Advance Machining

Processes
DR. M.S. NIRANJAN
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Delhi Technological University
 INDEX

1. Introduction to advance machining 9. Electric Discharge Machining

processes
10. Laser Beam Machining
2. Abrasive Jet Machining
3. Water Jet Machining 11. Plasma Arc Machining

4. Abrasive Water Jet Machining 12. Focused Ion Beam Machining

5. Ultrasonic Machining 13. Chemical Machining
6. Abrasive Flow Machining
14. Bio Chemical Machining
7. Magnetic Abrasive Finishing
15. Electro Chemical Machining
8. Magnetorheological Finishing --- Electro Chemical Grinding
--- Electro Chemical Horning

2
INTRODUCTION TO ADVANCE
MACHINING PROCESS
Introduction

 AMP is basically used when:

o Ultra high strength , hardness.
o Very high temperature resistance.
o Difficult to machine by conventional machining methods.
 AMP can also be used when:
WORK PIECE MATERIAL HARDNESS >> TOOL MATERIAL HARDNESS

 Workpiece hardness does not matter in AMPs.

4
Classification of Materials

1. Engineering materials can be classified

into 3 broad categories:
• Metals and alloys
• Plastics and composites
Engineering • Ceramics
materials

Metals and
Plastics 2. Plastics ,ceramics and composites are
and Ceramics
alloys getting more popularity.
composites

3. These materials sometimes cannot be

machined with conventional methods and
hence we have to use Advanced
Machining Processes.
5
Need of Advanced Machining Processes

 Limitations of conventional machining methods (workpiece hardness, surface

roughness, 3-d parts, complex geometries)
 Increased workpiece hardness
 Decreased economic cutting speed
 Lower productivity
 Rapid improvements in the properties of materials (workpiece hardness,
strength, etc.)
 Metals & non – metals : stainless steel , high strength temperature resistant
(hsrt) super alloys etc.

6
Classification based on the kind of energy used

AMP

Electrochemical
Mechanical Thermoelectric
and Chemical

7
 Mechanical

AJM
USM
WJM
AWJM
Thermoelectric
LBM
PAM
EBM

EDM

Electrochemical
BM
ECM
CHM

8
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) is a process that removes material by

directing a high velocity stream of abrasive particles onto workpiece.
 The process is used chiefly to cut intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials
which are sensitive to heat and have a tendency to chip easily.
 The process is also used for deburring and cleaning operations. 9
 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• Ultrasonic Machining is a non-traditional
process, in which abrasives contained in
a slurry are driven against the work by a
tool oscillating at low amplitude (25-100
microns) and high frequency (15-30
kHz).

• The high frequency electrical signal is

transmitted to transducer which converts
it into high frequency low amplitude
vibration.

10
 Water Jet Machining (WJM)
• The key element in water jet machining (WJM) is a
water jet, which travels as high as 900 m/s.

• When the stream strikes a workpiece surface, the

erosive force of water removes the material.

• The water, in this case, acts like a saw and cuts a

narrow groove in the workpiece material.

• WJM is a form of micro erosion. It works by forcing a

large volume of water through a small orifice in the
nozzle.

11
 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

• Mechanism of metal removal :

Melting and Evaporation.

• This process is used where the

material is of High thermal
conductivity. Like al , cu etc.

• It has very low machining efficiency

(<1%)>

12
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

• ECM process is also known as a

contactless electrochemical forming
process.

• Electrochemical energy detaches

metal from anode atom by atom.

• WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ECM:

Faraday’ s laws of electrolysis
m α itE

13
 Some important characteristics of AMPs
 Performance is independent of strength barrier.

 Performance depends on thermal, electrical, magnetic or / and chemical

properties of workpiece materials.

 Use different kinds of energy in direct form.

 In general, low MRR but better quality products.

 Comparatively high initial investment cost of machine tools and high –

operating cost .

14
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING
Abrasive Jet Machining

 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) is a process that removes material by

directing a high velocity stream of abrasive particles onto workpiece.
 The process is used chiefly to cut intricate shapes in hard and brittle
materials which are sensitive to heat and have a tendency to chip easily.
 The process is also used for deburring and cleaning operations.
 AJM is inherently free from chatter and vibration problems. The cutting
action is cool because the carrier gas serves as a coolant.

16
Components
The major components are:

• Air compressor.
• Air filter.
• Dehumidifier.
• Pressure Gauge.
• Pressure Regulator.
• Vibrator or Mixer.
• Nozzle.
• Horizontal and Vertical motion module
(for xyz motion). FIG: SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF ABRASIVE JET MACHINE

• Arrangement to hold the workpiece.

17
 Working
 Abrasive particles are fed from the hopper into the mixing chamber.
 High pressure air or gas under pressure is supplied to the mixing chamber
containing the abrasive powder and vibrating at 50 c/s.
 This mixture flow from a small nozzle at high velocity.
 This stream of abrasive particles bombards the workpiece at nearly the
speed of sound and cuts the material.
 Since the abrasive particles are very small, Material removal rate is very
slow.
 The pressure regulator control the gas flow and pressure.

18
Variables in AJM
 Carrier gas
 Types of abrasive
 Size of abrasive grain
 Velocity of abrasive jet
 Flow rate of abrasive
 Work material
 Geometry, composition and material of nozzle
 Nozzle work distance (stand off distance)
 Shape of cut and operation type

19
Process Parameters

20
Characteristics of different process parameters
Medium Air , CO2 ,N2

Abrasive SiC, Al2O3 (of size 20µ to 50µ )

Flow rate of abrasive 3 to 20 gram/min

Velocity 150 to 300 m/min

Pressure 2 to 8 kg/cm2

Nozzle size 0.07 to 0.40 mm

Material of nozzle WC, Sapphire

Nozzle life 12 to 300 hr

Stand off distance 0.25 to 15 mm (8mm generally)

Work material Non Metals like glass, ceramics, and granites.

Metals and alloys of hard materials like
germanium, silicon etc
part application Drilling, cutting, deburring, cleaning

21
Various abrasives and their application

22
Effect of Process Parameter on MRR

23
Process Capability

24
Advantages
 No change in microstructure as no heat is generated in the process.
 Surface finish obtained is good.
 There is no contact between tool and workpiece therefore the tool wear
is less.
 This process cut any hardness and brittleness.
 Low capital cost.

25
Disadvantages
 Material removal rate is low and hence its application is limited.
 Accuracy is not good.
 It requires some type of dust collecting system.
 It cannot be used to drill blind holes.

26
Application
 Fine drilling.
 Cutting slots.
 Cutting thin sections.
 It is used for cleaning and polishing of plastics.
 Removing plating , anodic and thermal oxide coatings.
 Machining of semiconductors.
 Drilling and cutting thin section of hard material.

