Biology

Characteristics of Living Organisms :

Nutrition
Respiration
Excretion
Respond to the Environment/Stimuli
Movement
Control Internal Conditions
Growth and Development
All living organisms share these characteristics.

Three Domains of Life: Eukariotes, bacteria and archaea

Eukaryotes and prokaryotes; further divided into bacteria and the archaea
Eukaryotes: four kingdoms of living organisms, cells CONTAIN a nucleus
surrounded by a membrane along with organelles
Prokaryotes: two kingdoms of living organisms, cells DO NOT contain a nucleus.
Bacteria: single-celled prokaryotic organisms.
Archaea: single-celled prokaryotic organisms, cell walls differ from those of
bacteria and are in a domain of their own.
Main difference:
Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus surrounded by a membrane along with other
membrane bound organelles while prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus.

The Six Kingdoms of Life

The eukaryotes are divided into plants, animals, fungi and protoctists while the
prokaryotes consist of bacteria and archaea.
Plants: multicellular organisms, cells CONTAIN chloroplasts, able to carry out
photosynthesis. Cells have cellulose cell walls, and store carbohydrates. Known as
autotrophs.
Animals: multicellular organisms, cells DO NOT contain chloroplasts, NOT able to
carry out photosynthesis. Cells have NO cell walls. Usually are able to move from one
place to another. Often store carbohydrates. Known as heterotrophs.
Fungi: multicellular but single-celled fungi also exist, NOT ABLE to carry out
photosynthesis. Bodies are organised into a mycelium made from hyphae, which contain
many nuclei. Cells have walls made of chitin. May store carbohydrates. They are known
as saprotrophs
Protoctists: are mostly microscopic, single-celled organisms, multicellular examples
also exist. Some have features like an animal cell, while others, have chloroplasts and are
more like plants.
Bacteria: are microscopic, single-celled organisms who are much smaller than
eukaryotes. There are three basic shapes of bacteria:spheres, rods and spirals but they
all have a similar internal structure consisting of a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm
and plasmids. They are prokaryotic Some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis but
most feed off other living or dead organisms.
Archaea: are very similar to bacteria, single-celled prokaryotic organisms but have
different cell walls.
 Plants Animals Fungi Protoctis Bacteria Archaea
ts
Eukaryot Eukaryot Eukaryot Eukaryot Eukaryot Prokaryot Prokaryot
ic/Prokar e e e e ic ic
yotic
Mostly
Multicellu single-
Single/M Multicellu Multicellu larsome
with celled
with Single- Single-
ulticellul lar lar single- some celled celled
ar cellular multicellu
examples lar
examples
Photosy Some
nthesis/ Yes No No Some can No
Chloropl photosyn
asts thesize
Carbohy Starch or
drate sucrose Glycogen Glycogen
Storage
Yes
(peptidog Yes
Yes Yes lycan – (different
Cell Wall (cellulose No (chitin) Some complex to
) of sugars bacteria)
and
proteins)

Viruses:
They are NOT living organisms. They do not carry out any of the normal characteristics
of living organisms except reproduction.
They infect every type of living organism. They have a wide variety of shapes and sizes
and ARE NOT MADE OF CELLS but they do have a protein coat and contain either DNA
or RNA.

Pathogens:
A pathogen is defined as a microorganism that can cause disease and may include
fungi, protoctists, bacteria or viruses.

Classification:
https://learn.bravegenerationacademy.com/pluginfile.php/13051/mod_page/c
ontent/5/1%20Classification.pdf
https://learn.bravegenerationacademy.com/pluginfile.php/13051/mod_page/c
ontent/5/1%20Characteristics%20and%20Classification%20of%20Living%2
0Organisms%20Summary.pdf

Linnean system:
Introduced in 1700's by Carl Linnaeus.
Classified based of bone structure and characteristics.
For being more specific, we use Binomial naming system. eg. Homo
sapiens.
(First letter capitalised in genus and lowercase for species.) and written in italic.
Three domain system:

New way of classification: (more complete)

to help remember the order;
(Dear Kate Please Come Over For Great Spaghetti)

Dichotomus key:
Levels of Organisation
The smallest functional unit of a living organism is the cell.
In multicellular organisms, there are different levels of organisation: organelles, cells,
tissues, organs and systems.
Organs and Tissue
Organs are made up of Tissue. There are 4 main types:

Functions of Living Organisms:

Nervous System
The nervous system is the part of an animal that coordinates its actions by transmitting
signals to and from different parts of its body.
Digestive System
The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory
organs of digestion
Reproductive System
The reproductive system or genital system is a system of sex organs within an organism
which work together for the purpose of sexual reproduction.
Circulatory System
The circulatory system is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport
nutrients to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature
and pH, and maintain homeostasis.
Respiratory System
The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures
used for gas exchange in animals and plants.

