost. Find the spring’s velocity when t 0, t andt
3 4
6.0. INTRODUCTION
In S4, we have discussed about a point and a vector in two dimensions(2D).
A vector is an arrow - it has direction and length or A vector is directed line segment. The length of a vector v
is sometimes called its magnitude or norm of v. We will always abbreviate length by the symbol length of
v v
Given that a (a1 , b1 ) and b (a2 , b2 ) ,the magnitude of the vector ab is given by
ab a2 a1 2 b2 b1 2
Vectors are added by the triangle law or end-on rule or parallelogram law of addition.
a a a a
If a 1 and b 2 then a b 1 2
b 1 b 2 b b 1 2
Scalar multiplication: IR , b IR
a a
Consider a 1 and b 2 , the dot product of two vectors is denoted by a . b a1a2 b1b2
b 1 b 2
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A linear combination of vectors v1, v2 , v3 ,.................vn of vector space (V, +) is the sum of the form
1 v1 2 v2 3 v3 ............. n vn where 1, 2 ,3 ,............ n are the scalars(elements of ℝ)
A set of vectors S v1, v2 , v3 ,.............vn in a vector space V is called a basis for V if:
(a) S spans V and
(b) S is linearly independent.
NOTE: Since all properties of vectors in 2D, are the same as in 3D, we will discuss fully in later.
Task 1: (Individually),
(1) Perform the following operations, related to vectors:
(a) If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = (5,4) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC = (6, −2), find AC
(b) Given A(2,1), B(4,4), C(6,7), find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC in terms of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC
(2) Show that the vector ⃗w
⃗⃗ = (14, 3) is a linear combination of vectors u
⃗ = (4, 3) and v
⃗ = (2,–1).
(3) Show that the vectors u
⃗ = (1, –1) and v
⃗ = (–2, 3) are linearly independent.
Expected answers:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 5 6 11
(1) (𝑎)𝐴𝐶 AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC = ( ) + ( ) = ( )
4 −2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2) ,thus ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 4 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(c) 𝐴𝐵 = ( ) and 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 = ( ) = 2BC
3 3 6
14 4 2 4𝛼 + 2𝛽 = 14
(2) Let ⃗w
⃗⃗ = αu
⃗ +βv
⃗ , here ( ) = 𝛼 ( ) + 𝛽 ( ), we form {
3 3 −1 3𝛼 − 𝛽 = 3
Solve the equations simultaneously we get 𝛼 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 3, therefore ⃗w
⃗⃗ = 2u
⃗ +3v
⃗,
1 −2
(3) Two vectors u
⃗ and v
⃗ are L.I if det(u
⃗ ,v
⃗ ) ≠ 0 i.e | | = 3 − 2 = 1 ≠ 0, hence they are linear
−1 3
independent.
A vector is a directed line segment. That is to say, a vector has a given length and a given direction. The vector
joining point A and point B is denoted by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀𝐁 and its components are found by subtracting the coordinates of the
point A from the coordinates of point B.
Equal vectors: Two vectors are equal if they point in the same direction and have the same length
Parallel vectors
Two vectors are parallel if and only if:
Opposite vectors
Two vectors are opposite if the coordinates of one vector are additive inverse of the coordinates of the other.
That is, if ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒗
𝑢 and 𝑣are opposite then 𝒖 ⃗
Operations on vectors
Addition: Addition of vectors can be expressed by a diagram. Placing the vectors end to end, the vector from
the start of the first vector to the end of the second vector is the sum of the vectors.
Particular case:
(1) If two vectors are parallel, to find the sum; the second is newly replaced by equal
vector but having its origin at the end of the first one.
(2) If two vectors are opposite, their sum is zero vector. The opposite of the vector a
is denoted by a
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Subtraction:
Subtraction of vectors can be shown in diagram form by placing the starting points of the two vectors together,
and then constructing an arrow from the head of the second vector in the subtraction to the head of the first
vector.
Algebraically, from the addition of vectors, we define the subtraction of vector as a b a ( b) ,
Scalar multiplication
The definition of scalar multiplication in space 𝐄𝟎 is the same as in plane. The product of a vector a with a
⃗
real number 𝝀 is defined by 𝝀𝒂
Note: if the real number α is positive, the resulting vector has the same direction as a and if it is negative the
⃗ = (𝐚𝟏 , 𝐚𝟐 , 𝐚𝟑 ) then 𝝀𝒂
resulting vector has the opposite direction to that of a . If 𝒂 ⃗ = (𝝀𝐚𝟏 , 𝝀𝐚𝟐 , 𝝀𝐚𝟑 )
Properties of vectors
Theorem: if 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, and 𝑐 are the vectors in (2 or 3 dimensions) and 𝜆 and 𝛽 are the scalars, then
(a) 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 (Commutativity)
(b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑏⃗) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐) (Associativity)
(𝑎
(c)𝜆(𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) = 𝜆𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏⃗ (Distributivity of scalars)
103 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(d) (𝜆 + 𝛽)𝑎 = 𝜆𝑎 + 𝛽𝑎 (Distributivity of vectors)
(e)There is a unique vector ⃗0 such that 𝑎 + ⃗0 = 𝑎 for all vectors 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ such that 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = ⃗0
(f) For every vector 𝑎 there is a unique vector −𝑎
(g) 𝜆(𝛽𝑎) = (𝜆𝛽)𝑎
(h) 1. 𝑎 = 𝑎 (identity element for multiplication)
Expected answers:
(1) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = (3,3, −3)
(2) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 3𝑢
2AB ⃗ + 𝑣 = 2(3,3, −3) − 3(3,4,6) + (1,1,1) = (−2, −5, −23)
(3) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑢
𝐴𝐵 ⃗ − 𝑣 = (5,6,4)
(4) ⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝑢 AB + 2𝑣 = (11,15,29)
(b)Sub-vector space
A vector space (also called a linear space) is a collection of objects called vectors, which may be added together
and multiplied by numbers, called scalars.
A subset V of ℝ𝒏 is called a sub-vector space, or just a sub-space, of ℝ if it has the following properties:
Task4: Individually,
(1) Consider A x,0,2 x , x IR, show that ( IR, A,) is a sub-vector space of ℝ𝟑 .
(2) Show that K x, xz 1,0, x, z IR is a sub-vector space of ℝ𝟑 or not.
EXPECTED ANSWER:
Therefore, A is a sub-space of IR 3
(2) Given that K x, xz 1,0, x, z IR
If 𝐅 and 𝐆 are two sub-vector spaces of , then the sum of 𝐅 and 𝐆 is also a sub-vector space of 𝐄. And is
denoted as F G x y, x F , y G . Their intersection is denoted by F G x, x F , x G
Dimension of sub-spaces
The unique number of vectors in each basis of a sub-vector V is called the dimension of V and is denoted by
dim(V) .
If ( IR, F ,) and ( IR, G,) are the two sub-vector spaces of ( IR, E,) , then we have
dim( F G) dim( F ) dim(G) dim( F G) . This formula is called Grassmann’s formula of dimensions.
(7) Consider F x,0, z , x, IRand G x, y,0, x, y IR. Verify Grassman’s formula.
EXPECTED ANSWERS:
(1) Given H a b,3a b,2a b, a, b IR and K 3c, c,2c , c IR. The intersection is given by
solving the following system:
a b 3c a b 3c 0 a b 3(3a b) 0
3a b c 3a b c 0 c 3a b
2a b 2c 2a b 2c 0 2a b 2(3a b) 0
By solving this system, we obtain 0,0,0 . Hence H K 0,0,0
(2) We need to solve the system
x x
0 y . Then F G x,0,0, x, IR
z 0
We can write F G x1,0,0, x, IR , therefore the dimension dim( F G) 1
(3) The intersection consists of the vectors of the form a b,3a b,2a b satisfying the system
x yz 0
x 2 y 3z 0
a b 3a b (2a b) 0
Substituting the form a b,3a b,2a b into the system gives:
a b 2(3a b) 3(2a b) 0
2a b 0 a 0
Or . Hence H K 0,0,0 and dim( H K ) 0
a 6b 0 b 0
Hence dim(U V ) 3
(6) For U a, b, c : a 2b c 0, a 3c
a 2b c 0
b 2c and a 3c . Now we can write U 3c,2c, c , c IR
a 3c
For V a, b, c : a b c 0, a b
a b c 0
c 0 and a b . Now we can write V b, b,0, c IR
ab
Now the sum is U V 3c,2c, c b, b,0, b, c IR
U V b 3c, b 2c, c , b, c IR
U V b(1,1,0) c(3,2,1), b, c IR
The bases are (1,1,0) and (3,2,1) which are linear independent. Hence dim(U V ) 2
( x,0,0) ( x,0,0)
dim( F G) 1 . Then
( x,0,0) x(1,0,0)
dim( F G) dim( F ) dim( G ) dim( F G )
3 2 2 1 hence verified.
33
(1) Take U to be the x-axis and V to be the y-axis , both subspaces of IR 2 . Find their intersection.
(2) Let U1 x, y, z : x y z 0,2 x 3 y z 0 and U 2 x, y, z : x y z 0, x 2 y 3z 0 be
subspaces of IR 3 . Find their intersection, their sum and their dimensions.
(3) Let U and W be the following subspaces of IR 4 :
U a, b, c, d : b c d 0,,W (a, b, c, d : a b 0, c 2d . Find the dimension of U W
(4) Let U a,0, c , a, c IR and W 0, b, c , b, c IR be subspaces of IR 3 . Find the dim(U W )
(5) Given V and W , the sub-vector spaces of ℝ4 such that U a, b, c, d : b 2c d 0,, and
W (a, b, c, d : a d , b 2c.
NOTE:
If dim( F G) 0 , the Grassmann’s formula of dimension becomes dim( F G) dim( F ) dim(G) . In this
case, F and G are said to be complementary and the sum 𝐅 + 𝐆 is said to be a direct sum; and it is denoted by
𝐅 ⊕ 𝐆. Otherwise, F and G are said to be supplementary.
Expected answers:
(1) IR3 W1 W2 W3 as W1 W2 W3 0
(2) Any vector (a, bc) IR3 can be written as the sum of a vector in U and a vector in V as:
(a, bc) (a, b,0) (0,0, c) . Accordingly, IR is a direct sum of U and W , that is, U W
3
(1) Let F = {(x, 0,0): xϵℝ} and G = {(0, y, 0): yϵℝ} is W=F+G a direct sum of ℝ2 ? show your working.
(2) Let W1 and W2 denote the 𝑥𝑦 and the IR 3 planes, respectively. Can IR 3 be uniquely represented as a
direct sum of W1 and W2 ? Show your working steps.
The vector u is called a linear combination of the vectors u1 , u2 , u3 provided that there exists scalars c1, c2 , c3
such u c1 u1 c2 u2 c3 u3 .
The set S u1 , u2 , u3 of vectors in the vector space V is a spanning set for V (or a generating set for V)
provided that every vector in V is a linear combination of the vectors in S.
The set of vectors S u1 , u2 , u3 of a vector space V is said to be linearly independent provided that the
c1 0, c2 0, c3 0
equation c1 u1 c2 u2 c3 u3 0 has only the trivial solution
and c1, c2 , c3 0
A finite set S of vectors in a vector space V is called a basis for V provided that;
The vectors in S are linearly independent,
The vector in S Span V (or S is a generating set of V).
NOTE:
To three vectors, u1 , u2 , u3 are linear independent if det u1 , u2 , u3 0 and are linearly dependent if
det u1 , u2 , u3 0
(1) Show that the vectors u 1,1,0, v 1,3,1, w 5,3,2 are linear dependent.
(2) Show that the vectors u 1,2,0, v 0,1,3, w 1,0,2 are linearly independent.
(3) Show that the vectors u 1,2,3, v 1,1,2, w 2,1,1 are linearly dependent.
(4) Write the vector v 1,2,5 as a linear combination of vectors e1 1,1,1, e2 1,2,3 and e3 2,1,1 .
1 2 4
3
(5) Show that the vectors 1, 1 and form a basis in IR
3
4 3 5
Expected answers:
1 1 5
(1) To verify this we have to solve c1 u c2 v c3 w 0 or c1 1 c2 3 c3 3 0
0 1 2
c1 c2 5c3 0
c 3c3
Expending we get c1 3c2 3c3 0 , solving we get 1 , this system has many solutions (not only
c 2c 0 c2 2c3
2 3
trivial solution). One of them, which is not trivial, is c1 3, c2 2 and c3 1 . Therefore, the given three vectors
are linearly dependent.
110 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Alternative method:
1 1 5
Since det u , v , w 1 3 3 6 5 0 0 3 2 0 , the three vectors are linear dependent.
0 1 2
1 1 5
3 3 1 3 1 3
Or det u , v , w 1 3 3 1 1 5 3 2 5 0 , the three vectors are linear
1 2 0 2 0 1
0 1 2
dependent.
1 0 1
(2) Since det u , v , w 2 1 0 2 6 0 0 0 0 8 0 , the three vectors are linear
0 3 2
independent.
1 1 2
1 1 2 1 2 1
(3) Since det u , v , w 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 , hence the three vectors are
2 1 3 1 3 2
3 2 1
linear dependent.
(4) If v can be written as linear combination of e1 , e2 and e3 we have v c1 e1 c2 e2 c3 e3 or
c3 2 , hence
Solving the system we get c1 6, c2 3 and v 6 e1 3 e2 3 e3
(a) If w 1,7,4 , is u , v , w a basis of IR 3
(b) For what value of real number 𝑘, the vector (1, 𝑘, 5) is a linear combination of 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣?
Coordinate vector
Suppose that S v1 , v2 , v3 is a basis for a vector space V and that u is any vector from V. As u is a vector in
V, it can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors from S as follows: u c1 v1 c2 v2 c3 v3 .
The scalars c1, c2 , c3 are called the coordinates of u relative to the basis S and it is denoted by
u c1 , c2 , c3
S
The coordinate vector of vector u is unique.
(1) Determine the coordinate vector of x 10,5,0 relative to the following bases:
(a) The standard basis vectors for IR 3
(b) The basis A e1 1,1,1, e2 0,1,2, 3,0,1
Expected answers:
(a) The standard basis vectors for IR 3 is e1 1,0,0, e2 0,1,0, 0,0,1
10 1 0 0 c1 10
Since x c1 e1 c2 e2 c3 e3 5 c1 0 c2 1 c2 0 c2 5
0 0 0 1 c 0
3
(a) If u 0 or v 0 , then u . v 0
(b) If u v , then u . v 0
(c) u . v v . u
(d) u , v , w E0 and a IR , w u v u . w v . w
2
(e) We define the square of u to be u . u u a12 a22 a32
(1) Given u 2,3,4 and v 1,2,2
(a) Find the scalar product of u and v
113 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
2
(b) Evaluate u
Expected answer:
(a) u . v 2 1 3 (2) 4 2 2 6 8 4
2
(b) u 22 32 42 4 9 16 29
2
is u u , thus if u a, b, c , then u a b c
2 2 2
Properties of magnitude
(a) If u 0 u 0
(b) ku k u
(c) Unit vector: A vector u is said to be unit vector if and only if its magnitude is 1. That is u 1 .