27
WATER JET MACHINING
Water Jet Machining

 The machining process in which water jets are used to extract material
from the workpiece is called water jet machining (WJM).
 In this process, water jets are used, which acts as a device in the form of
a water saw. In this process, the water is raised very rapidly and further
focused on the target workpiece.
 The water pressure used in this machining process varies from 200 MPa
to 400 MPa.
 It is mainly used to remove materials from soft and non-metallic
workpieces such as plastics, rubber, glass, etc

29
Components

The major components are:

• Reservoir
• Pump
• Intensifier
• Accumulator
• Control Valves
• Flow Regulator
• Nozzle
• Orifice
• High-Pressure Tube
• Catcher or Drain FIG: SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF WATER JET MACHINING

30
Principle & Working
• A high-velocity water jet is used in this process to remove
materials from the workpiece.

• The basic principles of this process are that the kinetic energy
of the water jet must be converted into pressure energy so that
it removes the material from the workpiece.

• When the jet of water collides with a workpiece with kinetic

energy, this kinetic energy will be converted into pressure
energy.

• This pressurized energy will induce stress to the workpiece,

and due to this, the tension material will start to move away
from the workpiece.
31
Process Parameters
 Water pressure of 3500 bar
 Nozzle diameter of 0.1 mm and
 Nozzle tip distance of 2 mm
 Material Removal Rate (MRR)
 Surface Roughness (SR)
 Kerf width
 Depth of cut

32
Workpiece Materials

33
Advantages
• It has the ability to cut material without disturbing its original structure.
• And this is because there is no heat-affected zone (HAZ). It is capable of
producing complex & intricate cuts in material.
• Thermal damage to the workpieces is negligible due to no heat generated.
• It is environmentally friendly because it does not create any pollution or toxic
products.
• It has greater machining accuracy. Inches tolerances of 0.005-inch order can be
easily obtained.

34
Disadvantages
• It is used to cut soft materials. But AWJM can cut rigid materials of limited
thickness.
• Very thick material cannot be prepared by this process.
• The initial cost of WJM is high

35
 Applications
• Industries such as mining, automotive, and aerospace to cut, shape, and
streamline operations.
• Materials that are usually mechanized by water jets (WJM or AWJM) are
rubber, textiles, plastics, foam, leather, composites, tiles, stone glasses, food,
metal/paper, and more.
• Apart from the machining process, high-pressure water jets are used in paint
removal, surgery, cleaning, peeing, etc., to remove residual stresses.
• AWJM can also be used for drilling, pocket milling, turning, and reaming.

36
ABRASIVE WATER JET MA
CHINING
Abrasive Water Jet Machining

 AWJM is non-traditional or non-conventional machining process.

 This belongs to mechanical group of non-conventional processes like
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) and Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM).
 Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) is an advanced machining process
and has a potential to cut a wide range of engineering materials.
 In these processes (WJM and AWJM), the mechanical energy of water and
abrasive phases are used to achieve material removal or machining.

38
Process
 Fine, high pressure (100 MPa), high velocity (900 m/s) of water jet is
bombarded onto the work surface.
 High velocity water jet is directed at a target in such a way that the velocity is
reduced to zero on striking the workpiece.
 Kinetic energy of jet is converted into the high pressure.
 Erosion of workpiece material takes place if jet pressure is more than strength
of workpiece material.

39
Mechanism
 Given amount of energy is concentrated onto a very small point to cause the
material removal.
 On striking, the kinetic energy is converted into the pressure energy (stagnation
pressure).
 Mechanism is erosion – localized compressive failure which occurs when the
local fluid pressure exceeds the strength of the target material.
 Ductile – erosion due to shearing action.

40
 Elements of AWJM system

1. Pumping system
2. Abrasive Feed system
3. Abrasive water jet Nozzle
4. Catcher

Fig: Schematic diagram of Abrasive Water Jet Machining

41
1. Pumping System

 Produces high velocity water jet by pressurizing water to as high as 415 MPa
by means of an intensifier.
 Intensifier – pressure amplification using hydraulic cylinders of different cross
sections.
 To acquire such a high pressure, 75 HP motor is required.

42
 2. Abrasive Feed System

 Delivers a controlled flow of dry abrasive particles to the jet nozzle.

 Flow rate of abrasives can be controlled by changing the diameter of control orifice.
 It cannot supply abrasives over a long distance. To overcome this it uses direct
slurry to feed over a long distance but it required more power.

43
3. Abrasive Jet Nozzle

 Abrasive particles are gradually accelerated due to the transfer of momentum

from the water phase to abrasive phase and when jet leaves the focusing tube,
water and jet are assumed to be at same velocity.
 Perform two functions:
 Mixing of abrasive and water
 Forming high velocity jet
 Material – WC, Sapphire, Boron carbide
 ID – 0.8 to 1.6 mm
 Length – 50-80 mm

44
4. Catcher

 Used when nozzle remains stationary and the workpiece moves.

 It is a long narrow tube placed under the point of cut to capture the used jet.

45
Typical Parameters
 Orifice – Sapphire – 0.1 to 0.3 mm
 Focusing tube – WC – 0.8 to 2.4 mm
 Pressure – 2500 to 4000 bar
 Abrasive – Garnet and Olivine - #125 to #60
 Abrasive flow rate – 0.1 to 1.0 kg/min
 Stand off distance – 1 to 2 mm
 Machine impact angle – 60 to 90 degree
 Traverse speed – 100 mm/min to 5 m/min
 Depth of cut – 1 to 250 mm
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Process parameters effect a b
on Surface Roughness

a) Effect of traverse speed on

surface roughness (water
pressure = 200 MPa, SOD =
2 mm)
b) Effect of water pressure on
surface roughness (traverse
speed = 54.32 mm/min, SOD
= 2 mm)
c d
c) Effect of water pressure on
surface roughness (traverse
speed = 90 mm/min, SOD =
2 mm)
d) Effect of water pressure on
surface roughness (traverse
speed = 125.68 mm/min,
SOD = 2 mm

47
Advantages
 Cheaper than other processes
 Cut thin stuff or thick stuff
 Make all short of shapes with only one tool
 No heat generation
 Leaves a satin smooth finish, thus reducing secondary operations
 Clean cutting process without gases or oils
 Doesn’t produce any dust or particles that are harmful, if inhaled
 Kerf width produced is very small

48
Disadvantages
 Limited number of materials can be cut efficiently. While it is possible to cut tool
steels, and other hard materials, the cutting rate has to be greatly reduced and the
time to cut a part can be very long. Because of this, this cutting can be very costly.
 Very thick part can not be cut. If the part is too thick, the jet may dissipate some,
and cause it to cut on a diagonal, or have a wider cut at the bottom of the part than
the top. It can also cause a rough wave pattern on cut surface.

49
Applications
 Paint removal
 Cutting soft materials
 Textile, Leather industry
 Surgery
 Cutting
 Peening
 Drilling
 Pocket Milling

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ULTRASONIC MACHINING
Ultrasonic Machining

 USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to

erode holes or cavities on hard or brittle workpiece by using shaped tools,
high frequency mechanical motion and an abrasive slurry.

 In USM abrasives contained in a slurry are driven against work by a tool

oscillating at low amplitude (25-100 μm) and high frequency (15-30 KHz).

 A constant stream of abrasive slurry passes between the tool and the
work (gap is 25-40 μm) to provide abrasives and carry away chips. The
majority of the cutting action comes from an ultrasonic (cyclic) force
applied.

52
Ultrasonic Machining

53
Components of USM

The typical elements of an USM are:

Slurry delivery and return system.
Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool during machining
Transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration
Horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the vibration to the required
amplitude of 15 – 50 μm and accommodates the tool at its tip

54
Components of USM

55
 TRANSDUCER

 The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the

transducer. The transducer for USM works on the
following principle:

Piezoelectric effect or Magneto-strictive effect or

Electro-strictive effect

 When an object made of ferromagnetic material is

placed in the continuously changing magnetic field,
a change in its length takes place.

56
HORN

 The horn or concentrator is a wave guide, which amplifies and

concentrates the vibration to the tool from the transducer.

 The horn or concentrator can be of different shape like:

Tapered or conical, exponential, stepped.

57
 TOOL

 The tool material should be such that indentation by the abrasive grits
does not lead to brittle failure.

 So the tools are made of tough, strong and ductile materials like steel,
stainless steel and other ductile metallic alloys.

58
Working of USM

 A shaped tool is given a mechanical vibration. This vibration causes

the abrasive particles in the slurry to hammer against a stationary
work piece to cause micro-indentations to initiate fracture in
work material, observed as stock removal of the latter.

 During indentation, due to Hertzian contact stresses, cracks develop

just below the contact site, then as indentation progresses the cracks
propagate due to increase in stress and ultimately lead to brittle
fracture of the work material under each individual interaction site
between the abrasive grits and the workpiece.

59
Working of USM

60
Parametric Analysis

61
Process Parameters

 Amplitude of vibration (ao):15 – 50 μm

 Frequency of vibration (f): 19 – 25 kHz
 Feed force (F): related to tool dimensions
 Feed pressure
 Abrasive size:15 μm – 150 μm
 Abrasive material: Al2O3, SiC, B4C, Diamond
 Flow strength of work material
 Flow strength of the tool material
 Contact area of the tool
 Volume concentration of abrasive.
62
Variations Plot

63
Advantages
The main advantages are-
• Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical conductivity.
• Especially suitable for machining of brittle materials.
• Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher structural
integrity.
• USM does not produce thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal surface.

64
Disadvantages

Some disadvantages are-

• USM has higher power consumption and lower material-removal rates than
traditional fabrication processes.
• Tool wears fast in USM.
• Machining area and depth is restraint.

65
Applications

• Manufacture of hard alloy wire drawing, punching and blanking dies,

also making small complicated dies and punches of steel.
• Machining semi-conducting materials such as germanium and silicon.
• Machining ferrite and other special metallo-ceramic materials used in
electrical installations.
• Making instruments and optical parts of glass, quartz, fluoride and
barium titanate.
• Cutting shallow holes of rectangular or other section in cemented
and nitrided steel.
• Grinding glass, quartz and ceramics.
• Cutting holes with curved or spiral center line and cutting threads in glass
and mineral.

66
ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING
Abrasive Flow Machining
 It is basically a deburring process.
 Uses abrasive grains mixed in a putty like matrix which abrades the
surface/burrs from the specific area of the material.

NEED:
 smooth surfaces
 High flow rates
 Torque and fuel economy
 Eliminate the imperfections

68
Abrasives

 Aluminium oxide
 Silicon carbide
 Boron carbide
 diamond

69
 Mechanism of AFM
 Initially the material is ploughs by the fine
abrasives which come in contact with the work
material as the rub over the metal surface with high
pressure.
 The material flow occurs in the direction of the
motion of abrasive particles as well as in lateral
direction, resulting into the formation of the leaps.
 The further flow of abrasive particles causes
continued work hardening which results in
embattlement and fragmentation of the lips into
micro chips.

70
Components of AFM
 Machine
 Tooling
 Workpiece
 Fixture plate
 Fixtures
 Pumping device
 Abrasive materials/medium

71
Classification of AFM
 One way
 Two way
 Orbital

72
 One-way AFM

 One-way flow AFM processing pushes abrasive

media through the workpiece in only one direction,
allowing the media to exit freely from the part.

ADVANTAGES:
• Faster cycle processing
• Easy clean-up
• Media control temperature generally not required
• Able to process larger parts
• Simpler tooling and part change-over
• Does not encapsulate work-part in media

73
 Two-way AFM
 It uses two vertically opposed cylinders to extrude an
abrasive media back and forth through or around
passages formed by the workpiece and tooling.
 Abrasive action occurs wherever the media enters
and passes through the most restrictive passages.

ADVANTAGES:
• Excellent process control
• Can finish more ID and OD of component
• Good control on radius generation
• Fully automated system capabilities
• Faster setup and quick-change of tooling & media
74
 Orbital AFM

 Surface and edge finishing are achieved by rapid,

low-amplitude, oscillations of the work piece
relative to a self-forming elastic plastic abrasive
polishing tool.
 The tool is a layer of abrasive-laden elastic plastic
medium (similar to that used in two-way abrasive
flow finishing), but typically higher in viscosity
and more in elastic.

75
AFM Process Parameters

Machine Abrasive Workpiece

• Extrusion • Medium • Restricting

pressure viscosity passage flow
• Flow volume • Abrasive and area
• Media flow concentration • Ductile/Brittle
speed • Abrasive type
• Number of & size
cycles

76
Capabilities of AFM process
 Surface finish in the range of 28 to 280 µm.
 Hole of 0.2 mm can be made.
 Dimensional tolerances achievable upto ±0.005 mm.
 Can reduce surface roughness by 75 to 90% on cast, machines or EDM
surfaces.

77
Application

Aerospace Industry Automotive Industry

Application

Dies and Mould

Medical Industry
Industry

78
MAGNETIC ABRASIVE FINISHING
Introduction
⮚ The ever increasing demand from the industry for better quality &
cost competitive product with complex design material need to good
surface finishing.
⮚ In case of some application like internal finishing of capillary
tube, machining of titanium alloy, aircraft application , medical
application where high surface finish parts are required.
⮚ Magnetic abrasive finishing (MAF) is the process which capable of
precision finishing of such work pieces.
⮚ Since MAF does not require direct contact with the tool, the
particles can be introduced into area which are hard to reach by
conventional techniques.