(d) Normalized vector: The normalized vector of a vector is a vector in the same direction but with magnitude
u
1. It is also called the unit vector and is given by .
u
Note: A vector is said to be normal vector or simply the normal to a surface if it is perpendicular to that surface.
d ( A, B) AB b1 a1 2 b2 a2 2 b3 a3 2
(1) Find the magnitude of u 2,3,4
(2) Find the distance between the points A1,1,3 and B2,4,5
(3) Find the normalized vector parallel to v 2,4,4 in the same direction of v
Expected answers:
(1) u 2 3 4 29
2 2 2
(2) Vector AB 2 1,4 (1),5 3 1,5,2 and AB 1 5 2 30
2 2 2
v 2,4,4 2,4,4 1 , 2 , 2
(3) Normalized vector e
v 2 4 4
2 2 2 6 3 3 3
u.v
1 u . v
From this definition, the angle between the two vectors is given by cos or cos
u.v u.v
Note: When we are calculating the angle between two vectors, we calculate the smallest positive angle.
Properties
If the two vectors are perpendicular u v , their scalar product is zero mean that the angle between them
is
2
If the two vectors are parallel, then u . v u . u if they are in the same direction or u . v u . u if they
Direction cosine
Direction cosine (or directional cosine) of a vector are the cosine of angles between the vector and the three
coordinates axes.
The direction cosines of the vector v x, y, z are: cos
x , cos y and
x2 y 2 z 2 x2 y2 z 2
z
cos .
x2 y2 z 2
Note: The sum of squares of direction cosines of a vector is 1. That is cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 1 .
Task 16: (In pairs),
Expected answers:
3.0 8.0 1.1 1
(1) The unit vector on z-axis is e3 0,0,1 , then cos 1 cos 1
83.30
3 8 1
2 2 2
0 0 1
2 2 2
74
1 1 2 2 3 3
(2) cos , cos and cos
1 2 (3)
2 2 2
14 1 2 (3)
2 2 2
14 1 2 (3)
2 2 2
14
(c) u 1,0,0 and v 3,3,3
(a) u 2,3,4 and v 12,3,0
(d) u 21,4,2 and v 0,1,0
(b) u 1,2,14 and v 22,0,0
(2) Find the direction cosines of the following vectors:
(a) u 2,3,4 (c) u 1,2,14
(b) v 12,3,0 (d) v 22,0,0
(d)Vector product
Consider i 1,0,0, j 0,1,0, k 0,0,1 a positive orthonormal basis of E0 and two linearly independent
vectors u a1 , a2 , a3 and v b1 , b2 , b3 . The vector product of u and v is denoted by u v and is given by
i j k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
u v a1 a2 a3 i j k or u v 2 , ,
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2 b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
Expected answer:
i j k
3 5 2 5 2 3
u v 2 3 5 i j k 7 i 22 j 16 k or u v 7,22,16
5 6 2 6 2 5
2 5 6
The vector product is not associative: u v w u v w
That is, if u a1 , a2 , a3 , v b1 , b2 , b3 and w c1 , c2 , c3 . The triple scalar product of u , v and w is
a1 a2 a3
a2 a3 a a a a
denoted by u . v w or u , v , w and is given by u . v w b1 b2 b3 a1 a2 1 3 a3 1 2
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
c1 c2 c3
Calculate the mixed product u . v w of the following vectors: u 2,1,3 , v 0,2,5 and w 1,1,2
2 1 3
2 5 1 3 1 3
Expected answer: u . v w 0 2 5 2 0 1 18 1 19
1 2 1 2 2 5
1 1 2
ki j
2 5 0 5 0 2
Or v w 0 2 5 i j k 9 i 5 j 2 k 9,5,2
1 2 1 2 1 1
1 1 2
Then u . v w 2,1,3
. 9,5,2 2 (9) (1) (5) 3 (2) 18 5 6 19
Task 21: (Group discussion),
Calculate the mixed product v w of the following vectors:
u .
(a) u 1,3,1, v 1,2,1 and w 1,0,1 (c) u 3,3,2, v 5,1,0 and w 2,1,3
(b) u 3,2,1, v 0,1,1 and w 8,0,0 (d) u 10,9,6, v 3,11,0 and w 1,3,4
(1) Constant forces, P 2 i 5 j 6 k and Q i 2 j k act on a particle. Determine the work done when
the particle is displaced from A to B, the position vectors of A and B being 4 i 3 j 2 k and 6 i j 3 k
respectively.
(2) A force of magnitude 6 units acting parallel to 2 i 2 j k displaces the point of application from (1,2,3)
to (5,3,7). Find the work done.
Expected answers:
(1) Total force 2 i 5 j 6 k i 2 j k i 3 j 5 k
Displacement 6 i j 3 k 4 i 3 j 2 k 2 i 4 j 5 k
Work done i 3 j 5 k . 2 i 4 j 5 k 2 12 25 35 units of work.
Note that: i . i 1 , j . j 1 and k . k 1
2 i 2 j k
(2) The force of magnitude 6 units, acting parallel to 2 i 2 j k is 6 4 i 4 j 2
k
2 2 (2) 2 12
The displacement 5,3,7 1,2,3 4,1,4 4 i j 4 k
Work done 4,4,2
. 4,1,4 16 4 8 20 units of work.
Area of a parallelogram
Consider the figure below:
Also the vector products of vectors u and v is also defined to be u v u . u sin .
From the figure The area of a parallelogram with vectors u and v as two adjacent sides is given by A u v
Area of a triangle
1
Since the area of the parallelogram is twice the area of the triangle, Thus, the area of triangle is A u v
2
Consider the triangle ABC whose vertices are points A a1 , a2 , a3 , B b1 , b2 , b3 and C c1 , c2 , c3 . Letting A
1
to be the starting point, we can form two vectors AB and AC then the area of this triangle is A AB AC
2
Expected answers:
i j k
0 4 3 4 3 0
(1) u v 3 0 4 i j k 8 i 9 j 6 k
2 1 3 1 3 2
3 2 1
A u v 8 i 9 j 6 k 64 81 36 181 units of area.
1 1
1 18 3 2
A u v 3 j 3 k (3)2 32 Unit of area.
2 2 2 2 2
(3) The vertices of a triangle are (1,1,1), (0,1,2) and (3,2,1). Find the area of the triangle.
Volume of a parallelepiped,
Consider the following figure:
A parallelepiped which has vectors u , v and w as three concurrent edges, where v and w define its base,
the volume is given by V u . v w
If the parallelepiped is defined by four points A a1 , a2 , a3 , B b1 , b2 , b3 , C c1 , c2 , c3 and D d1 , d 2 , d3
its volume is V AD . AB AC
Volume of a tetrahedron
The parallelepiped can be split into 6 tetrahedral of equal volume.
1
Hence the area of tetrahedron is given by V u . v w .
6
Expected answers:
1 2 1
1 1
The volume is V 2 0 0 8 0 0 0 4 2 Cubic units.
2 2
1 4 1
(3) AB 2,0,3, AC 1,2,2 and AD 2,1,6
2 0 3
1 1 5
The volume is V 1 2 2 24 3 0 12 4 0 Cubic units.
6 6 6
2 1 6
(2) Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are the points:
(a) A3,1,4, B1,0,0, C 3,4,1 and D1,0,2
(7) Let u 2,1,3, v 0,1,7 and w 1,4,5 , find: u v w and u v w . Hence conclude on the results.
(8) Find the area of the triangle having vertices P1,5,2, Q0,0,0 and R3,5,1 .
(9) Find the volume of the parallelepiped with sides , a , b and c
(a) a 2,6,2, b 0,4,2 and c 2,2,4
(b) a 3 i j 2 k , b 4 i 5 j k c i 2 j 4 k
(10) Consider the parallelepiped with sides : a 3 i 2 j k , b i j 2 k , c i 3 j 3 k
7.0. INTRODUCTION.
a b e f
In S4, we have seen that a matrix of order two have the form of A = ( ),B = ( ) and C =
c d g h
1 j k
( ).
l m n
Equality matrix
Two matrices to be equal, they must be of the same size and have all the same entries in the same places.
a=e
A = B ⟹ { cb =
=f
g
d=h
Addition and subtraction of matrix
We add or subtract the matrices of the same order. Thus 𝐀 ± 𝐂 and 𝐁 ± 𝐂 can not be determined because 𝐀 and
𝐁 are 2 × 2 matrices and C is a 2 × 3 matrix.
a b e f a+e b+f
A+B = ( )+( )=( )
c d g h c+g d+h
a b e f a−e b−f
A−B = ( )−( )=( )
c d g h c−g d−h
Multiplication of matrices
Matrices can be multiplied together if the number of columns in the first matrix equals the number of rows in
the second matrix. Thus 𝐀𝐁, 𝐁𝐀, 𝐀𝐂 and 𝐁𝐂 can all be found but 𝐂𝐁 and 𝐂𝐀 cannot.
αa αb
αA = ( )
αc αd
a b e f ae + bg af + bh
AB = ( )( )=( )
c d g h ce + dg cf + dh
a b i j k ai + bl aj + bm ak + bn
AC = ( )( )=( )
c d l m n ci + dl cj + dm ck + dn
Transpose of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix 𝐀 is denoted 𝐀𝐓 and is found by interchanging the rows and columns.
e g i l
a c
Thus AT = ( ) ; BT = ( ) and CT = ( j m)
b d f h
k n
The determinant of a matrix
The determinant of a matrix of order two is obtained as follows:
126 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
a b a b
If A = ( ) then det(A) or |A| = | | = ad − bc
c d c d
Inverse of matrix
If 𝐀 is a square matrix then a matrix B such that AB = BA = I is called an inverse of matrix 𝐀. that the inverse
of A is denoted by A−1 .A matrix A which has an inverse is called a non-singular or invertible matrix. A matrix
A is said to be invertible if det(A) ≠ 0.
a b 1 d −b
A=( ) and its inverse, if its det(A) exists, then , A−1 = det(A) ( ) Provided det(A) ≠ 0
c d −c a
Task1: In pairs,
1 2
(2) Given that A = ( ) find: (i) A − 3I, (ii) A − 2I
−1 4
3 2 x 1
(3) Given that A = ( ) , X = (y) and C = ( ), use the solve the matrix equation AX = C.
5 4 −4
x+y=8
(4) Solve the following equation by matrix inverse method :{
x−y=2
2 5 3 −5
(5) Show that A = ( ) and B = ( ) are inverse matrices to each other.
1 3 −1 2
1 2 5 6
(6) Given A = ( ) and B = ( ) determine AB, 2A + B , 3B − 2A and AT
3 4 7 8
x+1 1
(7) Calculate: | |
−1 x − 1
𝑥 𝑥
(8) Find 𝑥 such that the matrix ( ) is singular.
5 3𝑥
2 3 2x + 3y = 1
(9) Fin the inverse of the matrix A = ( ). and hence deduce the solution of the system {
4 7 4x + 7y = 3
EXPECTED ANSWERS:
The principal diagonal is 𝑎11 , 𝑎22 , 𝑎33 and secondary diagonal is 𝑎13 , 𝑎22 , 𝑎13
1 3 4
Matrix of the order three(2 5 −1), So the principal diagonal is 1,5,0 and the secondary diagonal is 4,5,5
5 6 0
TYPES OF MATRICES
Upper triangular matrix: Elements located the below leading diagonal are zeros.
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐
Examples: 𝑨 = (𝟎 −𝟑 𝟔 ) 𝑩 = (𝟎 −𝟏 𝟓)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟔
Lower triangular matrix: Elements located the above leading diagonal are zeros. Examples:𝐀 =
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝐎
(𝟐 𝟑 𝟎 ) 𝐁 = (−𝟒 𝟓 𝟎)
𝟓 −𝟏 −𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟒
Diagonal matrix: All elements located the above and below are zeros. Only leading diagonal, the other
elements are zeros.
𝟔 𝟎 𝟎 𝟒 𝟎 𝟎
Examples:𝑨 = (𝟎 𝟒 𝟎) 𝑩 = (𝟎 −𝟑 𝟎)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟓
Scalar matrix: Is a matrix where the leading diagonal is constant and the other elements are zeros. The
diagonal matrix with the same elements.
5 0 0
Examples:𝐴 = (0 5 0)
0 0 5
Identity matrix or unity matrix.
An identity matrix (denoted by 𝐼) is diagonal matrix which all elements of leading diagonal are equal to 1.
1 0 0
Example: 𝐼 = (0 1 0)
0 0 1
Zero or null matrix
𝑨=𝑩
Then 𝒂𝟏𝟏 = 𝒃𝟏𝟏 , 𝒂𝟏𝟐 = 𝒃𝟏𝟐 , 𝒂𝟏𝟑 = 𝒃𝟏𝟑 , 𝒂𝟐𝟏 = 𝒃𝟐𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐𝟐 , 𝒂𝟐𝟑 = 𝒃𝟐𝟑 , 𝒂𝟑𝟏 = 𝒃𝟑𝟏 , 𝒂𝟑𝟐 =
𝒃𝟑𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑𝟑 = 𝒃𝟑𝟑
Task3: Individually,
(1) Write down an example of:
(a) Scalar matrix
(b) Triangular matrix
(c) Diagonal matrix
Task4: (Individually),
EXPECTED ANSWERS
2 0 1 1 0 1 2+1 0+0 1+1 3 0 2
(1) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = (3 0 0) + (1 2 1) = (3 + 1 0 + 2 0 + 1) = (4 2 1)
5 1 1 1 1 0 5+1 1+1 1+0 6 2 1
1. Closure: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝑀
𝐴+𝐵 =𝐶
The sum of two matrices of order three is another matrix of order three.
2. Association: (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
3. Identity matrix (additive identity) 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴 where 0 is the zero matrix of the same dimension.
4. Additive inverse(opposite)𝐴 + (−𝐴) The opposite of 𝐴is(−𝐴).
5. Commutative 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
The matrices are the abelian group with addition operation(𝑀, +).
Scalar multiplication
Given a matrix, 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ),and a real number,𝑘 ∈ ℝ,the product of a real number by a matrix is a matrix of the
same dimension as 𝐴,and each element is multiplied by 𝑘. 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗
a11 a12 a13 ka11 ka12 ka13
If A = (a21 a22 a23 ) then kA = (ka21 ka22 ka23 )
a31 a32 a33 ka31 ka32 ka33
Task 5: Individually,
2 0 1
Consider the matrix A. A = (4 1 3 ) , Find 2A and 3A
0 −1 −3
EXPECTED ANSWERS:
Task6: In group,
Given the following matrices.
1 −2 6 8 0 9 13 −2 0
𝐴 = (2 2 −5) ,𝐵 = (14 4 6) And 𝐶 = (10 0 3)
0 4 8 0 6 7 9 1 5
Evaluate:
1. 𝐴−𝐵
2. 𝐴 + 𝐵 − 2𝐶
3. 2𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶
Transpose of matrix.
Transpose of a matrix 𝐴 is written as 𝐴𝑇 or 𝐴′ and is found by interchanging the rows and columns (switched).
3 2 −1 𝑇 3 1 −2
𝑇
a) 𝐴 =( 1 4 3 ) =( 2 4 6 )
−2 6 5 −1 3 5
3 1 −2 6 2 −4
b) 2𝐴𝑇 = 2 ( 2 4 6 ) = ( 4 8 12 )
−1 3 5 −2 6 10
1. (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴
2. (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇
3. (𝛼 × 𝐴)𝑇 = 𝛼 × 𝐴𝑇 , 𝛼𝜖ℝ.
Evaluate:
(a) (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇
(b) 3𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇
(c) (−3𝐴 + 4𝐵)𝑇
1 2 𝑥2 1 4 1
(2) Find the value of 𝑥 in 𝑀 = (4 1 0 ) if 𝑀𝑇 = ( 2 1 1)
1 𝑥+3 8 𝑥2 0 8
Multiplication of matrices.
Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵can be multiplied together if and only if the number of columns of 𝐴 is equal to the
number of rows of𝐵.
The elements of 𝑪𝒎×𝒑,of the product matrix is obtained by multiplying every element in rows 𝒎 of a matrix 𝑨
by each elements of columns 𝒑 of matrix 𝑩 and then adding them together.
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13
If A = (a21 a22 a23 ) and B = (b21 b22 b23 )
a31 a32 a33 b31 b32 b33
Task 9: Individually,
2 0 1 1 0 1
Consider matrices A = (3 0 0)and B = (1 2 1) Find A × B
5 1 1 1 1 0
2 0 1 1 0 1
𝐴 × 𝐵 = (3 0 0 ) × (1 2 1)
5 1 1 1 1 0
2×1+0×1+1×1 2×0+0×2+1×1 2×1+0×1+1×0
= (3 × 1 + 0 × 1 + 0 × 1 3 × 0 + 0 × 2 + 0 × 1 3 × 1 + 0 × 1 + 0 × 0 )
5×1+1×1+1×1 5×0+1×2+1×1 5×1+1×1+1×0
2+1 0+1 2+0 3 1 2
= ( 3+0 0 3 + 0 ) = (3 0 3)
5+1+1 0+2+1 5+1+0 7 3 6
Properties for multiplication of matrices.
1. Closure 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐶
The product of two matrices of order three is another matrix of order three.
2. Association: (𝐴 × 𝐵) × 𝐶 = 𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶)
3. Identity matrix (multiplicative identity): 𝐴 × 𝐼 = 𝐼 × 𝐴 = 𝐴 where 𝐼 is the identity matrix of the same
dimension(order).
4. Distributive 𝐴 × (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 × 𝐵 + 𝐴 × 𝐶
5. Not Commutative: 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴
6. Transpose (𝐴 × 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 × 𝐴𝑇
Notices :
EXPECTED ANSWERS :
(1)
1 0 2 1 0 1
a) A × B=(3 1 0) × (1 2 0)
0 5 4 1 1 3
1×1+0×1+2×1 1×0+0×2+2×1 1×1+0×0+2×3
= (3 × 1 + 1 × 1 + 0 × 1 3 × 0 + 1 × 2 + 0 × 0 3 × 1 + 1 × 0 + 0 × 3 )
0×1+5×1+4×1 0×0+5×2+4×1 0×1+5×0+4×3
1+2 0+2 1+6 3 2 7
= (3 + 1 + 0 0+2 3 + 0 ) = (4 2 3)
0 + 5 + 4 0 + 10 + 4 0 + 12 9 14 12
1 0 1 1 0 2
b) B × A = (1 2 0 ) × ( 3 1 0 )
1 1 3 0 5 4
1×1+0×3+1×0 1×0+1×1+1×5 1×2+0×0+1×4
= (1 × 1 + 2 × 3 + 0 × 0 1 × 0 + 2 × 1 + 0 × 5 1 × 2 + 2 × 0 + 0 × 4)
1×1+1×3+3×0 1×0+1×1+3×5 1×2+1×0+3×4
1+0 0+1+5 2+0+4 1 6 8
= (1 + 6 + 0 0 + 2 + 0 2 + 0 ) = (7 2 2)
1 + 3 + 0 0 + 1 + 15 2 + 0 + 12 4 16 14
Trace of matrix
The sum of the entries on the leading diagonal of a square matrix,𝐴,is known as the trace of that matrix denoted
by 𝑡𝑟(𝐴).
Task12: In group
1 0 1 −2 0 1 1 0 −1
(1) Consider the matrices A = ( 1 −1 1) , B = ( 1 0 2) and C = (−2 2 0 ) . Find:
0 0 0 −1 0 1 −1 1 0
(a) AB and BA
(b) (A × B) × C and A × (B × C)
(c) A × (B + C) and A × B + A × C
(d) Tr(AB)
cos ∅ 0 sin ∅
(2) Consider the matrix A = ( O 1 0 ) Find A × A
− sin ∅ 0 cos ∅
−3 2 −1 −4 −3 5
(3) If A = ( 2 −1 3 ) andB = (−5 −4 7 ) Find A × B
−1 1 1 1 1 −1
−5 10 8 −1 2 4
(4) Verify that if M = ( 4 −7 −6) and N = ( 2 1 −2), then MN = NM = I
−3 6 5 −3 0 5
1 −2 6 0 8 9 13 −2 0
(5) If A = (2 2 −5) , B = (14 4 6) and C = (10 0 3 ). Find : AB, AC, BC.
0 4 8 0 6 7 9 1 −5
(1) Find the matrix of f relative to the standard basis if f: ℝ3 → ℝ3 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (4𝑥 − 2𝑧, 2𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑦).
(2) Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑦 − 𝑧, 2𝑥) and the standard basis ofℝ3 is {𝑒1 = (1,0,0); 𝑒2 = (0,1,0); 𝑒3 =
(0,0,1) }, find:
(a) 𝑓(𝑒1 ), 𝑓(𝑒2 ), 𝑓(𝑒3 )
(b) Form matrix whose 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column is 𝑓(𝑒𝑗 ), 𝑗 = 1,2,3.
Excepted answers:
To find the matrix of a linear transformation (mapping) of relative to any basis {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 }, we follow the
following steps:
Find𝑓(𝑒𝑗 ), 𝑗 = 1,2,3.
Equalize 𝑓(𝑒𝑗 ) to 𝑒𝑖 𝑎𝑖𝑗 to find the value of𝑎𝑖𝑗
i = number of row
The matrix of 𝑓 is [𝑓]𝑒 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ), where {
j = number of column
Consider the following linear mapping defined on ℝ3 by (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (4𝑥 − 2𝑧, 2𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑦) . Calculate its
matrix relative to the basis {𝑒1 = (1,1,1), 𝑒2 = (−1,0,1), 𝑒3 = (𝑜, 1,1)}.
Excepted answers:
𝑓(𝑒1 ) = (4 − 2,2 + 1,1 + 1) = (2,3,2) 𝑓(𝑒2 ) = (−4 − 2, −2 + 0,1 + 0) = (−6, −2,1) 𝑓(𝑒3 ) =
(0 − 2,0 + 1,1 + 1) = (−2,1,2)
𝑓(𝑒𝑗 ) = 𝑒1 𝑎𝑖𝑗
2 1 −1 0
𝑓(𝑒1 ) = 𝑒𝑖 𝑎𝑖1 (3) = (1) 𝑎11 + ( 0 ) 𝑎21 + (1 ) 𝑎31
2 1 1 1
a13 = −1
By the same procedure ⟹ { a23 = 1
a33 = 2
a11 a12 a13
a
The matrix of 𝑓 is given by [f]e = (aij ) = ( 21 a22 a23 )
a31 a32 a33
1 −3 −1
Therefore [f]e = (−1 3 1)
2 1 2
Let {e⃗1 , e⃗2 , e⃗3 } be a basis of 𝑬 and let 𝑓 be any operator on 𝑬.Then, for any vector. 𝑣 ∈ 𝐸, [f]e . [v
⃗ ]e = [f(v)]e.
That is if we multiply the coordinate vector of 𝑣 by matrix representation of 𝑓,we obtain the coordinate vector of
𝑓(𝑣).
Let {𝑒𝑖 }, {𝑓𝑖 }and{𝑔𝑖 } be a basis of 𝐸, 𝑈 and 𝑉 respectively. Let 𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝑈 and 𝑔: 𝑈 → 𝑉 be linear mapping. Then,
[ gof ]e [ f ]e .[ g ]e
That is, relative to the appropriate basis, the matrix representation of the composition of two linear mapping is
equal to the product of the matrix representation of the individual mapping.
For 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐸 and any scalar ∈ 𝐾 ,[𝑔 + 𝑓]𝑒 = [𝑔]𝑒 + [𝑓]𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 [𝛼𝑔]𝑒 = 𝛼 [𝑔]𝑒 .
a) 4𝑓
b) 2𝑓 + 3𝑔
c) 𝑓𝑜𝑔
Excepted answers:
0 −4 3 0 −16 12
a) 4𝑓 = 4 (−1 1 0 ) = (−4 4 0)
−1 4 −2 −4 16 −8
Or we can work out as follows: To calculate the 3x3 determinant, we rewrite the first two rows below the
determinant (or first two columns to the right of the determinant).
3 2 1
Find the determinant of matrix 0 2 5
2 1 4
3 2 1
Expected answer: 0 2 5 (3 2 1 2 5 2 0 11) (2 2 1 1 5 3 0 2 4) 63
2 1 4
General method of finding the determinant of matrix with 3 × 3 dimension is the use of cofactors.
Minor
An element,𝑎𝑖𝑗 , to the value of determinant of order 𝑛 − 1, obtained by deleting the row 𝑖 and the column 𝑗 in
the matrix is called a minor.
2 5 3
2 3
[1 [6] 4] → | |
2 1
2 7 1
141 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Cofactor
Expected answers:
7 2 3
1 5 4 5 4 1
(1) |4 1 5| = 7 | | − 2| | + 3| |
0 3 2 3 2 0
2 0 3
= 7 × 3 − 2 × 2 + 3 × (−2)
= 21 − 4 − 6
= 11
3 2 1
2 −5 0 −5 0 2
(2) |0 2 −5| = 3 | | − 2| | + 1| |
1 4 −2 4 −2 1
−2 1 4
= 3 × 13 − 2 × −10 + 1 × 4
= 39 + 20 + 4
= 63
Properties of determinants.
1 3 2
Eg. |A| = |−2 1 4| = 0
0 0 0
The elements of a line are a linear combination of the others.
2 3 2
Eg. |𝐴| = |1 2 4| = 0 𝑟3 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
3 5 6
143 | P a g e MATH S5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
3. A triangular matrix determinant is the leading diagonal elements.
1 2 3
Eg. |𝐴| = |0 3 −1| = 1 × 3 × 5 = 15
0 0 5
4. If matrix switches two parallel lines, its determinant changes sign.
1 2 3 0 4 1
Eg. |𝐴| = |0 4 1| = − |1 2 3|
3 5 1 3 5 1
5. If the elements of a line are added to the elements of another parallel line previously multiplied by a real
number, the value of the determinant is unchanged.
2 1 2 2 1 7
Eg. |1 2 0| = 16 𝑟3 = 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 |1 2 4 | = 16
3 5 6 3 5 17
6. If determinant is multiplied by a real number, any line can be multiplied by the above mentioned number,
but only one.
1 0 3 2×1 0 3 2 0 3
Eg. 2 × |2 4 5| = |2 × 2 4 5| = |4 4 5| = −62
3 1 1 2×3 1 1 6 1 1
1 0 3
2 × |2 4 5| = 2 × (−31) = −62
3 1 1
7. If all elements of line are formed by two added the above mentioned determinant decomposes in the sum
of two determinants.
2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2
Eg: |𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎+𝑐 𝑎+𝑑 | = | 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 | + |𝑏 𝑐 𝑑|
3 5 6 3 5 6 3 5 6
8. The determinant of a product equals the products of determinants.
|𝐴 × 𝐵| = |𝐴| × |𝐵|
1 2 1 3 −1 1
Let 𝐴 = (2 4 8) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (0 4 1)
3 2 3 3 2 2
6 9 5 6 9 5
𝐴 × 𝐵 = (30 30 22) |𝐴 × 𝐵| = |30 30 22| = 72
18 11 11 18 11 11
1 2 1 3 −1 1
|𝐴| = |2 4 8| = 24 , |𝐵| = |0 4 1| = 3
3 2 3 3 2 2
|𝐴| × |𝐵| = 24 × 3 = 72
If 𝑨 is a square matrix then a matrix 𝐴−1 such that 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼 is called an inverse of matrix 𝑨.
A matrix 𝐴 which has an inverse is called a non-singular or invertible matrix. A matrix 𝐴 is said to be
invertible if 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0.
The matrix inverse of matrix 𝐴is equal to the inverse value of its determinant multiplied by the adjoint matrix.
𝟏
𝐀−𝟏 = 𝐚𝐝𝐣(𝐀)
|𝐀|
Where 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) is the adjoint (also called (adjugate) matrix which is the transpose of the cofactor matrix. The
cofactor matrix is found by replacing every element in matrix 𝐴 by its cofactor.
1 −1 1 −1 1 1
𝑐(1) = | |=1 𝑐(1) = − | | = −4 𝑐(1) = | | = −3
−2 3 1 3 1 −2
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑐(1) = − | | = −5 𝑐(1) = | |=2 𝑐(−1) = − | |=3
−2 3 1 3 1 −2
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑐(1) = | | = −2 𝑐(−2) = − | |=2 𝑐(3) = | |=0
1 −1 1 −1 1 1
145 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
The cofactors matrix is
1 −4 −3 1 −5 −2
𝑐𝑜𝑓(𝐴) = (−5 2 3 ) , and then 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = (−4 2 2)
−2 2 0 −3 3 0
1 −5 −2
1 1
The matrix inverse of A is A−1 = |A| Adj(A) = −6 (−4 2 2)
−3 3 0
−1 5 2
−1 1
𝐴 = 6 ( 4 −2 −2).
3 −3 0
(b) We find its inverse as follows:
2 0 1
i) |𝐵| = |3 0 0| = 3
5 1 1
ii) Cofactors of each element:
0 0 3 0 3 0
𝑐(2) = | |=0 𝑐(0) = − | | = −3 𝑐(1) = | |= 3
1 1 5 1 5 1
0 1 2 1 2 0
𝑐(3) = − | | = 1 𝑐(0) = | | = −3 𝑐(0) = − | | = −2
1 1 5 1 5 1
0 1 2 1 2 0
𝑐(5) = | |=0 𝑐(1) = − | |=3 𝑐(1) = | |=0
0 0 3 0 3 0
The cofactor matrix is
0 −3 3 0 1 0
𝑐𝑜𝑓(𝐵) = (1 −3 −2), and then 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐵) = (−3 −3 3)
0 3 0 3 −2 0
0 1 0
1 1
The matrix inverse of A is B−1 = |A| adj(B) = 3 (−3 −3 3)
3 −2 0
1
0 0
3
Therefore,𝐵 −1 = (−1 −1 1)
2
1 −3 0
1. 𝐴𝐵 −1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1
2. (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴
3. (𝛼𝐴)−1 = 𝛼 −1 𝐴−1
4. (𝐴𝑇 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )−1
Expected answers:
1
0 0
0 0 1 3
1
(1)a) |𝐴| = 3, 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = (−3 6 1) , 𝐴−1 = −1 2 3
−3 3 1 1
−1 1
( 3)
1
−2 −1 0 −1 2 0
|𝐵| = −2, 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐵) = (−2 0 −1
0 ),𝐵 = ( 1 0 0)
1
4 1 −2 −2 − 2 1
1 1 1
1
−1 2 0 0 0 −2 1
3 2
−1 −1 −1 1 1
b) (𝐴𝐵) =𝐵 𝐴 =(1 0 0) −1 2 3
= 0 0 3
1
−2 − 2 1 −1 1
1
−2 0
1
−2
1
( 3) ( )
−1 1 1
−1
1
0 −3 0
6
2 1
1 1
c)(3𝐵)−1 = 3 𝐵 −1 = 3 ( 1 0 0) = 3
0 0
1
−2 − 2 1 2
−3 −6
1 1
( 3)
1 𝑇
−1 2 0 −1 1 −2
1 1
d) (𝐵 𝑇 )−1 −1 𝑇
= (𝐵 ) = ( 1 0 0) = ( 2 0 − 2)
1
−2 − 2 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 4 −2
−1 −1 −1
(3) Find the 𝐴 of the matrix 𝐴 = (−1 1 0). Find also 𝐵 and (𝐴𝐵) where 𝐵 = (0 1 3 ).