80
Finishing Processes

LAPPING BUFFING

81
Finishing Processes

HONING

BURNISHING
82
 Classification of MAF
BASED ON TYPE OF MAGNETIC FIELD
1. Magnetic Abrasive Finishing With Permanent Magnet
2. Magnetic Abrasive Finishing With Direct Current
3. Magnetic Abrasive Finishing With Alternating Current

BASED ON WORKPIECE
1. Lathe based MAF
2. Milling based MAF

83
Working of MAF Process

84
 Working of MAF Process

⮚ MAF is process in which mixture of non ferromagnetic abrasive and

ferromagnetic iron particle is taken and magnetically energized using a magnetic
field.
⮚ The work piece is kept between the two poles (N&S pole ) of a magnet.
⮚ The working gap between the work piece and a magnet is filled with magnetic
abrasive particle (MAPs).
⮚ MAPs can be used as bonded or unbonded.
⮚ The magnetic abrasive particles join each other along lines of magnetic force and
form a flexible magnetic abrasive brush (FMAB).
⮚ This brush behave like a multipoint cutting tool for the finishing operation.

85
Mechanism Of Magnetic Abrasive Polishing

86
Application
Internal finishing of Capillary Tube

87
 Advantages

⮚ Able to attain wide range of surface characteristics by careful selection of

magnetic particles
⮚Capability to accessing hard to reach areas.
⮚Capable of modifying roughness without altering form.
⮚Due to the flexible magnetic abrasive brush, it can finish any symmetric work
piece shape, if electromagnet designed accordingly.
⮚The finishing tool requires neither compensation nor dressing
⮚ The method can finish ferromagnetic materials but as well as non-ferromagnetic
materials.

88
 Disadvantages

⮚ It is difficult to implement Magnetic abrasive finishing in mass production

operation.
⮚ Not applicable for some ordinary finishing task where conventional finishing
technique can be easily implemented.
⮚ Time consuming process.
⮚ The cost of process is high.

89
Application

⮚ Cutting tools
⮚ Turbine blades
⮚ Air foils
⮚ Optics
⮚ Sanitary pipes
⮚ Food industry
⮚ Capillary tubes, needles, biopsy needles in medical field
⮚ Curved pipes

90
MAGNETORHEOLOGICAL
FINISHING
Introduction
 MRF is a precision technology that may produce surface accuracy on the order of
30nm peak to valley and surface micro-roughness less than 10Å rms. MRF can
be used for variety of materials raging from optical glasses to hard crystals.
 Under the influence of magnetic field, the Carbonyl iron particles( CIPs) and non
magnetic polishing abrasive particles are removed from the workpiece being
polished.
 The moving wall, which is in the rim surface, generates a flow magnetically
stiffened MR polishing fluid through converging gap. The magnetically stiffened
MR fluid generates a unique pressure distribution in the gap that is associated
with an unsheared fluid, which is attached to the moving wall.

92
MR Fluid
 Magneto rheological finishing process relies for its performance on magneto
rheological exhibited by carbonyl iron particles along with abrasive particles in
non magnetic carrier medium.
 The fluid and its composition is crucial in the process.
 There are basically four components in a MR Fluid-
1- Base fluid
2- Metal particles
3- Abrasives particles
4- Stabilizing additives

93
COMPONENT EXAMPLE
BASE FLUID WATER, HYDROCARBON OIL, MINERAL
OIL, SILICON OIL, GLYCOLS

METAL PARTICLES CARBONYL IRON, POWDER IRON AND

IRON COBALT ALLOY POWDER

ABRASIVE PARTICLES SILICON CARBIDE, ALUMINUM OXIDE,

CERIUM OXIDE, BORON CARBIE

STABLISING ADDITIVES GLYCEROL, GREASE, OLEIC ACID,

XANTHANUM GUM, FERROUS OLEATE,
LITHIUM STEARATE

94
MR Finishing Equipment Set Up

95
 Force analysis in MRF

Normal Force-
It is the penetration of abrasive inside the workpiece.
Due to magnetic levitation force by magnetic
particles and squeezing during flow in converging
gap. Presses abrasive against the work piece.
Tangential Force-
It is the removal of material in the form of micro and
nano chips. It is due the shear flow of MR Fluid. It
pushes the abrasive particles in the forward direction.
And the resultant of the two removes the material
from the workpiece.
96
Material Removal
 A convex lens is installed at a fixed distance from a moving wall, so that the
lens surface and wall form a converging gap.
 An electromagnet is placed below the moving wall, generates magnetic field in
the area of gap.
 The MR fluid is delivered to the moving wall just above the electromagnet pole
pieces to form a polishing ribbon.
 The ribbon pulled against the moving wall by magnetic field gradient and is
dragged through the gap resulting in material removal over lens contact zone.
 The area designate by polishing spot.

97
Material Removal mechanism in MRF process 98
Process Parameters
 Concentration of CIP’s
 Working gap
 Abrasives concentrations
 Wheel rotation

99
 Variations

 Normal and tangential force decreases with increase in working gap; however, both
forces increase with increase in CIP concentration.
 Both the forces increase with increase in abrasive particle concentration up to 3.5%
but after that they decrease with further increase in abrasive particle concentration.
 Normal force increase with increase in wheel speed but tangential force increases up to
a certain wheel speed beyond which it starts decreasing. 100
Advantages
 High accuracy
 Enhanced product quality
 Stable in nature
 Polishing tool is easily adjusted
 Optical glasses with micro roughness
less than 10 Armstrong.
 Flexible and fast

101
Disadvantages

 High quality fluid are expensive

 Fluids are thickened after prolonged use
 Settling of ferro particles can be a problem.
 Not suitable for finishing internal and external cylindrical surfaces.

102
Applications
 The nano diamond doped MR Fluids remove edges chips, cracks, and scratches
in sapphire bend bars.
 High aspect ratio optic and substrates
 Square and rectangular aperture surfaces such as prisms, cylinders an photo
blank substrates.
 Optical glasses, single crystals and ceramics.
 Obtain high precision surfaces.

103
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
MACHINING
 Introduction

 Electric Discharge Machining is a process of spark erosion in which removal of materials

is caused by melting and vaporization of metals from job piece surface in the form of chips
or debris particles
 to get the required product. EDM is mainly used to machine difficult-to-machine materials
and high-strength temperature-resistant alloys.
 Sometimes it is referred to as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking or wire
erosion.
 Work material to be machined by EDM must be electrically conductive.

105
Construction & Principle

106
 Components

1.Power Supply - (converts AC –DC , used to produce spark b/w tool and w/p,
high power output responsible for generating spark b/w the electrodes)
2.Tool(electrode) - tool shape is replica of desired product, except the
allowances is made for side clearance, over cuts for broaching small holes
3.Spark generator- Supply sufficient amount of voltage to initiate & maintain
the discharge
4.Di-electric fluid - In EDM, the dielectric fluid is flushed thought the spark
gap. It is supplied either to a hole in the tool or from external jet

107
 Principle
 EDM is a thermoelectric process in which heat energy of a spark is used to remove
material from the workpiece.
 A spark is produced between the two electrodes (tool and workpiece) and its location
is determined by the narrowest gap between the two.
 The entire cycle time is usually few micro-seconds. The frequency of sparking may be
as high as thousands of sparks per second.
 As a result, the spark energy is capable of partly melting and partly vaporizing
material from localized area on both the electrodes.The material is removed in the
form of craters which spread over the entire surface of the workpiece.The cavity
produced in the workpiece is approximately the replica of the tool.
 Particles eroded from the electrodes are known as debris.

108
109
Polarity

• In EDM, in straight (positive) polarity

the work-piece is connected to
the positive terminal of the DC supply
and the electrode to
the negative terminal.

• In reverse polarity, the work-piece is

connected to the negative terminal of the
DC supply and the electrode to
the positive terminal.

110
 Process Parameters
The process parameters in EDM are mainly related to the waveform characteristics. Figure
shows a general waveform used in EDM. The waveform is characterized by the:

 The open-circuit voltage

 The working voltage
 The maximum current
 The pulse on time
 The pulse off time
 The gap between the workpiece and the tool
 The polarity – straight polarity – tool (-ve)
 The dielectric medium

111
 Electrode Material
Electrode material should be such that it would not undergo much tool wear when it
is impinged by positive ions.
The followings are the different electrode materials that are used commonly in the
industry:
• Graphite
• Electrolytic oxygen-free copper
• Tellurium copper – 99% Cu + 0.5% tellurium
• Brass

112
 Flushing of Dielectric

Flushing refers to proper circulation of dielectric fluid at the gap between the work and
electrode tool in EDM. The different method of circulation of dielectric fluid for flusing in
EDM are given below:
1.Pressure dielectric flow
2.Reverse dielectric flow
3.Vacuum dielectric flow
4.Vibration flush cut

113
Tool materials used in EDM

114
Variations

115
Variations

116
Variations

117
LASER BEAM MACHINING
Introduction
 The term "LASER" is an stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
 In thermal removing processes, thermal energy provided by a heat source, melts
removed or vaporizes the volume of the material to be removed.
 Among thermal removal methods-
 Electrical discharge machining or EDM is the oldest and most widely used.
 Electron-beam (EBM) and laser beam machining (LBM) are newer thermal
techniques also widely accepted in industry today.
 LBM is non-traditional thermal material removal process.

119
Basic Principle
 Laser Beam Machining is based on
the conversion of electrical energy
into light energy and then to thermal
energy.
 Stimulated emission of
electromagnetic radiation produces
coherent, monochromatic, directional
and high power laser beam which is
used in LBM process.

120
Laser Concept
 The electrons are charged particles, they carry some energy. The energy related
with the orbit in which the electrons revolve.
 Generally the electrons are present in the outer most orbit of the atom take part
in the process of energy absorption or emission.
 Ground state, the state with lowest energy is the most stable state for the
electrons. After absorbing the energy electron jump to the higher energy state
and staying there for some seconds jump to the ground state and release the
absorbed energy.

121
Lasing Action

 The emission of photon is not done by only one

atom at upper energy level but on the influence
of external light.
 A sort of chain reactions occurs and one after
other atoms start emitting photons.
 Thus whole avalanche dumps down together.
This is called lasing action.

122
 Lasing Medium
 Many materials can be used as the heart of the laser. Depending on the lasing medium
lasers are classified as solid state and gas laser.
Solid-state lasers are commonly of the following type-
 Ruby which is a chromium - alumina alloy having a wavelength of 0.7 μm.
 Nd-glass lasers having wavelength of 1.64 μm.
 Nd-YAG lasers having wavelength of 1.06 μm
 These solid-state lasers are generally used in material processing.
The generally used gas lasers are-
 Helium-Neon
 Argon
 CO, etc.
123
Actual LBM Process
 In the beginning in atom all the crystals are in ground state.
 When the light is flash over the crystal, most of the atoms are raised to the
excited state. Some light waves incline to the axis of the crystal will leave the
box either after only a few reflections or without strike on.
 Some of the waves that travel parallel to the axis of the crystal, will
spontaneously emit photon from chromium ions. These photon stimulate
another atom to contribute a second photon. This process continues as the
photons are reflected to and fro between the mirror.
 At the each reflection a certain loss occurs.

124
Laser Beam Machining

125
 It is very interesting that laser has to be used on materials where it
absorbs laser energy.
 Upon absorption of the laser energy, there is rapid rise in the temperature
leading once again to melting and vaporization and material removal.
 Although several types of laser exist, all lasers produce (emit) intense,
coherent, highly collimated beam of single wavelength light.
 In material processing applications, this narrow beam is focused by an
optical lens to produce a small, intense spot of light on the work piece
surface, as shown in figure.
 Optical energy is converted into heat energy upon impact and
temperatures generated can be high to melt and/or vaporize any material.

126
Laser Beam Machining

127
Advantages
 Excellent control of the laser beam with a stable motion system achieves an
extreme edge quality. Laser-cut parts have a condition of nearly zero edge
deformation, or roll-off.
 It is also faster than conventional tool-making techniques.
 Laser cutting has higher accuracy rates over other methods using heat
generation, as well as water jet cutting.
 There is quicker turnaround for parts regardless of the complexity. because
changes of the design of parts can be easily accommodated. Laser cutting also
reduces wastage.

128
Disadvantages
 The material being cut gets very hot, so in narrow areas, thermal
expansion may be a problem.
 Distortion can be caused by oxygen, which is sometimes used as an assist
gas, because it puts stress into the cut edge of some materials; this is
typically a problem in dense patterns of holes.
 Lasers also require high energy, making them costly to run.

129
Application
 LBM is used for the trimming of sheet metal, carbon resistors, and plastic
parts.
 It is used for drilling small holes in the materials like tungsten, ceramics
which are very hard.
 LBM is also suitable for dynamic balancing of precise rotating components
lie watches.
 Cutting complicated profiles on thin films for making Integrated Circuits,
engraving patterns on suitable thin films or sheets.