3 2 1 0 0 1
7.4 APPLICATIONS
The solution of the following system of three linear equations in three unknowns.
𝑎11 𝑥 + 𝑎12 𝑦 + 𝑎13 𝑧 = 𝑏1 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑥 𝑏1
𝑎
{𝑎21 𝑥 + 𝑎22 𝑦 + 𝑎23 𝑧 = 𝑏2 can be written in the form ( 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) (𝑦) = (𝑏2 ) ⟹ 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝑎31 𝑥 + 𝑎32 𝑦+𝑎33 𝑧 = 𝑏3 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑧 𝑏3
Remarks:
I at least one of 𝑏𝑖 is different from zero the system is said to be non-homogeneous and if all 𝑏𝑖 are zero,
then system is said to be homogeneous.
The set of values of 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 that satisfy all the equations of system (1) is called solution of system.
148 | P a g e M A T H S 5 M A T H T E A C H E R S G R O U P
For the homogeneous system, the solution 𝒙 = 𝒚 = 𝒛 = 𝟎 is called trivial solution, other solution are
non-trivial solution.
Non -homogeneous system cannot have a trivial solution as at least on of 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 is not zero.
𝚫 𝚫 𝐲 𝚫𝐳
Solution is {(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳)} = {( 𝚫𝐱 , , 𝚫 )}
𝚫
Remarks:
If and only if Δ = 0
0
i) 𝛥𝑥 = 𝛥𝑦 = 𝛥𝑧 = 0 The solution means indeterminate.
0
Expected answers:
(1)
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 =1 𝒂 = −𝟑 𝑑+𝑒+𝑓 =0 𝒅 = −𝟏
{ 2𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 0 ⟹{ 𝒃=𝟓 {2𝑑 + 𝑒 − 𝑓 = 1 ⟹{ 𝒆=𝟐
3𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 𝒄 = −𝟏 3𝑑 + 2𝑒 + 𝑓 𝒇 = −𝟏
1 −2 −3 0 −2 −3
𝛥 = |3 5 2 | = −22, 𝛥𝑥 = |0 5 2 | = 22
2 3 −1 2 3 −1
1 0 −3 1 −2 0
𝛥𝑦 = |3 0 2 | = −22, 𝛥𝑧 = |3 5 0| = 22
2 2 −1 2 3 2
𝜟𝒙 𝟐𝟐
Hence, by Cramer’s rule,𝒙 = = −𝟐𝟐 = −𝟏
𝜟
𝜟𝒚 −𝟐𝟐
𝒚= = −𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏
𝜟
𝜟𝒛 𝟐𝟐
𝒛= = −𝟐𝟐 = −𝟏
𝜟
2x + 3y + 5z = 9
{ 7x + 3y − z = 1 Will have
4x + 3y + az = b
a) No solution
b) Unique solution.
c) More than one solution.
3 1 3 10 2 3
(1) If A 1 0 6 and B 1 4 6 , find A B, A B, A B and A B 2C
0 0 2 0 6 4
(2) Find the matrix of the following map relative to the canonical basis IR3 IR3
f x, y, z 2 x y, y z,2 x 4 y
1 0 0
(4) Find the inverse of: A 1 1 0
1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
(5) Using matrix inverse method , solve AX 2B 3C if A 1 1 0 , B 1 0 0 and C 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
x yz 3 x y z 4
(6) Use matrix inverse method to solve: (a) 2 x y 1 (b) 3x 10 y z 10
4 x y z 4 4x y z 2
1 1 3
(7) If f ( x) x 20 x 8 , find f (A) if A 1
3
3 3
1 4 4
1 2 1
(9) If A 0 1 2
1 0 2
(a) Show that A3 4 A 7 I O where I,O are the unit and the null matrix of order 3 respectively. Use this
result to find A1 .
2
(b) Find the matrix X such that AX 1
7
2 2 1 2 x 2 y z 18
(10) Given A 1 1 2 , find A3 and hence solve the system x y 2 z 2
3 1 3 3x y 3z 10
2 t 1 3
(11) Find, in terms of t , the determinant of the matrix A 1 1 t 1
1 1 2 t
(12) . If A is a square matrix of order 3 such that det( A) x , find the value of:
(a)
det A2
(b) det 2 A
(c)
det An , n IZ
Expected answer:
Represent the following points in space: A1,1,1, B 1,2,3, C3,4,1 , D 2,1,2, F 3,2,1, G 2,0,1
Let the points x1 , y1 , z1 and x2 , y2 , z2 be the end points of a line segment, then the midpoint of that segment is
x x y y2 z1 z2
given by the formula: M 1 2 , 1 ,
2 2 2
Let x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , y2 , z2 , x3 , y3 , z3 , ……….., xn , yn , zn be n points of space, their centroid is given by the
(1) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining 1,2,3, 3,2,1
(2) Determine the centroid of the triangle built from the points 1,4,2, 1,3,4 and 2,5,6
Expected answers:
1 3 2 2 3 1
(1) M , , 2,2,2
2 2 2
1 (1) 2 4 (3) 5 2 4 6 2
(2) C , , ,2,4
3 3 3 3
Let point P divide the line externally (meaning that it does not lie between A and B) in the ratio 𝒎: 𝒏, we have
mB nA
Then P
mn
Task 5: (Individually),
Expected answers:
B 3A 1 3
(a) Since 𝑚 = 1 and 𝑛 = 3, P B A
1 3 4 4
2B 5 A 5 2
(b) Since 𝑚 = 2 and 𝑛 = 5, P A B
25 3 3
Vector equation
Task 7: (Individually),
(1) Find the vector, parametric and symmetric equations of the line L passing through the point A3,2,4 with
direction vector u 2,3,5 .
(2) Write down the symmetric equations of the line L passing through the point A2,1,4 with direction vector
u 1,0,2 .
Expected answers:
(1) Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point on the line, O0,0,0 be the origin and 𝑡 is a parameter . Then
Vector equation:
L OP OA t u with OP x, y, z , OA3,2,4 and u 2,3,5
x 3 2
Or L y 2 t 3 or L x i y j z k 3 i 2 j 4 k r 2 i 3 j 5 k
z 4 5
x 3 2t
Parametric equations: L y 2 3t
z 4 5t
Symmetric equations:
x3 y 2 z 4
Eliminating the parameter t gives,
2 3 5
x 2 y 1 z 4 x2 z4
(2) Symmetric equations: or simply , y 1
1 0 2 1 2
A line passes through points Px0 , y0 , z0 , Qx1 , y1 , z1 and V x2 , y2 , z2 any point on the line has:
x x0 x1 x0
Vector equation: OV OP r PQ y y0 r y1 y0
z z z z
0 1 0
x x0 r x1 x0
Parametric equations: y y0 r y1 y0
z z r z z
0 0
x x0 y y0 z z0
The symmetric equations:
x1 x0 y1 y0 z1 z0
a x b1 y c1 z d1
Note: Also the equation of a straight line in space may be represented by 1 and the direction
a2 x b2 y c2 z d 2
i j k
b1 c1 a1 c1 a1 b1
vector of this line is given by , , or a1 b1 c1
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
a2 b2 c2
3x 6 y 2 z 15
the line whose equations are
2x y 2z 5
Expected answer:
(1) Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point on the line, O0,0,0 be the origin and 𝑡 is a parameter.
Also we find the direction vector, which is AB 2,6,7
x 3 2
Vector equation: OP OA r AB or M y 2 r 6
z 5 7
x 3 2t
Parametric equations: M y 2 6t
z 5 7t
x 3 y 2 z 5
Symmetric/Cartesian equations: Eliminating the parameter t gives,
2 6 7
x 3 y2
2 6 6 x 18 2 y 4 M 3x y 7 0
Or we can take two equations:
x 3 z 5 7 x 21 2 z 10 7 x 2 x 11 0
2 7
3x 6 y 2 z 15
(2) Given the point 1,4,2 and the line whose equations
2x y 2z 5
i j k
6 2 3 2 3 6
The direction vector of the line is u 3 6 2 i j k 14 i 2 j 15 k
1 2 2 2 2 1
2 1 2
x 1 14t
x 1 y 4 z 2
Hence L y 4 2t or L
z 2 15t 14 2 15
The three points Aa1 , a2 , a3 , Bb1 , b2 , b3 and C c1 , c2 , c3 are collinear (meaning that they lie on the same line) if
a1 b1 c1
their determinant is zero. That is a2 b2 c2 0
a3 b3 c3
Alternative method:
Three points A, B and C are collinear if the vectors formed from these points are linearly dependent.
That is, AB k AC , k IR0 .
Expected answer:
2 4 6
The points A, B, C are collinear if 𝐝𝐞𝐭(𝐀, 𝐁, 𝐂) = 𝟎, thus 1 3 7 42 84 30 54 70 28 0
3 5 7
Alternative method
2 4
1
AB 2,4,2, AC 4,8,4 , solve the equation 4 k 8 we have 8k 4 k . We see that AB AC or
1
2 4 2 2
AC 2 AB Thus, the three points are collinear.
Task 12: (Group discussion),
(1) Find the value of 𝑚 for which the points 1,2,3 , 2,1,5 and 5,0, m are collinear.
(2) Verify if the points A2,3,1 , B5,4,3 and C 2,1,2 are collinear.
(3) Show that the point A1,1,1 , B3,2,4 and C 1,0,2 are collinear and find the equations, in parametric
form, of the line they lie on.
160 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
8.2.3. Relationships between lines
Parallel lines
The two lines are parallel if their direction vectors are equal or are scalar multiples.
If two lines are parallel, there are two possible cases: the lines may be identical or strictly parallel.
If you find a point on one line which does not lie on the other, the two lines are strictly parallel
if you find a point on one line which lie on the other, the lines are identical.
Skew lines
Two lines may be skew, which means that they do not intersect, but are not parallel.
x 3t x 5 2t
(1) Determine if the lines are parallel, intersect, skew or identical: L1 y 2 2t , L2 y 2 4t
z 4t z 1 2t
x 3 2t x 4s
(2) Determine if the lines intersect. If so, find the point of intersection. L1 y 2t , L2 y 3 5s
z 4t z 2s
(3) Find parametric equations of line passing through the point 1,0,1 and parallel to the line
x 2r
L2 y 1 2r . Are the two lines identical or strictly parallel?
z 3 3r
(4) Determine whether the following lines are identical or parallel and distinct
x 2r x 3t
L1 y 1 2r and L2 y 3 2t
z 3 3r z 6 3t
Expected answer:
(1) The direction vectors are u 1,2,1 and v 2,4,1 (coefficients of parameter).We see that v 2 u ,
meaning that the two lines are parallel.
x 1 t
(3) Since the two lines are parallel, the direction vector of L1 is u 1,2,3 , thus L1 y 2t
z 1 3t
Now, let us check if there is a common point for two lines.
1 2 r r 3
For L1 if t 0 we have the point 1,0,1 , replace it in L2 we get 0 1 2r r 1 / 2
1 3 3r r 2 / 3
Since the values of r are different hence the two lines are parallel and distinct.
1 t 2
These two lines meet when 2 t 3
5 2t 2
From the first two equations, t 5 and 3 but these values do not verify the third equation since
5 2(5) 2 3
.Therefore, the lines are skew.
5 1
x7 z 12
(a) 4 x 4 y z 3 and y 5
2 6
(b) r 2 i 3 j 13 k 2 i 2 j 3 k and r i 3 j 5 k 3 i 2 j 2 k
x 1 y 2 z 1
(c) y 1 z 2 and x 4
2 3 2
x y z 3 0 x 1 y 1 z 1
(d) L and M
2 x y z 2 0 2 1 3
Since the dot product of u and v is u . v u . v cos , thus cos or cos 1
u.v u.v
u.v u.v
(1) Calculate the angle between the lines AB and AC for A1,2,3, B4,5,6 and C 3,2,30
(2) Find the angle between the lines:
x 1 t x 1 2t
(a) L1 y 4 t and L2 y 1 t to the nearest hundredth of a radian
z 8 z 1 2t
x 6 2t x 2t
(b) L1 y 8 2t and L2 y 1 2t to the nearest hundredth of a radian
z 7 t z 1 t
Expected answers:
(1) Line AB and AC has the direction vector u 3,33 and v 2,0,3
3
Therefore cos 1 99.20 which is not acute. Thus 1800 99.20 80.80
27 13
(2) (a) For L1 , u 1,1,0 and for L2 , v 2,2,1
u . v 1 2 2 2 0 1 6 , u 12 12 02 2 and v 22 22 (1) 2 9 3
6
Therefore cos 1 45
0
3 2
(b)For L1 , u 2,1,2 and for L2 , v 1,2,1
u . v 2 1 1 2 21 2 , u 22 12 (2) 2 3 and v 12 22 (1) 2 6
2
Therefore cos 1 74.210
3 6
x 1 t x 4 6t
(a) L1 y 10 2t and L2 y 1 3t to the nearest degrees
z 2 2t z 1 2t
x 2 y 1 z x 1 y z
(b) L and M
2 1 1 1 2 1
2 x 3 y z 1 0 3x y z 3 0
(c) L and M
x y 2z 2 0 x y 3z 1 0
x 1 y 1 z 2 x yz 0
(d) L and M
1 2 3 2 x y 3z 1 0
AB u
u c1 , c2 , c3 is d B, L
u
x 2t
Find the distance from the point Q1,3,2 to the line given by the parametric equations: L y 1 t
z 3 2t
Expected answer:
Direction vector of the line is u 1,1,2 and if we let t=0, the point on L is P2,1,3
i j k
Thus PQ 1,4,5 , then PQ u 1 4 5 3 i 3 j 3 k
1 1 2
PQ u
32 32 32
Hence d Q, L
27
unit lengths
u 12 (1) 2 22 6
(d) 1,2,3, x 2 y 3 z 4
4 4 2
To find the shortest distance between two skew lines we proceed the following steps:
Write the parametric form of any point of each given line.
Note: If two lines intersect (not skew lines), the shortest distance is zero.
x y 3 z x 5 y 8 z 2
(1) Find the shortest distance between the skew lines: and
1 1 1 3 7 1
(2) Find the equations to the common perpendicular to the following skew lines
x 5 y 7 z 3 x 9 y 13 z 15
and
3 16 7 3 8 5
Expected answers:
(1) Any point on first line is r ,3 r ,r and that on second line is 5 3t ,8 7t ,2 t
Then u . w 0 and v . w 0 . Since u 1,1,1 and v 3,7,1
5 3t r 5 7t r 2 t r 0
15 9t 35 49t 7r 2 t r 0
11t 3r 8 t 1
59t 11r 48 r 1
The points on two lines where the common perpendicular passes are 1,2,1 and 2,1,3
Any point on first line is 5 3r,7 16r,3 7r and any point on the second line is 9 3t ,13 8t ,15 5t
The vector joining these two points is w 4 3t 3r ,6 8t 16r ,12 5t 7r
Now, u . w 0 and v . w 0
12 9t 9r 96 128t 256r 84 35t 49r 0
12 9t 9r 48 64t 128r 60 25t 35r 0
x 5 2
Hence the equation is y 7 3 and the shortest distance is d (9 5)2 (13 7)2 (15 3)2 14
z 3 6
Vector equation
x x0 rx1 sx2
Parametric equations y y0 ry1 sy2
z z rz sz
0 1 2
x x0 x1 x2
Cartesian/ symmetric equation is given by y y0 y1 y2 0
z z0 z1 z2
We can also find the Cartesian equation by finding the value of two parameters in the first two equation of
parametric equations and put them in the third equation.