130
PLASMA ARC MACHINING
Plasma Arc Machining

 When a flowing gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature to become

partially ionized, it is known as ‘plasma’. This is virtually a mixture of free
electrons, positively charged ions and neutral atoms.
 Plasma-arc machining (PAM) employs a high-velocity jet of high-
temperature gas to melt and displace material in its path.
 Plasma arc machining is a metal removal process in which the metal is
removed by focusing a high-velocity jet of high temperature (11,000°C to
30,000°C) ionized gas on the workpiece.

132
Components of PAM
• Plasma Gun : The plasma gun consists of a tungsten electrode fitted in the
chamber. The electrode is given negative polarity and the nozzle of the gun is
given positive polarity.

• Power Supply and Terminals : Power supply (DC) is used to develop two
terminals in the plasma gun. A tungsten electrode is inserted to the gun and
made cathode and nozzle of the gun is made anode.

• Cooling Mechanism : A water jacket is used to surround the nozzle to avoid

its overheating.

• Tooling : There is no direct visible tool used in PAM. Focused spray of hot,
plasma state gases works as a cutting tool.

• Workpiece
133
 Principle & Working
The principle of plasma arc machining is shown in the figure on next slide

• In a plasma torch, known as the gun or plasmatron, a volume of gas such as H2, N2, 02,
etc. is passed through a small chamber in which a high-frequency spark (arc) is
maintained between the tungsten electrode (cathode) and the copper nozzle (anode),
both of which are water-cooled.

• The high-velocity electrons generated by arc collide with the gas molecules and
produce dissociation of diatomic molecules of the gas resulting in ionization of the
atoms and causing large amounts of thermal energy to be liberated.

• The relative plasma jet melts the workpiece material and the high-velocity gas stream
effectively blows the molten metal away.

134
 Principle & working
• The depth of heat affected zone depends on the
work material, its thickness and cutting speed. On
a workpiece of 25 mm thickness, the heat-affected
zone is about 4 mm and it is less at high cutting
speeds.
• A typical flow rate of the gas is 2 to 11 m/hr.
Direct current, rated at about 400 V and 200 kW
output is normally required.
• Arc current ranges between 150 and 1000 A for a
cutting rate of 250 to 1700 mm/min.

135
Process Parameters
• Metal removal technique: Heating, melting, and vaporizing by using
plasma.
• Work material : All materials that conduct electricity.
• Tool: Plasma jet
• Velocity of plasma jet: 500 m /s
• Power range: 2 to 220 kW
• Current: As high as 600 amp.
• Voltage : 40 – 250 V
• Cutting speed: 0. 1 to 7 m / min
• Metal removal rate: 145 cm3 /min

136
Gases used in PAM

137
Accuracy of PAM
 This is a roughing operation to an accuracy of about 1.5 mm with a
corresponding surface finish. Accuracy on the width of slots and diameter of
holes is ordinarily from +0.8 mm on 6 to 30 mm thick plates, and + 3,0 mm
on 100 to 150 mm thick plates

138
Advantages & Limitations
• The principal advantage of this process is that it is almost equally effective on
any metal, regardless of its hardness or refractory nature.
• There being no contact between the tool and workpiece, only a simply
supported workpiece structure is enough.
• The main disadvantages of this process are the metallurgical change of the
surface.
• Safety precautions are necessary for the operator and those in nearby areas.
This adds an additional cost.

139
Applications
• This is chiefly used to cut stainless steel and aluminum alloys.
• Profile cutting of metals, especially of these metals and alloys, has been the
common prominent commercial application of PAM.
• On the machining side, plasma has been used successfully in conventional
turning and milling of very difficult materials

140
FOCUSED ION BEAM
MACHINING
Focused Ion Beam
A Focused Ion Beam (FIB) system uses:
 Ga+ beam to raster over the surface.
 Aperture- removes multiply-charged ions and clusters from the point source.
 Electrostatic lenses and steering and deflection plates- to focus the beam to a
small cross-section.
 Secondary electrons (or ions) are collected to form an image of the surface of
the sample.
 Allows the milling of small holes, well-localized sites.
 Generated in a low-pressure environment.

142
Fig. Schematic diagram of a focused ion beam column. 143
FIB Machining
Process whereby atoms can be removed from the surface of a substrate by an
accelerated stream of ions, focused into a small area purely by electronic and
electrical control.
FIB machining has the following attributes:
 non-contact material removal process,
 has exceptionally high resolution,
 remove precise, small amounts of material and
 any material of any hardness can be machined as it is not a chemical process.

144
Technology outline
 Machine hard materials accurately and without tool wear.
 Energy of an Ar+ ion at 10 keV is estimated to be able to penetrate ten
atomic layers of depth.
 At 100 keV sputtering stops and the bombardment results in ion
implantation.
 20–30 keV for Ar and,
 40–50 keV for xenon

145
1. Sputtering Yield

 Efficiency of the material removal is measured by the sputtering yield.

 Ratio of number of sputtered atoms to number of projected ions.
 Rate of machining depends also on the ion incidence angle.

146
 2. Effect of gas-enhancement

 The addition of selected gases, (XeF2), into the vacuum system can also increase
sputtering yield.
 Materials containing a high proportion of carbon, such as diamond or organic
photoresists, the addition of water vapor increases the yield.
 Edinger and Kraus have shown that the addition of iodine and chlorine gases into
the reaction chamber can raise the sputtering yield of silicon to 40 and 60,
respectively.

Fig. (a) Water-enhanced FIB of

diamond showing a doubling of the
MRR in comparison to
(b) dry FIB

147
3. Materials and some selected applications

 Applications have centered round a wide range of microproducts and

microtools with an edge radius <25 nm fabricated from hard materials.
 FIB micromachining of polycrystalline diamonds to produce bespoke
diamond micro cutting tools and of sapphire (aluminum oxide) for production
of micro molds used in a polymer microinjection molding process.
 Fabrication of micro-electro resonators in SOI (silicon-on-insulator) wafers
micromachining of amorphous carbon and diamond films and of
carbon nanotube atomic force microscope probes.

 Fabrication of micro/nano structures using a combination of

FIB implantation and FIB XeF2 gas-assisted etching.

148
Fig. Laser-cut diamond tool before FIB machining Fig. Laser-cut straight profile diamond tool after FIB
finish machining
149
CHEMICAL MACHINING
 Chemical Machining
 The chemical machining processes include those wherein material removal is
accomplished by a chemical reaction, sometimes assisted by electrical or thermal
energy applications.
 Chemical machining is a well known nontraditional machining process which is a
controlled chemical dissolution of the machined workpiece material by contact
with a strong acidic or alkaline chemical reagent.
 Special coatings called maskants protect areas from which the metal is not to be
removed.
 The process is used to produce pockets and contours and to remove materials from
parts having a high strength-to-weight ratio.

151
Chemical Machining
 Chemical machining method may be the oldest nontraditional machining
method which is used to shape copper with citric acid in the Ancient Egypt in
2300 BC
 There are several factors contributing to the popularity of chemical machining
processes as follow
1) Chemical machining process is mature and well established.
2) It is simple to implement.
3) There is no additional cleaning step needed.
4) Cheaper machining process.

152
Chemical Machining Process

153
Processing Steps
1. Preparing: precleaning
2. Masking: application of chemically resistant material (if selective etching is
desired)
3. Etch: dip or spray exposure to the etchant
4. Remove mask: strip remaining mask and clean
5. Finish: inspection and postprocessing

154
 1. Workpiece preparation

 The work piece material has to be cleaned in the beginning of chemical machining
process.
 The cleaning operation is earned out to remove the oil, grease, dust, rust or any
substance from the surface of material.
 A good cleaning process produces a good adhesion of the masking material.
 There are two cleaning methods: mechanical and chemical methods.
 The most widely used cleaning process is chemical method due to less damages
occurred comparing to mechanical one.
 Ultrasonic cleaning machine is applied with using special cleaning solution and
heating is beneficial during the cleaning process.

155
2. Coating with masking material

 The next step is the coating cleaned workpiece material with masking
material.
 The selected masking material should be readily strippable mask, which is
chemically impregnable (impenetrable) and adherent enough to stand
chemical abrasion during etching.

156
 3. Scribing of the mask

 This step is guided by templates to expose the areas that receive chemical
machining process.
 The selection of mask depends on the size of the workpiece material, the number
of parts to be produced, and the desired detail geometry.

157
4. Etching

 This step is the most important stage to produce the required component from
the sheet material.
 This stage is carried out by immerse type etching machine (Fig below).
 The workpiece material is immersed into selected etchant and the uncovered
areas were machined.

158
5. Cleaning masking material

 Final step is to remove masking material from etched part. The inspections of
the dimensions and
 Surface quality are completed before packaging the finished part.

159
Maskants
Masking material which is called maskant is used to protect workpiece surface
from chemical etchant. Polymer or rubber based materials are generally used for
masking procedure.
The selected maskant material should have following properties
• Tough enough to withstand handling
• Well adhering to the workpiece surface
• Easy Scribing
• Inert to the chemical reagent used
• Able to withstand the heat used during chemical machining
• Easy and inexpensive removal after chemical machining etching
160
Possible maskant materials for different workpiece

161
Etchants

Etchants are the most influential factor in the chemical machining of any
material. Various etchant are available due to workpiece material. The best
possible etchant should have properties as follow
1. High etch rate
2. Good surface finish
3. Compatibility with commonly used Maskants
4. High dissolved-material capacity
5. Economic regeneration
6. Easy control of process
7. Personal safety maintenance
162
Possible Etchants

163
 Advantages
The application of chemical machining provides several advantages as follows
1. Easy weight reduction
2. No effect of workpiece materials properties such as hardness
3. Simultaneous material removal operation
4. No burr formation
5. No stress introduction to the workpiece
6. Low capital cost of equipment
7. Low tooling costs
8. The good surface quality
9.Low scrap rates (3%).
164
 Disadvantages
Chemical machining has also some disadvantages
1. Difficult to get sharp corner
2. Difficult to chemically machine thick material (limit is depended on workpiece
material, but the thickness should be around maximum 10 mm)
3. Scribing accuracy is very limited, causes less dimensional accuracy
4. Etchants are very dangerous for workers
5. Etchant disposals are very expensive

165
Chemical Machined Products

166
BIOCHEMICAL MACHINING
 Biochemical Machining
 Bio chemical machining is the machining process in which bacteria is used to
remove material from the metal parts.
 Chemolithotrophic bacteria such as Acidothiobacillus ferroxidans has been used in
biomachining of metals like copper, iron etc.
 These bacteria are used because of their property of catalyzing the oxidation of
inorganic substances.
 Ideal for micromachining due to its very low material removal rate.
 A metal object, when placed in a culture fluid containing these metal-metabolizing
bacteria causes material removed from its surface over time.

168
 Mechanism
 Direct mechanism: In this bacteria gets attached to the metal and catalyzes the
dissolution of metals,

 Indirect mechanism: In this the bacteria catalyzes the generation of oxidant

(ferric iron)

 Electro-chemical corrosion: In this the bacteria acts as a conductor of electrons

from the site of attack of oxygen

Among the three mechanisms, indirect mechanism is used predominantly for

micromachining

169
 Mechanism (in cont..)
 Acidiothiobacillus Ferro-oxidans is a rod-shaped bacterium that is about
1 um long and 0.5 um in diameter.
 The ability of a Ferrooxidans to leach and mobilize metals from solid
materials possibly involves three principles:

 MECHANISM:
(i) redox reactions.
(ii) the formation of organic or inorganic acids.
(iii) the excretion of complexing agents.

170
 Mechanism (in cont..)

 The reactions involved in bio-machining can be characterized as a biological redox

reaction:
 The first part of these reactions - continuous conversion of Fe2+ to Fe3+ by
bacterial metabolism, which involves the transfer of electrons from ferrous iron.
 The second process - completed by the uptake of electrons by oxygen and
combining with H+ ions, resulting in water.

171
 Mechanism (in cont..)
 Goal of these two processes - produce useable energy for
the bacteria.
 Energy-creating process forms a closed system for Fe2+
ions as they are continuously converted to Fe3+, exuded
from the cell, reduced to Fe2+ by their reaction with
copper or iron, and then reabsorbed into the periplasmic
space for re-oxidation.
 H+ ions are consumed continuously and water is
produced.

172
Methods & Materials
The experimental procedure of biomachining consists of four
major steps.

• Bacteria culturing
• Workpiece preparation
• Bacterial density measurement
• Metal removal rate calculation

The mask pattern used to form the grooves was previously

prepared on the workpiece by the photolithography process.

Bacteria have been employed to leach iron, copper and

uranium from ore.
173
 Methods & Materials (in cont..)
• The machined groove contour on the workpiece
was measured by a surface profile meter.

• Mean depth of grooves was defined as the

removed amount.

• As can be seen in these figures the grooves were

machined with an approximately uniform depth.

174
 Steps involved in machining
• The FeSO4 solution was prepared separately, sterilized with 0.2 um filter paper.

• The basal salts were heated at 121’C for 15 minutes. Both solutions were mixed upon
cooling. PH was adjusted to 2.0 for both solutions using H2S04.

• The bacterial density remains almost constant for 48 hours to 60 hours for culturing.