Vector equation
x x0 x1 x0 x2
OX OP r PQ s v or y y0 r y1 y0 s y2 where 𝒓 and 𝒔 are the parameters.
z z z z z
0 1 0 2
x x0 r ( x1 x0 ) sx2
Parametric equations y y0 r ( y1 y0 ) sy2
z z r ( z z ) sz
0 1 0 2
x x0 x1 x0 x2
Cartesian/ symmetric equation is given by y y0 y1 y0 y2 0
z z0 z1 z0 z2
The plane containing point Px0 , y0 , z0 and Q x1 , y1 , z1 with the direction vector N x2 , y2 , z2 and
Vector equation
x x0 r ( x1 x0 ) s( x2 x0 )
Parametric equations y y0 r ( y1 y0 ) s( y2 y0 )
z z r ( z z ) s( z z )
0 1 0 2 0
x x0 x1 x0 x2 x0
Cartesian/ symmetric equation is given by y y0 y1 y0 y 2 y0 0
z z0 z1 z0 z 2 z0
(1) Find vector, parametric and Cartesian equations of the plane, passing through A2,7,1 with direction
vectors u 3,1,1 and v 1,2,3 .
(2) Find the vector, parametric and Cartesian equation of plane β containing points A3,2,1 , B4,2,7
with the direction vector u 1,1,3 .
(3) Find the vector, parametric and Cartesian equation of plane β containing points A1,3,5 , B 2,5,4 and
C 3,6,5 .
(4) Given the point A1,1,1, B2,3,4 , C 3,1,4 , P3,0,3 and Q5,1,6 The coordinates of point M which
belongs to the plane ABC and on line PQ are to be determined in as many ways as possible.
(a) Write the parametric equations of plane ABC and the line PQ. Deduce the value of parameters of point M
and the coordinates of M.
(b) Write Cartesian equations of plane ABC and of line PQ. Deduce the coordinate of M.
Expected answers:
(1) Let X x, y, z represent any point of plane α. r and s be the parameters.
x 2 3 1
The vector equation is OX OA r u s v or y 7 r 1 s 2
z 1 1 3
x 2 3r s
The parametric equation is y 7 r 3s
z 1 r 3s
Cartesian equation
Let X x, y, z represent any point of plane α. O0,0,0 is the origin and r and s be the parameters.
The vector equation:
x 3 1 1
OX OA r AB t u or y 2 r 4 t 1
z 2 8 3
x 3 r t
Parametric equations: y 2 4r t
z 2 8r 3t
Cartesian equation
x y 5 4 x y 14
z 1 8 3
3 3
3 8 x 8 y 40 12 x 3 y 42
z
3
4x 5 y 5
z ,
3
And finally, 4 x 5 y 3z 5 0
Alternative method
x 3 1 1
y2 4 1 0
z 1 8 3
12 x 36 8 y 16 z 1 4 z 4 8 x 24 3 y 6 0
And finally, 4 x 5 y 3z 5 0
(3) Let A be the starting point. Then, the two direction vectors are AB 3,2,1 and AC 2,9,10
The vector equation:
x 1 3 2
OX OA r AB t AC or y 3 r 2 t 9
z 5 1 10
x 1 3r 2s
Parametric equations: y 3 2r 9s
z 5 r 10s
Cartesian equation
11 2 x 3 y
x 1 3r 2t.... 2 s 23
y 3 2r 9t... 3 9 x 2 y 15
r
23
Now,
9 x 2 y 15 11 2 x 3 y
z 5 10
23 23
23z 115 9 x 2 y 15 110 20 30 y
29 x 32 y 23z 10 0
172 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Then the Cartesian equation is 29 x 32 y 23z 10 0
Alternative method,
x 1 3 2
y 3 2 9 0
z 5 1 10
20x 1 1 y 3 27z 5 4z 5 9x 1 30 y 3 0
20 x 20 2 y 6 27 z 135 4 z 20 9 x 9 30 y 90 0
29 x 32 y 23z 10 0
Then 29 x 32 y 23z 10 0
(4) Direction vectors of the plane ABC are AB 1,2,3 and AC 2,2,3 where A is the starting point.
The direction vector of line PQ is PQ 2,1,3
x 1 r 2t
(a) The parametric equations of plane ABC are ABC y 1 2r 2t
z 1 3r 3t
x 3 2s
The parametric equations of line PQ are PQ y s
z 3 3s
Point M lies on plane ABC and on line PQ, then we need to equate the parametric equations of plane ABC and
line PQ.
1 r 2t 3 2s r 2t 2s 2
That is; 1 2r 2t s 2r 2t s 1
1 3r 3t 3 3s 3r 3t 3s 4
r 2 / 3
Thus, the values of parameters for point M to lie on both plane and line are t 1 / 3
s 1
Replace these values on the parametric equations of the line x 1, y 1, z 0
x 3 z 3
Cartesian equations of line y
2 3
Coordinates of M: From Cartesian equations of the line PQ, we have
x 3 2 y 3 9 6 y
x 3 3x 3 3 y
2
2
Putting these values into the Cartesian equation of the plane ABC, we have
12(3 2 y) 3 y 6(3 3 y) 9 0 y 1
(1) Find vector, parametric and Cartesian equations of the plane, α , passing through the point A2,4,1 with
direction vectors u 1,3,1 and v 2,1,3
(2) Find the vector, parametric and Cartesian equation of plane β containing points A2,1,1, B 2,4,3 and
the direction vector u 4,2,1 .
(3) Find vector, parametric and Cartesian equation of plane β passing through points: A3,6,0, B1,0,1 and
C 5,1,7 .
Note: The general equation of the plane is ax by cz d , a, b, c 0,0,0 . This equation is also called the
scalar equation of the plane.
Consider four points a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 , c1 , c2 , c3 and d1 , d 2 , d3 .These points are coplanar (meaning that
they lie on the same plane) if the following condition is satisfied.
a1 b1 c1 d1
a1 d1 b1 d1 c1 d1
a2 b2 c2 d2
0or a2 d 2 b2 d 2 c2 d 2 0
a3 b3 c3 d3
a3 d 3 b3 d 3 c3 d 3
1 1 1 1
Expected answer:
4 1 0 1 0 1 3 1 1
9 9 9 9 3 9 27 27
0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
00 00 30 0 0 3
(1) Determine if the points A1,2,3 , B4,7,8 , C 3,5,5 , D 1,2,3 and E 2,2,2 are coplanar.
(2) Calculate the value of 𝑥 for the coplanar set of points A0,0,1 , B0,1,2 , C 2,1,3 ,and Dx, x 1,2 are
coplanar.
(3) What is the condition for 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 so that the points A1,0,1 , B1,1,0 , C 0,1,1 ,and Da, b, c are
coplanar?
(4) Calculate the value of a for the points a,0,1 , 0,1,2 , 1,2,3 ,and 7,2,1 so that they are coplanar. Also,
calculate the equation of the plane that contains them.
A line and a plane are parallel if the direction vector of the line is perpendicular to the normal vector of the
plane.
(2) Find the equation of plane β passing through the point P6,1,9 and perpendicular to the line
4 x 3 5 z 13
6 x 7 y 4 z 23
(3) Find the equation of plane passing through the point A2,3,6 with the vectors u 1,5,5 and
v 4,4,1 as directions vectors.
x 2 2t
(4) Show that the plane 2 x y 3z 4 is parallel to the line y 1 4t
z4
x 1 t
(5) Consider the plane 2 x y 4 z 4 and the line y 4 2t . Find all points of intersection.
zt
xt
(6) Consider the plane 2 x y 4 z 4 and the line y 2 3t . Find all points of intersection.
zt
xt
(7) Consider the plane 2 x y 4 z 4 and the line y 4 2t . Find all points of intersection.
zt
Expected answers:
(1) Direction vector of the line AB is AB B A 3,3,4
Since line AB is perpendicular to the plane , n 3,3,4
Thus,
3x 2 3 y 3 4z 4 0
3x 3 y 4 z 13 0
i j k
(2) The direction vector of the line is u 4 3 5 23 i 46 j 46 k 23,46,46
6 7 4
We can take u 1,2,2 since 23,46,46 231,2,2
Plague 2,1,4 into the plane we get 2 2 1 1 34 4 15 4
?
Then, this point does not lie on the plane. Hence, the line and the plane are parallel and distinct.
(5) The direction vector of the line is 1,2,1 and the normal vector of the plane is 2,1,4
For the line if t=0, we get 1,4,0 replace it into the plane we get 21 14 40 4 6 4
?
Then, this point does not lie on the plane. Hence, the line and the plane are parallel and distinct.
(6) The direction vector of the line is 1,3,1 and the normal vector of the plane is 2,1,4
(7) The direction vector of the line is 1,2,1 and the normal vector of the plane is 2,1,4
For the line if t=0, we get 0,4,0 replace it into the plane we get 20 14 40 4 4 4
?
(4) Find parametric equations of the line through 5,0,2 that is parallel to the planes x 4 y 2 z 0 and
2x 3 y z 1 0
x 1 y z
(5) Find the intersection between the line and the plane x 2 y 3z 1 0
2 1 1
x 1 y z 2
(6) Find the intersection between the line and the plane x 3 y 2 z 5 0
5 1 1
(7) Find the intersection between the line x 1 t , y 3t , z 1 t and the plane 2 x 2 y 3z 6
(8) Find the intersection between the line x 0, y t , z t and 6 x y 4 z 0
1 n . m
The angle between two planes whose normal vectors n and m is given by cos
n.m
Expected answers:
(1) The normal vector to the plane is n (1,1,1) and the direction vector of the line u 1,2,3
The equation lx my nz t 0 is called normal equation of the plane if l.l m.m n.n 1
ax by cz d
Given the plane ax by cz d , the normal equation is given by 0
a 2 b2 c2
(1) Find the distance from the point P(2,4,7) to the plane 3x 5 y 6 z 18
(2) Calculate the distance between the two planes 2 x 3 y 3z 12 and 6 x 9 y 9 z 27
x 2 2t
(3) Find the shortest distance between the plane 2 x y 3z 4 and the line L y 1 4t
z4
Expected answers:
3 2 5 4 6 7 18
The distance d P,
34
(1) units of length
3 5 (6)
2 2 2
70
(2) Their normal vectors of the planes are n 2,3,3 and m 6,9,9
Since m 3 n ,the planes are parallel
Let x y 0 , z 3 , the point on the second plane is P0,0,3
2 0 3 0 3 3 12
Now the distance between the two planes is d P,
21
units of length
22 (3) 2 32 22
(1) Find the distance from the point (2, −3,4) to the plane x 2 y 2 z 13
(2) Find the distance from the point (0, −1,0) to the plane 2 x y 2 z 4
(3) Find the shortest distance between the planes x 2 y 6 z 1 and x 2 y 6 z 10
(4) Find the shortest distance between the planes 2 x y z 0 and 6 x 3 y 3z 0
x 1 y 1 z 3
Find the equation of the projection of the line on the plane x 2 y z 12
2 1 4
Expected answers:
A point on the given line is P1,1,3 and The direction vector of the line is u 2,1,4
The normal vector of the given plane is n 1,2,1
2a b 4c 0
Since this plane is perpendicular to u and n ,
a 2b c 0
x 15 y 12 z 17
(1) Determine the projection of the line on the plane 13x 9 y 16 z 69 0
15 15 11
x 1 y 1 z 7
(2) Determine the projection of the line on the plane 2 x 3 y z 30 0
2 2 1
Find the image of the point P2,3,4 with respect to the plane 4 x 2 y 4 z 3 0
Expected answers:
x 2 4t
Direction vector of the line is equal to n 4,2,4 , hence L y 3 2t
z 4 4t
Putting these values in the equation of the plane and solving for t ,
11
8 16t 6 4t 16 16t 3 0 t
36
Back to the parametric equations of the line, we have
x 2 4 11 / 36 x 58 / 18
y 3 2 11 / 36 y 43 / 18
z 4 4 11 / 36 z 50 / 18
58 43 50
Hence intersection of the plane and its perpendicular line passing through the given point is , ,
18 18 18
2 a 3 b 4 c 58 43 50
Let the image of P2,3,4 be Qa, b, c , then , , , ,
2 2 2 18 18 18
40 16 14
Solving for a, b, and c we get Q , , which is the image of P.
9 9 9
182 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
Task33:(Groupdiscussion)
Find the orthogonal projection of the point 5,6,3 onto the plane 3x 2 y z 2 0
FURTHER EXERICISES
3x 7 y 4
(4) Given the Cartesian equations of the line L , find the direction vector
5x 2 z 1
(5) Find the equation of the intersection line of planes 3x 6 y 2 z 15 and 2 x y 2 z 5 in standard
form.
(6) Find the equation of plane γ passing through the point A(3,5,2) and perpendicular to the plane
4x y z 4
(7) Find the equation of plane β passing through the point P(5,8,1) and parallel to the plane
3x 5 y 7 z 12
(8) Find the equation of plane β passing through the points A3,2,1 and B0,5,3 , perpendicular to the
plane 3x 4 y 6 z 13
(9) Find the intersection between 5x 7 y 8z 57 , 4 x y 9 z 78 and 9 x 8 y 7 z 77 .
ANSWERS:
(1) The normal vectors are n 2,1,3 and m 4,2,6
Since m 2 n and 2 21 the two planes are parallel and distinct and hence no intersection between them.
(2) We see that 23x 5 y 7 z 19 2 So, the two planes coincide and the intersection is any one of
them.
(3) The normal vectors are n1 4,3,7 and n2 5,2,6
n1 and n2 are not proportional, hence the two planes intersect at a line.
i j k
Direction vector of the line is u 4 3 7 4 i 59 j 23 k 4,59,23
5 2 6
4 x 3 y 7 z 3
For the equation , let z 0 , solving for others gives x 3, y 5
5 x 2 y 6 z 25
183 | P a g e M A T H S 5 M A T H T E A C H E R S G R O U P
Thus, the point on the line is (3,5,0)
x 3 4r
The equations of the line of intersection are y 5 59r , r is a parameter
z 23t
i j k
(4) u 4 7 0 14 i 6 j 35 k 14,6,35
5 0 2
i j k
(5) Direction vector of intersection line is u 3 6 2 14 i 2 j 15 k 14,2,15
2 1 2
3x 6 y 2 z 15
For the equation , let z 0 , solving for others gives x 3, y 1
2x y z 5
Thus, the point on the line is (𝟑, −𝟏, 𝟎)
x 3 y 1 z 3
Hence the equation is
14 2 15
(6) The normal vector of plane n1 4,1,1 , let also the normal vector of the plane is n1 a, b, c
Since the planes are perpendicular 4a b c 0
If a 1, b 2, c 5
The equation of a sphere of Centre (𝒌, 𝒍, 𝒎) and the radius 𝒓 is given by x k 2 y l 2 z m2 r 2
a b c 1 2
From this equation, the Centre is C , , and radius is given by r a b 2 c 2 4d
2 2 2 2
(3) Find the equation of sphere which passes through the points 1,2,3 , 0,2,4 , 4,4,2 and 3,1,4 .
(4) Prove that the equation of sphere described on the line segment joining the points 2,1,4 and 2,2,2
as diameter is x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 14 0
Expected answers:
(1) The required equation is given by:
x 6 y 1 z 3 42
2 2 2
x 2 y 2 z 2 12 x 2 y 6 z 30 0
(2) We put this equation in general form by dividing both sides by 4.
9
That is, x 2 y 2 z 2 2 x 4 y 5 z 0
4
2 4 5 5 1 9
Now the Centre is C , , 1,2, and radius is given by r (2) 2 42 52 4 3
2 2 2 2 2 4
5
Thus, the Centre is 1,2, and the radius is 3.
2
Alternative method
2 4 4
2
5
x 1 y 2 z 1 4
2 2 9 25
2 4 4
2
5
x 1 y 2 z 9
2 2
2
2
5
x 1 y 2 z 32
2 2
2
5
Thus, the Centre is 1,2, and the radius is 3.
2
(4) The midpoint of the points 2,1,4 and 2,2,2 which is the center of the sphere is
2 2 1 2 4 2 1
, , 0, ,1
2 2 2 2
The radius of the sphere is a half the distance between the given two points:
1 1 1
r (2 2) 2 (2 1) 2 (2 4) 2 16 9 36 61
2 2 2
2 2
1 1
The equation of sphere is x 0 y z 1
2 2
61
2 2
Or x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 14 0 as required.
(b) x 2 y 2 z 2 8x 16 y 14 z 93 0
(b) x2 y 2 z 2 2x 6 y 2
Consider a sphere S with radius r and Centre C a, b, c and any point Pa1 , a2 , a3
Expected answers:
(1) Consider the sphere S passing through the point P2,1,3 and with Centre C 1,2,3 . Find the equations
of the line D tangents to the sphere S at point P.
(2) Consider the sphere S x 2 y 2 z 2 16 and the line D passing through the points P1,2,4 and
Q 2,1,3 . Find the common point.
Expected answers:
(1) The vector from point P to the Centre of the sphere, i.e CP 1,3,6
We need also a direction vector of the line u a, b, c which is perpendicular to CP ,
x 2 3t
Hence the equation of the line D y 1 t
z 3t
(2) The direction vector of the line is PQ 3,1,7 and the parametric equations are
x 1 3r
y 2r
z 4 7 r
Putting these values into the equation of the sphere, we have
1 3r 2 2 r 2 4 7r 2 16
1 6r 9r 2 4 4r r 2 16 56r 49r 2 16 0
59r 2 66r 5 0
33 794 33 794
Solving we get, r 1.04, or r 0.08
59 59
x 1 3(1.04) 2.12
If r 1.04 , we have y 2 1.04 0.96 2,12,0.96,3.28
z 4 7(1.04) 3.28
x 1 3(0.08) 0.76
If r 0.08 , we have y 2 0.08 1.92 0.76,1.92,3.44
z 4 7(0.08) 3.44
Then there are two points of intersection: 2,12,0.96,3.28 and 0.76,1.92,3.44
x 3 y 4 z 8
Find the co-ordinates of the points where the line intersect the sphere
4 3 5
x 2 y 2 z 2 2 x 10 y 23 .
Consider a sphere S x 2 y 2 z 2 ax by cz d 0 with the Centre C k , l , m , the radius r and the plane
hx ny pz q their position appears in three cases.
sphere to the plane and d P, Q is the radius of the circle. Then d P, Q d C, Q2 d C, P2 .
If d C, r , there is no intersection
If d C, r , the plane is tangent to the sphere and the intersection, is the point.
hk nl pm q
The distance from the Centre of the plane is given by d C ,
h2 n2 p 2
Note:
x 2 y 2 z 2 ax by cz d 0
The circle of intersection of the sphere and the plane is given by
hx ny pz q
The equation of sphere through this circle is given by the sum of equation of sphere and that of the plane
using a constant k. thus x 2 y 2 z 2 ax by cz d k hx ny pz q 0
(1) Consider the sphere x 2 y 2 z 2 2 x 15 0 and the plane 3x 2 y 5z 6 . Find their intersection.
Answer
The Centre of the sphere is 1,0,0 and its radius is r=4
3 0 06 3
The distance between the sphere and the plane is d
9 4 25 38
Since this distance is less than the radius of the sphere, there is a circle of intersection.
2
3 9 599
Then the radius of the circle of intersection is 4
2
16
38 38 38
The normal vector of the plane which is also the direction vector of the perpendicular line of the plane through
the Centre (1,0,0) of the sphere is (3, −2,5).
190 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
x 1 3r
Then, the parametric equations of this perpendicular line are y 2r
z 5r
Putting them into the equation of the plane to find the value of the parameter r gives
3
3(1 3r ) 2(2r ) 5(5r ) 6 r
38
Putting this value of r into the parametric equations of the perpendicular line of the plane through the Centre of
47 6 15
the sphere to find the Centre of the circle of intersection gives , ,
38 38 38
2
6 15 599
2 2 2
47
Hence the circle of intersection is x y z
38 38 38 38
x2 y 2 z 2 2x 2 y 4z 3 0
(2) Find the equation to a sphere which passes through the circle and
2x y z 4
x 2 y 2 z 2 2 y 4 z 11
(3) Find the Centre and the radius of the circle
x 2 y 2 z 15
Answer
The Centre of this sphere is 0,1,2 and its radius is r =4 .
Equation of the line through the Centre of the sphere and perpendicular to the plane are
xt
y 1 2t
z 2 2t
Putting these values into the equation of the plane we will have the Centre of the circle:
t 2(1 2t ) 2(2 2t ) 15 t 1
Substituting this value of t in equation of line gives the Centre of the circle which is 1,3,4
(1)
Find the equation of the tangent plane to the sphere 3 x 2 y 2 z 2 2 x 3 y 4 z 22 0 at the point
1,3,5
(2) Find the equation of the sphere through the circle x 2 y 2 z 2 2 x 3 y 6 0, x 2 y 4 z 9 0 and the
Consider two spheres with centers C1 and C2 , radii r1 and r2 . The position of these two spheres depends on the
If d r1 r2 . Two spheres are tangent exterior and hence there is a point of intersection.
If d r1 r2 Two spheres are tangent interior and hence there is a point of intersection.
Given two spheres we subtract one from the other to obtain a plane. This equation of plane together with one of
the equation of the spheres is the circle of intersection.
Note:
(1) Sphere S1 has Centre C1 3,2,5 and radius 4. Find the equation of sphere S 2 with Centre C1 3,2,5
tangents to S1 exterior.
Answer
First we calculate the distance between the centers: d C1 , C2 42 82 (13) 2 249
The equation of S 2 is x 7 y 6 z 8
2 2 2
249 4
2
Or x 2 y 2 z 2 14 x 12 y 16 z 249 116 0
8 2 0
For S 2 the centre C2 , , 4,1,0 and the radius r2
1
64 4 0 52 2
2 2 2 2
Since r1 r2 4 , r1 r2 d C1,C2
Then the two spheres are interior and hence no intersection between them.
(3) Find the intersection between sphere S1 x 2 y 2 z 2 2 x 6 y 1 0 and
S2 4 x 2 4 y 2 4 z 2 10 x 25 y 2 z 0
Answer
2 6 0
For S1 the centre is C1 , , 1,3,0 and the radius r1
1
4 36 0 4 3
2 2 2 2
5 25 1 1 25 625 1 27
For S 2 the centre C2 , , and the radius r2 0
4 8 4 2 4 16 4 8
d C1, C2 r1 r2
Then d C1, C2 r1 r2 , means that the two spheres are tangent interior. There is a point of intersection.
x 1 2t
Thus this line is y 3 t
z 2t
Intersecting this line and the plane will give us a point of intersection of two spheres:
Putting the equations of the line into the equation of the plane gives 2 4t 3 t 4t 4 t 1
Replace 𝑡 = 1 in the line we get the point 1,2,2 .
(2) State the vector equations of the line which is parallel to the vector 2,3,1 which pass through the point
1,1,1
x 2r
(3) If the point Aa,b,3 , lies on the line L y 4 r , find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏
z 1 r
(b) the vector equation of the line that passes through A and B.
(5) Find the Cartesian equations of the line with vector equations x, y, z 2,3,1 r 2,3,1
(6) Find the vector equation of the line with parametric equations x 2 3r, y 5 2r, z 4 r
(8) Find the vector, symmetric and parametric equations of the line passing through P1,0,3 and parallel to the
line with parametric equations x 1 2t , y 2 t , z 3 3t
(9) Write down the vector equation of the plane passing through the point A and parallel to the vectors p and q
in each of the following: A2,3,4, p 2,3,2 and q 0,1,2
(10) In each of the following, find an equation of the plane determined by the data:
(a) Through the point A2,3,4 and perpendicular to u 2,3,4
(10) Find the equation of the plane which is parallel to the plane x 5 y 4 z 22 0 and whose sum of
intercepts on the coordinates axes is 19.
(11) Obtain the equation of the plane passing through the point (2,2,2) and containing the line joining the
points ( ) (1,1,1) and (1,1,2) .
(12) Find the equation of the plane through the point (2,3,4) and parallel to the plane 5x 6 y 7 z 3
x 3 2r s
(13) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane with parametric equations y r s
z 1 r
x 4 1 2 7
(14) The plane has vector equation y 3 r 1 s 3 . Show that the point with position vector 7
z 2 1 1 5
lies on this plane.
(15) Find the shortest distance from the origin to each of the following lines: x 1 t , y 2 t , z 3 t.
4 x 5 y 8 z 23 6x 5 y z 8
(16) Calculate the angle between the lines A and B
x 7 y 3z 10 2 x 2 y 3z 124
x 4 y 1z 10
(17) Calculate the angle between the line A and the plane 3x 6 y 8z 21
2 x 3 y 5 z 8
196 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(18) Calculate the angle between the planes 2 x 3 y z 10 and x 2 y 3z 12 0
(20) Find the equation of the sphere whose Centre (1,2,3), radius 2.
(21) If x 2 y 2 z 2 2 x 6 y 2 z d 0 is the equation of a sphere with the points (−1,0,2) and (3,6,0) as
extremities of one of its diameter, find the value of d.
(22) Find the equation to the sphere through the points 0,0,0, 0,1,1, 1,2,0, 1,2,3 .
(23) Find the equation of the sphere on the join of (1,2,3) and (0,4,−1) as diameter.
(24) Find the equation of the tangent plane to the sphere 3 x 2 y 2 z 2 2 x 3 y 4 z 22 0 at the point
(1,3,5).
(25) Find the value of a for which the plane 2x 2 y z a touches the sphere
x2 y 2 z 2 2x 2 y 2z 6 0 .
9.0. INTRODUCTION
In S4, we have seen that the measures of central tendency (mean, median or mode) is usually not by itself a
sufficient measure to rival the shape of a distribution of a data set. We also need measure that can provide some
information about the variation among data set values.
The measure that help us to know the spread of data set are called “measures of dispersion”
We consider 3 measures of dispersion: range, variance and standard deviation
Definitions:
(1) Mean: is the average of a set of numerical values, as calculated by adding them together and dividing by
the number of terms in a set.
n n
n
(2) Median: here we have two cases:
n
cf
(ii) For grouped data: Median Lm 2 ( w) where 𝐿𝑚 =lower class boundary, 𝑐𝑓 = cumulative
fm
frequency of the preceding median class, 𝑓𝑚 =frequency of the median class, 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
1 𝑓 −𝑓0
(3) Mode: is the observation which is most repeated. For grouped data mode = 𝑙 + (2𝑓 −𝑓 ) 𝑤 where 𝑙 =
1 0−𝑓2
lower class of the model class, 𝑓0= frequency of the class preceding the model class 𝑓1 = frequency of the model
class 𝑓2 =frequency of the class succeding the modal class and 𝑤 =class width.
(4) Range(R): for any set of data the range of the set is given by:
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑅) = (𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡) − (𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡)
(5) Variance(σ2 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑥)): for any set of data the variance of the set is given by:
∑ fx2 ∑ f(x−x̅)2
σ2 = Var(x) = ̅)2 or Var(x) =
− (X
n n
(6) Standard deviation(SD): Is a quantity expressing by how much the members of a group differ from the
∑ f(x−x̅)2 ∑ fx2
mean of the group. SD(x) = σ = √Var(x) = √ or 𝑆𝐷(𝑥) = √ ̅) 2
− (X
n n
Task 1: Individually,
(1) Find mean, median, range, variance and the standard deviation of the sample set: 1,2,8,11,13
(2) Find the mean, mode, median and the standard deviation of each of the following data set using the
calculated formula where appropriate. For (c) find mean and SD(X) only.
(a)
𝑥 1 2 8 11 1
3
𝑓 7 9 14 12 8
(b)
Time (mins) 1-5 6- 11- 16- 21-25
10 15 20
𝑓 7 9 14 12 8
Expected answers:
5+1 𝑡ℎ
Then 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = ( ) = 3𝑟𝑑 = 8
2
The mean X
x i
1 2 8 11 13
7,
n 5
∑ x2
Since the frequency is the same and is 1,the variance σ2 = Var(x) = ̅) 2
− (X
n
359
∑ 𝑥 2 = 12 + 22 + 82 + 112 + 132 = 359, then Var(x) = − 72 = 22.8 and
5
SD(X)=√22.8 = 4.77
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 13 − 1 = 12
(2) (a) Consider the table below,
𝒙 𝒇 𝒇𝒙 𝒇𝒙𝟐
1 7 7 7
2 9 18 36
8 14 112 896
11 12 132 1452
13 8 104 1352
∑= 50 373 3743
∑ fx2
The standard deviation SD(x) = √ ̅)2 , 𝑆𝐷(𝑥) = √3743 − 7.462 = √18.2084 = 4.2671
− (X
n 50
1-5 3 7 7 21 63
11 - 15 13 14 30 182 2366
16 - 20 18 12 42 216 3888
21 - 25 23 8 50 184 4232
∑= 65 50 675 11125
To find the median, let’s first identify the median class which is 11 – 15, the formula is Mode = 𝑙 +
1 𝑓 −𝑓0 14−9
(2𝑓 −𝑓 ) 𝑤 = 11 + (2×14−9−12) 5 = 14.5714
1 0−𝑓2
∑ fx2 11125
The standard deviation SD(x) = √ ̅)2 , 𝑆𝐷(𝑥) = √
− (X − 13.52 = √40.25 = 6.3443
n 50
The mean X
x 432 43.2
i
n 10
∑ x2
The standard deviation SD(x) = √ ̅)2 , 𝑆𝐷(𝑥) = √18912 − 43.22 = √24.96 = 4.996
− (X
n 10
(3) Calculate the variance and the standard deviation for the following values: 1, 3, 5, 6, 6, 8, 9, and 10.
(4) Ten different teams played football during one season. At the end of the season the top goal scorers from
each team scored the following number of goals: 10, 5, 18, 2, 𝑋, 4, 10, 15,11, 4. If the mean number of goals
scored is 9, what is the:
(a) value of X? (b) mode?
You can classify scatter diagrams based on correlation and slope of the trend.
Task 2: In pairs,
(1) Draw a line of best fit for the scatter plot given
(2) From the following draw the scatter diagram, state the type of correlation between the variables X and Y
and represent the line of the best fit and state the type of correlation.
(a)
x 1 2 3 4 5
(b)
Math 38 62 18 75 38 59 66 92 52 75 48
mark
Englis 74 44 85 19 88 69 50 33 29 32 56
h mark
Expected answer:
(1) Draw a line through the maximum number of points, balancing about an equal number of points above
and below the line.
That is Scatter diagram with weak positive correlation / Lower degree of positive correlation
(1) The value of cars in a used car garage are recorded below. The scatter graph shows this information.
(a) Another car arrives at the garage. It is 4 years old and worth £5000. Show this information on the scatter
graph.