• The work-pieces were put into flasks containing 200 mL of bacterial solution. The flasks
were then incubated at specific temperatures and shaking speeds.

• At the end of each machining period i.e. 12, 24, 36, 48, and 60 hours, the workpieces were
removed, rinsed with DI water, air to calculate the MRR and SMRR.

175
Process Parameters

176
 Process Parameters (In cont..)
• The solid circles in the figure show the removed amount in 9 K medium without
bacteria, which was negligible even after 10 hours.

• This indicates that the amount of material removed by chemical etching was
minute even in a strong acid solution of pH 2.5.

• The groove depth increased almost linearly with the machining time using the
fluid with the bacteria.

• This suggests that Thiobacillus ferrooxidans can be used for machining iron and
the removed amount can be controlled by the machining time.

177
Process Parameters (In cont..)
• The mean removed rate increased with the shaking rate, and reached a constant
value at 160 cpm.

• Bacteria makes contact many times with the workpiece surface due to the shaking
motion in order to reach a constant removed rate.

• Shaking prevents the colonization of bacteria at the bottom.

• Also increase the amount of oxygen available to bacteria.

• The mean removed rate of pure copper is higher than that of pure iron for any
shaking rate.

178
 Electric-field-assisted Bio-machining
 When an electric field, DC 0.5 V, was applied between two workpieces of pure
copper.
 The dotted line represents the groove depth in biomachining without the electric
field, and "b" shows the groove depth after 10 hours.
 When the electric field was applied between two workpieces, the depth of grooves
generated on the anodic workpiece (shown as "c" for 10 hours )
 when the same electric field was applied without bacteria, the anodic workpiece was
slightly electro- chemically machined, as shown by "a“.
 c>a+b ,Indicates that the electric field can produce a multiplication effect between
biomachining and electrochemical machining. therefore call this method "electric-
field-assisted biomachining".

179
180
Advantages
 Non-traditional machining processes have been found to be beneficial for micro
manufacturing using low density of energy for metal removal.
 To overcome environment related problems of chemical machining.
 Biomachining is environmental friendly, low consumption of energy and no
heat affected zone generation during machining.

181
ELECTRO CHEMICAL
MACHINING
Electro-Chemical Machining
 Non-conventional machining system in which metal is removed by
electrochemical process.
 Characterized as reverse electroplating ,means it removes metal instead of
adding it.
 Normally used for mass production and for hard materials that are difficult to
machine using conventional process.
 Both external and internal geometrics can be machined.

183
Principle
Faraday’s law of electrolysis: The weight of the substance produced during
electrolysis process is directly proportional to
• The current which passes
• The length of time of process
• The equivalent weight of the material
Two dissimilar metals are in contact with an electrolyte and anode losses
metal to cathode.

184
 Anode: work piece
 Cathode: tool
 Electrolyte: an electrically conductive fluid

185
Process Parameter
Power supply : Type Direct current
Voltage 2-35V
Current 50- 40,000 A
Electrolyte : Material NaCl
Temperature 20-50º C
Pressure 0.5 to 20 bar
Working gap : 0.1 mm-2 mm
Overcut : 0.2 mm - 3 mm
Electrode material : copper, brass, bronze
Surface roughness : 0.2 to 1.5 micrometer
186
Components
 Power supply
 Electrolyte
 Tool
 The control system
 Work piece

187
Power Supply

 Type: Direct current

 Voltage: 2-35 V
 Current: 50 to 40,000 A
 A constant voltage has to be maintained and high density is required.

188
Electrolyte

 Common electrolytes used are sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, sodium

hydroxide, sodium fluoride and Sulfuric acid.
 These solutions on reaction produced an insoluble compound in the form
of sludge.

 Essential for electrolytic process.

 It cools the cutting zone which becomes hot due to the flow of high
current.

 Electrolyte solution is pumped between the tool/work piece gap.

189
 Function of electrolyte

 The main functions of an electrolyte in ECM are:

1. It carries the current between tool and workpiece
2. It removes the products of machining and other insoluble products from the cutting
region.
3. It dissipates heat produced in the operation.

 The essential characteristics of electrolyte includes

1. Good electrical conductivity.
2. Non-toxicity and chemical stability.
3. Non-corrosive property.
4. Low viscosity and high specific heat.

190
 Tool

 The most commonly used tool material are copper, brass, Titanium, Copper
tungsten and stainless whereas electrolyte is made of salt of sodium and
potassium.
 Titanium has been found to the most suitable tool where the electrolyte has the
tendency to anodized the tool in case of sulfuric acid.
 The other tool materials are aluminum, graphite, bronze, platinum and tungsten
carbide.
 The accuracy of tool shape directly affects the workpiece accuracy.
 Electroforming and cold forging a two method of two shaping

191
Requirements of tool for ECM

 Good thermal conductivity.

 Strong enough to withstand high pressures.
 It should be easily machined.
 It should be conductor of electricity.
 It should be chemically insert to the electrolyte.

192
The control system

 Control parameters include

1. voltage.
2. inlet and outlet pressure of electrolyte.
3. temperature of electrolyte.
 The current is dependent on above parameters and feed rate.

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Work piece : Anode

 Work piece should we conductor of electricity. so it is almost limited to

metals only.
 Work piece is made anode.
 Material of work piece is removed due to anodic dissolution.

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Applications
 Die sinking.
 Profiling and contouring.
 Grinding.
 Drilling.
 Micromachining.
 Pulsed ECM

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Advantages
 ECM is well suited for the machining of complex two dimensional shapes.
 Delicate parts maybe made.
 Difficult to machine geometries.
 poorly machinable materials may be processed.
 little or no tool wear.

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Disadvantages
 Initial tooling can be timely and costly.
 Environmentally harmful by products.
 Complicated tool design.
 Large power consumption.

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Hybrid ECM Process
 Electrochemical Grinding.
 Electrochemical Honing.

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Electrochemical Grinding

 Electrochemical grinding is a variation of ECM that

combines electrolyte activity with the physical
removal of material by means of electrically charged
wheel.
 ECG can produce burr free and stress free parts
without heat or metallurgical caused by mechanical
grinding eliminating the need for secondary
machining operations
 Like ECM (ECG) generates little or no heat that can
distort delicate component.

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 Electrochemical Honing

 Electrochemical Honing is a hybrid process in which

material removal occurs by electrochemical dissolution
as well as honing simultaneously.
 Material removal alternatively takes place by horning
and by electrolytic dissolution.
 Bonding material of the honing stone should be
electrically conducting. however, conventional honing
stones made of electrically non-conductive bonding
material can also be used and the current is passed to
the work peace via electrodes mounted between the
honing stones.

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THANK
YOU

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