(b) Describe the correlation between the value of the car and the age of the car.
(c) The next car that arrives is 6 years old. Estimate the value of the car.
(2) The table shows the time spent revising and the test scores of ten students.
(4) The table shows the charge (£) by plumbers for jobs of different duration (hours).
(5) Match each scatter graph to the best description of the type and strength of correlation.
(a) Plot the data on the scatter graph. Clearly label your axes.
(b) An apartment is 2.2 miles from the city Centre.
(c) Find an estimate for the monthly rent
(7) Some rugby players take two tests, one measuring speed and the other measuring strength. Each
test is marked out of 200.The scatter graph compares the results.
9.2. COVARIANCE
In case of two variables, say x and y, there is another important result called covariance of x and y, denoted
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚). The covariance of variables x and y is a measure of how these two variables change together.
Covariance of variables x and y, where the summation of frequencies f i n are equal for both variables, is
̅)(𝒚−𝒚
∑ 𝒇(𝒙−𝒙 ̅)
defined to be 𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒏
∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚
̅ ∑ 𝒇𝒚𝒙
̅ ∑ 𝒇𝒙
̅𝒚̅
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) = − − +
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒇𝒙 ∑ 𝒇𝒚 ∑𝒇
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) = ̅
−𝒚 ̅
−𝒙 ̅𝒚
+𝒙 ̅ ,
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) =
∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚
̅𝒙
−𝒚 ̅−𝒙
̅𝒚̅+𝒙
̅𝒚̅ ( Since 𝑦̅𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅ ,
fx x , fy y and f n)
𝒏 n n
∑ 𝐟𝐱𝐲
𝐜𝐨𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐧
− 𝐲̅𝐱̅ which is also another formula of calculating the covariance
Task 5: In pairs,
207 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
(1) Find the covariance of x and y in the following data sets
x 3 5 6 8 9 11
y 2 3 4 6 5 8
0 2 4
𝒙
1 2 1 3
2 1 4 2
3 2 5 0
Expected answers:
(1) Consider the following table:
𝒙 𝒚 (𝒙 − 𝒙
̅) (𝒚 − 𝒚
̅) (𝒙 − 𝒙
̅)(𝒚 − 𝒚
̅)
3 2 −4 −2.6 10.4
5 3 −2 −1.6 3.2
6 4 −1 −0.6 0.6
8 6 1 1.4 1.4
9 5 2 0.4 0.8
11 8 4 3.4 13.6
∑ 𝑥 = 42 ∑ 𝑦 = 28 ̅)(𝒚 − 𝒚
∑(𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅) = 𝟑𝟎
X
x i
42
7 X
y i
28
4.6
Here n 6 and n 6
∑ 𝐟(𝐱−𝐱̅)(𝐲−𝐲̅) 𝟑𝟎
Thus 𝐜𝐨𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = = =𝟓
𝐧 𝟔
(2) First, convert the double entry into a simple table and compute the arithmetic means.
𝒙 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙𝒇 𝒚𝒇 𝒙𝒚𝒇
𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟑 𝟐 𝟎 𝟔 𝟎
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟖 𝟖 𝟏𝟔
𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟑𝟎
𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝟏𝟐
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐 𝟖 𝟒 𝟏𝟔
𝟒 𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
∑ 𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎 ∑ 𝒇𝒙 = 𝟒𝟎 ∑ 𝒇𝒚 = 𝟒𝟏 ∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒚 = 𝟕𝟔
Then X
fx i
40
2 and X fy i
41
2.05 .
n 20 n 20
∑ 𝐟𝐱𝐲 𝟕𝟔
Hence 𝐜𝐨𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = − 𝐲̅𝐱̅ = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟐 × 𝟐. 𝟎𝟓 = −𝟎. 𝟑
𝐧
Physics 1 3 2 4 4 4 6 4 6 7 9 1
0
100 50 25
𝒙
14 1 1 0
18 2 3 0
(a) Regression line 𝒚 𝒐𝒏𝒙 is 𝑳𝒚/𝒙 ≡ 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 and the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 are found by solving the
∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛
simultaneous equations: {
∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑓𝑥
, where f i n and these equations are called the normal
equations for y on x.
(b) Regression line 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑦 is 𝐿𝑥/𝑦 ≡ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦 + 𝑑 and the values of 𝑐 and 𝑑 are found by solving the
∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 + 𝑑𝑛
simultaneous equations: {
∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 2 + 𝑑 ∑ 𝑓𝑦
, where f i n and these equations are called the normal
equations for x on y.
Task 7: In pairs,
Find the regression line of y on x for the following data and estimate the value of y for 𝑥 = 4, 𝑥 = 7, 𝑥 = 16
and the value of x for y = 7, y = 9, y = 16.
x 3 5 6 8 9 1
1
y 2 3 4 6 5 8
Expected answer:
(1) Consider the following table:
𝒙 𝒚 (𝒙 − 𝒙
̅) (𝒚 − 𝒚
̅) ̅) 𝟐
(𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅ )𝟐
(𝒚 − 𝒚 (𝒙 − 𝒙
̅)(𝒚 − 𝒚
̅)
∑𝑥 ∑𝑦 ∑ 𝑥2 ∑ 𝑦2 ̅)(𝒚 − 𝒚
∑(𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅) = 𝟑𝟎
= 42 = 28 = 42 = 23.36
X
x i
42
7 X
y i
28
4.6
Now, n 6 and n 6
Therefore Ly / x y y
cov( x, y)
x2
x x
Ly / x y 4.7
5
x 7 Ly / x y 5 x 0.3 and
7 7
Lx / y x x
cov( x, y )
y2
y y
Lx / y x 7
5
y 4.7 Lx / y x 1.3x 1
3.89
Alternative method
𝒙 𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝒚
𝟑 𝟐 𝟗 𝟒 𝟔
𝟓 𝟑 𝟐𝟓 𝟗 𝟏𝟓
𝟔 𝟒 𝟑𝟔 𝟏𝟔 𝟐𝟒
𝟖 𝟔 𝟔𝟒 𝟑𝟔 𝟒𝟖
𝟗 𝟓 𝟖𝟏 𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟓
𝟏𝟏 𝟖 𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝟔𝟒 𝟖𝟖
∑ 𝑥 = 42 ∑ 𝑦 = 28 ∑ 𝑥 2 = 336 ∑ 𝑦 2 = 54 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 = 226
∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 28 42a 6b 5
a
{ Then 7
∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 226 336a 42b b 0.3
5
Thus, the line of y on x is Ly / x y x 0.3 .
7
x 4 y 2.5
If x 7 y 4.7
x 16 y 11.1
Regression line 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑦 is 𝐿𝑥/𝑦 ≡ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦 + 𝑑 where 𝑐 and 𝑑 are obtained by solving the equations:
∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 + 𝑑𝑛 42 28c 6d c 1.3
{ Then
∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 2 + 𝑑 ∑ 𝑓𝑦 226 154c 28d d 1
y 7 x 10.1
If y 9 x 12.7
y 16 x 2.8
𝒚 𝟑. 𝟏 𝟑. 𝟔 𝟑. 𝟖 𝟒 𝟒. 𝟏
𝒙 100 50 25
𝒚
14 1 1 0
18 2 3 0
22 0 1 2
Where, 𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) =is covariance of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦, 𝝈𝒙 =is the standard deviation for x and 𝝈𝒚= is the standard
deviation for y.
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−(∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)
We can also find 𝒓 as 𝑟 =
√[𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 −(∑ 𝑥)2 ] [𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 2 −(∑ 𝑦)2 ]
The coefficient of correlation does not change the measurement scale. That is, if the height is expressed
in meters the coefficient of correlation does not change.
The sign of the coefficient of correlation is the same as the covariance.
The square of the coefficient of correlation is equal to the product of angular coefficients (slopes) of two
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚) (𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚))𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚) 𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚)
regression lines. In fact, 𝒓 = , squaring both sides gives, 𝒓𝟐 = = ×
𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒙 𝟐 𝝈𝒚 𝟐 𝝈𝒙 𝟐 𝝈𝒚 𝟐
The coefficient of correlation takes value ranging between −1 and +𝟏. That is,−1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 1
If the linear coefficient of correlation 𝒓 takes values closer to −1, the correlation is strong and negative.
If the linear coefficient of correlation takes values close to 1, the correlation is strong and positive.
If the linear coefficient of correlation takes values close to 0, the correlation is weak.
If 𝒓 = 𝟏 or 𝒓 = −𝟏, there is perfect correlation and the line on the scatter plot is increasing or
decreasing respectively.
If 𝑟 = 0, there is no linear correlation.
Task 9: Individually,
(1) The table below shows the age of 6 persons and their corresponding glucose level.
𝑨𝒈𝒆 (𝒙) 𝟒𝟑 𝟐𝟏 𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟐 𝟓𝟕 𝟓𝟗
𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍(𝒚) 𝟗𝟗 𝟔𝟓 𝟕𝟗 𝟕𝟓 𝟖𝟕 𝟖𝟏
𝒕 𝟖 𝟐 𝟔 𝟒 𝟐
(3) If two regression coefficients are 0.8 and 0.2, what would be the value of coefficient of correlation?
Expected answers:
∑𝒙 ∑𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 ∑ 𝒚𝟐
∑𝒙 𝟐𝟒𝟕 ∑𝒚 𝟒𝟖𝟔
Thus 𝒙 = = = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟔 and 𝒚 = = = 𝟖𝟏
𝒏 𝟔 𝒏 𝟔
∑ 𝐱𝐲 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟓
Also 𝐜𝐨𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = − 𝐲̅𝐱̅ = − 𝟒𝟏, 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟖𝟏=80.207
𝐧 𝟔
∑ x2 11409
The standard deviation of x 𝜎𝑥 = √ ̅) 2 = √
− (X − (41.16)2 = √207.35 = 14.4
n 6
∑ y2 40022
The standard deviation of y 𝜎𝑦 = √ − (y̅)2 = √ − (81)2 = √109.33 = 10.46
n 6
𝒄𝒐𝒗(𝒙,𝒚) 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝟓𝟎.𝟓
Hence 𝒓 = = 14.4×10.46 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑
𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚
Alternative method
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−(∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦) 6(20485)−(247×486) 2868
Simply 𝑟 = ,𝑟= = 5413.27 = 0.529806 ≈ 0.53
√[𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 −(∑ 𝑥)2 ] [𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 2 −(∑ 𝑦)2 ] √[6(11409)−(247)2 ] [6(40022)−(486)2 ]
8 98 784 64 9604
2 74 148 4 5476
6 87 522 36 7569
4 82 328 16 6724
2 72 144 4 5184
∑ 𝒕 =2 ∑ 𝒏 =4 ∑ 𝒕𝒏 =19 ∑ 𝒕𝟐 =1 ∑ 𝒏𝟐 =345
2 13 26 24 57
𝒏 ∑ 𝒕𝒏−(∑ 𝒕)(∑ 𝒏) 𝟓(𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟔𝟎−(𝟐𝟐×𝟒𝟏𝟑) 𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝟓𝟒𝟒
Therefore, 𝒓 = = = = 𝟓𝟒𝟖.𝟗𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗
√[𝒏 ∑ 𝒕𝟐 −(∑ 𝒕)𝟐 ] [𝒏 ∑ 𝒚𝟐 −(∑ 𝒚)𝟐 ] √[𝟓(𝟏𝟐𝟒)−(𝟐𝟐)𝟐 ] [𝟓(𝟑𝟒𝟓𝟓𝟕)−(𝟒𝟏𝟑)𝟐 ] √(𝟏𝟑𝟔)(𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟔)
(1) The following are the marks obtained by 10 students, in mathematics(𝒎) and physics(𝒑). Determine the
coefficient of correlation of this information and interpret it.(𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫: 𝐫 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏)
𝒎 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟑 𝟖 𝟐𝟗 𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟏 𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟏
𝒑 𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟏 𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟔 𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟏 𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟔
(2) The values of y and their corresponding values of y are shown in the table below
𝒙 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝒚 𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟒 𝟔
9.5. APPLICATIONS
Bivariate statistics can help in prediction of a value for one variable if we know the value of the other.
𝒕 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏. 𝟎 𝟏. 𝟓 𝟐. 𝟎 𝟑. 𝟎 𝟒. 𝟎 𝟓. 𝟎
𝒑 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝟗𝟒 𝟖𝟏 𝟖𝟑 𝟕𝟏
Estimate Norman’s pulse rate 2.5 minutes after stopping the exercise program.
Expected answer:
𝑷𝟐
𝒕 𝑷 𝒕𝑷
𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟗𝟒 𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝟒 𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟔
𝟑 𝟖𝟏 𝟐𝟒𝟑 𝟗 𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟏
𝟒 𝟖𝟑 𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝟏𝟔 𝟔𝟖𝟖𝟗
𝟓 𝟕𝟏 𝟑𝟓𝟓 𝟐𝟓 𝟓𝟎𝟒𝟏
∑ 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟕 ∑ 𝑷 = 𝟔𝟔𝟗 ∑ 𝒕𝑷 ∑ 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓 ∑ 𝑷𝟐
= 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟔. 𝟓 = 𝟔𝟔𝟏𝟐𝟓
To obtain pulse rate 2.5 minutes after stopping the exercise program, we need the regression line 𝒐𝒏 𝒕 ,
∑ 𝑓𝑃 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 669 17a 7b a 11
𝑷 = 𝒂𝒕 + 𝒃. We us the formula { 2 Then
∑ 𝑓𝑡𝑃 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓𝑡 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑓𝑡 1446 57.5a 17b b 122.3
Then 𝑃 = −11𝑡 + 122.3. Hence, Norman’s pulse rate 2.5 minutes after stopping the exercise program is
estimated to be 𝑃 = −11(2.5) + 122.3 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟖.
Circumference, y(centimeters) 52 57 57 68 65 70 75 80 82
(a) State whether distance from the beach is a continuous or discrete variable.
(b) On graph paper, draw a scatter diagram to show Darren’s results. Use a scale of 1 cm to represent 5 m on the
x-axis and 1 cm to represent 10 cm on the y-axis.
̅ of the trees from the beach.
(c) Calculate the mean distance, 𝒙
(d) Work out the mean circumference, 𝒚 of the trees.
(e) Plot and label the point M ( x, y) on your graph.
(f) Write down the Pearson’s product–moment correlation coefficient,𝒓 , for Darren's results.
(g) Find the equation of the regression line 𝒚 𝒐𝒏 𝒙, for Darren’s results.
(h) Draw the regression line 𝒚 𝒐𝒏 𝒙 on your graph.
(i) Use the equation of the regression line 𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 to estimate the circumference of a tree that is 42 m from the
beach.
(2) The table below shows the scores for 12 students on two Mathematic exam papers. For the first paper
calculators were allowed and for the second paper they were not.
𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝟏 (𝒙) 74 73 65 75 68 72 69 71 83
𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝟐 (𝒚) 75 83 69 77 71 77 68 76 84
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒚 (𝒙) 52 60 58 61 65 60 70 72
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒔𝒚 (𝒚) 50 60 61 59 64 64 68 73
(a) Find an equation of the regression line of x on y. The equation should be written in the form x = ay + b.
(b) Find an equation of the regression line of y on x. The equation should be written in the form y = ax + b
(c) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of these two lines.
(d) discuss about this point.
(4) In a survey of insect life near a stream, a student collected data about the number of different insect species
(y) that were found at different distances (x) in meters from the stream.
Distances (x) 5 8 11 14 17 22 33 39
Insects species(y) 25 11 19 14 9 5 3 2
(a) Draw a scatter diagram to show the data.
(b) Using your scatter diagram, describe the correlation between the number of different insect species and the
distance from the stream.
̅ of the distances from the stream;
(c) Find the mean 𝒙
(d) Find the mean y number of insect species.
(e) Plot the point ( x, y ) on your scatter diagram. Label this point M.
(f) Write down the equation of the regression line 𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 for the above data.
(g) Draw the regression line 𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 on your scatter diagram.
(h) Estimate the number of insect species to be found 30 meters from the stream.
(5) The scatter graph shows the maximum temperature (0C) and the number of bowls of soup sold at a sandwich
shop on twelve randomly selected days last year.
(d) The shop owner says "We sell more bowls of soup the higher the temperature". Does the scatter graph
support this statement? Give a reason for your answer.
(6) The following table shows the relationship between the number of workers and the amount of time in
minutes it takes them to harvest the sugar cane in a particular field.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑠 (𝑛) 3 4 5 6 7 7 9
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡) 799 303 645 570 422 322 241
(a) Find the equation of the regression line of 𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑛.
(b) Find the value of the Pearson’s product–moment correlation coefficient, 𝑟.
(c) Use the regression equation to find how long it would take seven workers to harvest the sugar cane
(7) The following is a summary of the results of given two variables:
∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 500 , ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 300, ∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 = 27818, ∑ 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 16837, ∑ 𝑓𝑦 2 = 10462.
Find the equation of regression line of y on x. Estimate the value of y for 𝑥 = 60
(8) The following results were obtained from lineups in Mathematics and Physics examinations:
Mathematics(x) Physics(y)
If the coefficient of correlation 𝑟 = 0.95, Find both equations of the regression lines. And also estimate the
value of y for x= 30.
(9) In a partially destroyed laboratory record of an analysis of correlation data, the following results only are
legible: Variance of x is 9. Equations of regression lines 8𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 66 = 0 and 40𝑥 − 18𝑦 − 214 = 0
(a) the mean values of x and y.
(b) the standard deviation of y, and
(c) the coefficient of correlation between x and y.
(10) The following results were obtained from records of age (x) and systolic blood pressure (y) of a group of
10 men:
(x) (y)
53 142
Mean
130 185
Variance
If ∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )(𝑦 − 𝑦̅) = 1220, Find both equations of the regression lines. Also estimate the blood pressure of
a man whose age is 45.
(11) For a set of 20 pairs of observation s of the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦, it is known that ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 250 , ∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 140
and that the regression line of 𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 passes through (15,10). Find the equation of that regression line and use it
to estimate y when 𝑥 = 10.
(12) The heights h, in cm, and weights w, in kg, of 10 people are measured. It is found that ∑ 𝑓ℎ = 1710 ,
∑ 𝑓𝑤 = 760, ∑ 𝑓ℎ2 = 293162, ∑ 𝑓ℎ𝑤 = 130628, ∑ 𝑓𝑤 2 = 59390
(a) Calculate the coefficient of correlation between the value of h and w.
(b) What is the equation of the regression line of 𝑤 𝑜𝑛 ℎ?
10.0.INTRODUCTION
(a)Revision on probability
then 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐸) ≤ 1.
Some definitions on sets:
1. Union: The union of two regions defines an event that is either in A or in B or in both regions.
2. Intersection: The intersection of two regions defines an event must be in both A and B.
3. Complement: The complement of A is everything in the event space that is not in A, i.e. A′.
The set S of all possible outcomes of a given experiment is called the sample space. Any subset of the sample
𝐧(𝐀)
space is called an event. Hence 𝐏(𝐀) = 𝐧(𝐒)
NOTE: Permutations and combinations can be used to find probabilities of various events
particularly when large sample sizes occur. In everything we do, we have to use
the formula. In everything we do we have to use the formula
𝐧(𝐀)
𝐏(𝐀) = 𝐧(𝐒)
of 3. Find
(a) P(A ∪ B); (b) P(A ∩ B); (c) P(A - B).
(8) A bag contains 6 blue balls, 5green balls and 4 red balls. three balls are selected at random without
replacement. Find the probability that:
(a) They are all blue
(b) Two blue and one green
(c) There one of each colour
(9) If 4 people A, B, C, D sit in a row on a bench, what is the probability that A and B sit next to each other?
(10) A card is drawn from a pack of 52. A is the event of drawing an ace and B is the event of drawing a spade.
Find P(A), P(B), P(A ∩ B) and P(A ∪ B).
(11) A coin is weighted such that heads is three times as likely to appear as tails. Find P(T) and P(H).
(12) A marble is drawn from an urn containing 10 marbles of which 5 are red and
3 are blue. Let A be the event: the marble is red; and let B be the event: the marble is blue. Find P(A), P(B) and
P(A ∪ B).
1 2
(13) Given that 𝑃(𝐴) = 3 and 𝑃(𝐵) = 5. Find 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) if the events A and B are:
(a) Independent
(b) Mutually exclusive events
(14) A factory runs two machines, A and B. Machine A operates for 80% of the
time while machine B operates for 60% of the time and at least one machine
operates for 92% of the time. Do these machines operate independently?
(1) Number of ways it can happen: 1 (there is only 1 face with a 4 on it) Total number of outcomes: 6 (there are
6 faces altogether) So the probability is 1/6
(2) Number of ways it can happen: 4 (there are 4 blues) Total number of outcomes: 5 (there are 5 marbles in
total) hence 𝑷(𝒃𝒍𝒖𝒆) = 𝟒/𝟓
(3) The sample space is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT},
A = {HH}, B = {HT, TH},
𝐧(𝐀) 𝟏 𝒏(𝑩) 𝟐 𝟏
(a) Since 𝐏(𝐀) = =𝟒 (b) 𝑷(𝑩) = =𝟒=𝟐
𝐧(𝐒) 𝒏(𝑺)
2
(4) Since we have 11 letters , n(S)=11 and we have 2 A i.e n(A)=2 then 𝑃(𝐴) = 11
(5) P(French or Spanish) = P(French) +P(Spanish) – P(both) =0.6 + 0.5 – 0.2 =0.9
(6) The sample space of possible outcomes is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
1 1 2
(A) 𝑃(5) = 6 (D) P(not 3 or 4) = 1 − 3 = 3
1 5
(B) P(not a 5) = 1 − 6 = 6 (7)
2 1
(C) P(3 or 4) = =3
6
C3 5 C0 4 C0
6
20 4
(7) (A) P(BBB)= 15
C3 455 91
6
C2 5 C14 C0 75 15
(B) P( BBG ) 15
C3 455 91
(10) let 𝑃(𝑇) = 𝑝 then 𝑃(𝐻) = 3𝑝, since the events are compliments P(T)+P(H)=1, Then 4𝑝 = 1
1 3
𝑃(𝑇) = 4 and 𝑃(𝐻) = 4
5 1 3
(11) 𝑃(𝐴) = 10 = 2, 𝑃(𝐵) = 10 since the marble cannot be both red and blue, A and B are mutually
5 3 8
exclusive events . Then 𝐏(𝐀 ∪ 𝐁) = 𝐏(𝐀) + 𝐏(𝐁) = 10 + 10 = 10 = 4/5
(12)
1 2 2
(a) If the events are independents then P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B) = 3 × 5 = 15
1 2 2 9 3
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B) = + − = =
3 5 15 15 5
1 2 11
(b) If the events are mutually exclusive events 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0, Then 𝐏(𝐀 ∪ 𝐁) = 𝐏(𝐀) + 𝐏(𝐁) = 3 + 5 = 15
(13) We are given 𝑃(𝐴) = 0.8, 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.6 AND 𝑃(𝐴𝑈𝐵) = 0.92
Now 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 0.8 + 0.6 − 0.92 = 0.48
SINCE 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.48, Therefore the machines operate independently.
A tree diagram is a mean which can be used to show the probabilities of a certain outcomes
occurring when two or more trials take places in succession. The outcome is written at the end of
the branch and the fraction on the branch gives the probability of the outcome occurring. In these
lessons, we will learn:
how to draw probability tree diagrams for independent events (with replacement)
how to draw probability tree diagrams for dependent events (without replacement)
Task 2: Individually,
Expected answer:
(1) Since there are three red and 5 green balls, for the first trial the probability of choosing a
red ball is 𝐏(𝐑) = 𝟑/𝟖 and the probability of choosing a blue ball is 𝐏(𝐆) = 𝟓/𝟖.
Since the ball is replaced after being selected the probabilities are the same.
b) i) To find the probability of getting two black balls, first locate the B branch and then follow the second B
branch. Since these are independent events we can multiply the probability of each branch.
ii) There are two outcomes where the second ball can be black.
Either (B, B) or (W, B)
P(secondballblack)
=P(B,B)orP(W,B)
226 | P a g e M A T H S 5 MATHTEACHERS GROUP
=P(B,B)+P(W,B)
(3)
a) A probability tree diagram that shows all the outcomes of the experiment.
b)Theprobabilitythat:
(i) both are red.
P(R, R) =
(ii) both are black.
P(B, B) =
(iii) one black and one red.
P(R, B) or P(B, R) =
(iv) at least one red.
1-P(B,B)=
(4)
a) A probability tree diagram to show all the possible outcomes.
P(R, B) or P(B, R) =
(iii) two of the same color.
P(R, R) or P(B, B) =
(1) Calculate the probability of three coins landing on: Three heads.
(2) A class consists of six girls and 10 boys. If a committee of three is chosen at random, find
the probability of:
(a) Three boys being chosen.
(b) Exactly two boys and a girl being chosen.
(c) Exactly two girls and a boy being chosen.
(d) Three girls being chosen.
(3) A bag contains 7 discs, 2 of which are red and 5 are green. Two discs are removed at
random and their colors noted. The first disk is not replaced before the second is selected. Find the
probability that the discs will be:
(a) both red
(b) of different colors
(c) the same colors.
If probability of event B is not affected by the occurrence of event A, events A and B are said to be independent
and P( A B) P( A) P( B) .This rule is the simplest form of the multiplication law of probability.
Task 4: individually
(1) A die is thrown twice. Find the probability of obtaining a 4 on the first throw and an odd number on the
second throw.
(2) A factory runs two machines. The first machine operates for 80% of the time while the second machine
operates for 60% of the time and at least one machine operates for 92% of the time. Do these two machines
operate independently?
(3) A coin is weighted such that heads is three times as likely to appear as tails. Find P(T) and P(H).
Expected answers:
1
(1) Let A be the event: “a 4 is obtained on the first throw”, that is A={4},then P( A) . Let B be the event:
6
3 1
“an odd number is obtained on the second throw”. That is B = { 1,3,5} then P( B)
6 2
Since the result on the second throw is not affected by the result on the first throw, A and B are independent
1 1 1
events. Hence P( A B) P( A) P( B)
6 2 12
(2) We are given 𝑃(𝐴) = 0.8, 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.6 AND 𝑃(𝐴𝑈𝐵) = 0.92
Now 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 0.8 + 0.6 − 0.92 = 0.48
SINCE 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.48, Therefore the machines operate independently.
(3) let 𝑃(𝑇) = 𝑝 then 𝑃(𝐻) = 3𝑝, since the events are compliments P(T)+P(H)=1, Then 4𝑝 = 1
1 3
𝑃(𝑇) = 4 and 𝑃(𝐻) = 4
(1) A coin is tossed and a single 6-sided die is rolled. Find the probability of landing on the head side of the
coin and rolling a 3 on the die.
(2) A husband and a wife appear in an interview for two vacancies in the same post. The probability of
husband’s selection is 1/7 and that of wife’s selection is 1 /5 What is the probability that:
(c) both of them will be selected?
(d) only one of them will be selected, and none of them will be selected?
Task 6: In pairs
(1) In a group of 100 sports car buyers, 40 bought alarm systems, 30 purchased bucket seats, and 20
purchased an alarm system and bucket seats. If a car buyer chosen at random bought an alarm system, what is the
probability they also bought bucket seats?
(2) A die is tossed. Find the probability that the number obtained is a 4 given that the number is greater than
2.
(3) At a middle school, 18% of all students play football and basketball, and 32% of all students play
football. What is the probability that a student who plays football also plays basketball?
(4) In a sample of 40 vehicles, 18 are red, 6 are trucks, and 2 are both. Suppose that a randomly selected
vehicle is red. What is the probability it is a truck?
Expected answers:
P( A) 0.4,
0.2
(1) P( B) 0.3 then P( B / A) 0.5 OR 50%
0.4 0.3
P( A B) 0.2
1
(2) Let A= A number is 4, then 𝑃(𝐴) = 6
1
P( A B) 6 1 3 1
Hence P( A / B)
P( B) 2 6 2 4
3
(3) Let A be a set of students who play football and B a set of students who play basketball; then the set of
students who play both games is A∩B. We have P(A )= 32%= 0.32 , P(A∩B) =18% =0.18 We need the
probability of B known that A has occurred.
P( A B) 0.18
Then P( B / A) 0.5625 56.25%
P( A) 0.32
Contingency table
Contingency table (or two-way table) provides a different way of calculating probabilities. The table helps in
determining conditional probabilities quite easily.
Task 7: (Individually),
Suppose a study of speeding violations and drivers who use car phones produced the following fictional data:
Speeding violation in last year None Speeding violation in last year Total
(e) The sample space is reduced to the number of persons who had a violation. Then
25
P(person is a car phone user GIVEN perso n had a violation in the last year) = 70
(f) The sample space is reduced to the number of persons who were not car phone users. Then
405
P(person had no violation last year GIVEN person was not a car phone user) = 450
(1) Calculate the probability of a 6 being rolled by a die if it is already known that the result is even.
(2) A jar contains black and white marbles. Two marbles are chosen without replacement. The probability
of selecting a black marble and then a white marble is 0.34, and the probability of selecting a black marble on the
first draw is 0.47. What is the probability of selecting a white marble on the second draw, given that the first.
(3) Below, the contingency table shows the favorite leisure activities for 50 adults, 20 men and 30 women.
Men 2 10 8 20
Women 16 6 8 30
Total 18 16 16 50
P( A / Bi ) P( Bi )
Bayes’ formula says that P( Bi / A) n
P( A / B ) P( B )
i 1
i i
Task 9: (Individually),
(1) Suppose that machines M1, M 2 , andM 3 produce respectively 500, 1000, and 1500 parts per day, of
which 5%, 6%, and 7% are defective. A part produced by one of these machines is taken at random, at the end of
a given workday, and it is found to be defective. What is the probability that it was produced by machine M 3 ?
(2) Two machines A and B produce 60% and 40% respectively of total output of a factory. Of the parts
produced by machine A, 3% are defective and of the parts produced by machine B, 5% are defective. A part is
selected at random from a day’s production and found to be defective. What is the probability that it came from
machine A?
Expected answers:
(1) Let Ai be the event “the part taken at random was produced by machine M i ”, for i 1,2,3 ; and let D be
P( D / A3 ) P( A3 )
Using the Bayes formula P( A3 / D)
P( D / A1 ) P( A1 ) P( D / A2 ) P( A2 ) P( D / A3 ) P( A3 )
1
0.07
2
105 21
1 1 1 190 38
0.05 0.06 0.007
6 3 2
Alternative method: Using tree diagram
(1) 20% of a company’s employees are engineers and 20% are economists. 75% of the engineers and 50%
of the economists hold a managerial position, while only 20% of non-engineers and non-economists have a
similar position. What is the probability that an employee selected at random will be both an engineer and a
manager?
(1) A coin is biased so that it has 60%chance of landing on head. If it is thrown three times
find the probabilities of getting:
(a) Three heads
(b) Two heads and one tail
(c) At least one head.