Endocrine
The endocrine system is the collection of glands of an organism
that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant
target organs.

Immune System
The immune system is a host defense system comprising many biological structures
and processes within an organism that protects against disease.

Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system and a vital part of the immune
system, comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph
directionally towards the heart.
Muscular System
The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood
throughout the body.
Skeletal System
The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. The skeleton acts
as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the
rest of the body and also provides attachment points for muscles to allow movements
at the joints.
Urinary System
The urinary system, also known as the renal system, consists of
the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra.

Cells:
Each cell is a living structural and functional unit that is enclosed by a membrane.
Most cells can be divided into three main parts:
The cytoplasm, consisting of the liquid cytosol as well as all the organelles.
The nucleus, which contains the chromosomes that store the genetic material of
an organism.
 The cell membrane, which forms a boundary between the cytoplasm of the cell
and the outside.

Cell Differentiation
Stem Cells
Stem cells are cells that have the ability to divide many times by mitosis while remaining
undifferentiated.

Two main types of stem cells in humans:

Embryonic stem cells
Adult stem cells
The Use of Stem Cells
The use of stem cells treat/prevent a disease or repair damaged tissues is called stem
cell therapy.
Embryonic stem cells are extracted from very early embryos and are grown in
laboratory incubators

Biological Molecules (nutrients):

There are inorganic molecules and organic molecules and both are required for life;
Inorganic compounds - usually lack carbon, are structurally simple and are
held together by ionic or covalent bonds
Organic compounds - always contain carbon, usually contain hydrogen and
always have covalent bonds
Biological molecules:
they include:
Carbohydrates - an energy source
Lipids - (fats and oils), provide energy and store it as long term energy,
insulating function and protecting our organs
Proteins - used to grow, repair damaged tissue and in emergencies can be
used for energy
Vitamins - lots of different types,only need small amounts, organic
molecules
Mineral ions - lots of different types, only need small amounts, inorganic
molecules
Fibres - (a type of carbohydrate), our bodies don't absorb fibres. Their role
is to help food move properly through our intestine.
Water - we need it for chemical reactions, and our body is made up of 70%
water and we're constantly losing water and we need it to reestablish a
balance of water
Carbohydrates: organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen
They only make up about 1% of the mass of the human body
Carbohydrates include:
Monosaccharides - simple sugars (glucose, fructose and galactose)
Disaccharides - simple sugars; two monosaccharides linked together (such as
sucrose and lactose)
Polysaccharides - large, complex carbohydrates; many monosaccharides linked
together (such as starch, glycogen and cellulose)

Lipids: organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

They make up about 10% of the mass of the human body
Lipids include:
triglycerides: (fats and oils)
phospholipids: (lipids that contain phosphorus),
steroids and fat-soluble vitamins: (vitamins A, D, E, and K)
Triglycerides are:
Fats - solid at room temp, (usually obtained by animals)
Oils - liquid at room temp, ( usually obtained by vegetation)
The chemical building blocks of lipids are glycerol and fatty acids
Proteins: large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
(sometimes sulfur)
They make up about 18% of the mass of the human body
The building blocks of proteins are amino acids, there are 20 different
amino acids, therefore there are thousands of different kinds of proteins
in organisms
They are much more complex in structure than carbohydrates or lipids; the
amino acids are linked together in long chains (via peptide bonds), which are
usually folded up or twisted into spirals, with cross-links holding the chains
together.
Nucleic Acids: contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
DNA is found in the nucleus of cells and carries the genetic code of an organism
Tests:
DNA Structure:
DNA has a double helical structure with the two strands being held together by a
series of base pairs.
They are polymers of nucleotides that have a general structure containing:
a phosphate group
a sugar molecule (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA)
a nitrogenous base

Pairing:
A can only pair up with T and G can only pair up with C
Genes:

Each triplet codes for a specific aminoacid:

All these aminoacids are linked together and form a chain which then fold up into a
protein:
All proteins have a unique shape and size; and therefore have many different
functions. The most commmon are:

RNA Structure:
A molecule of RNA consists of a single strand of nucleotides
Four bases in RNA:
adenine (A)
uracil (U),
cytosine (C)
guanine (G)
Complementary base pairing:
A-U
G-C

Enzymes:
Enzymes are biological catalysts that control all the chemical reactions that take
place within cells
They are made of protein, and can specialise into any specific enzyme.
They catalyse metabolic reactions.
Catalysts - a catalyst is a chemical that speeds up a reaction without being used
up itself, and ready for more reactions.
Metabolic reactions - the chemical reactions taking place in a cell
Metabolism of the cell - the um of all metabolic reactions.
Genes in the nucleus produce enzymes
Why enzymes are required:
Enzymes are necessary because the temperatures inside organisms are low and
without catalysts, most of the reactions that happen in cells would take place too
slowly to allow life to go on. So enzymes are required to catalyse these chemical
reactions.
There can be a specific enzyme for every type of reaction necessary
How they work:
Active site - small area on the enzyme's surface
Substrate - the molecule that an enzyme acts on
1. The substrate attaches to the active site of the enzyme.
2. The reaction takes place.
3. Products are formed.
4. Products are released from the active site.
5. Enzyme is ready for catalysing another substrate molecule.
Enzymes also catalyse reactions where large molecules are built up from
smaller ones. In this case:
1. Several substrate molecules attach to the active site.
2. The reaction takes place .
3. The larger product molecule is formed.
4. Product is released from the active site.
5. Enzyme is ready for catalysing more substrate molecules.
Enzyme activity can be enhanced/inhibited according to the needs of the
cell/organism
Some enzymes need cofactors/coenzymes to function
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:
Rate of reaction can be increased or decreased by:
The increase or decrease of the concentration of the enzyme/the
substrate/cofactors/coenzymes.
Temperature
pH
Temperature:
Optimum temperature = temperature at which reactions are fastest (around
37°C for humans).
Increase in temperature up to the optimum temperature = faster rate of
reactions
Lower temperature = slower rate of reactions
Temperatures above the optimum temperature = damaging effect on the
rate of reaction and enzymes.
 Denaturing - From 40 °C upwards, the heat destroys the enzyme (proteins
are broken down/denatured by heat). Denaturing changes the shape of the
active site so that the substrate will no longer fit into it. Denaturing is
permanent.
pH ( a measure of acidity):
The pH inside cells is neutral (pH 7). Where enzymes normally work depends on
pH
Optimum pH = pH at which enzymes work best
Higher pH = Enzyme reaction rate decreases
Lower pH = Enzyme reaction rate decreases
The pH affects the structure of the enzyme and changes the shape of its active
site. These changes result in a loss of efficiency for the enzyme (substrate doesn't
fit well in the active site).
Calculating rate of reaction:

Movement of Substances In and

Out of Cells:
Two main types of transport that move molecules and ions through the cell
membrane: passive transport and active transport.
Passive Transport:
Passive transport is an active process in which no cellular energy is
required to transport substances across the cell membrane down a
concentration gradient
Includes diffusion and osmosis:
Diffusion:
No energy required
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high water
concentration to a region of low water concentration.
Simple diffusion:
When substances diffuse across the cell membrane through the lipid bilayer with
no assistance required
Facilitated diffusion:
When substances that cannot move through the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion
cross over via a passive process; assisted by proteins (can be channels or carriers)
(When the substances are too big... eg. proteins, starch)
Factors Affecting the Rate of Diffusion:
Concentration gradient: diffusion is faster when there is a big difference in
concentrations between two areas
Surface area to volume ratio: larger surface area in proportion to the
volume = higher rate of diffusion
Distance: the longer the distance, the slower the rate of diffusion is
Temperature: the rate is greater at higher temperatures
Osmosis: (special type of diffusion that only regards water
molecules)
No energy required
Osmosis is the net movement of water from a lower concentration
solution to a higher concentrated solution across the selectively
permeable cell membrane.
It can only happen if the cell membrane is permeable to water but not to other
solutes.
The water moves directly through the lipid bilayer or through water channels
(aquaporin) in the cell membrane
Factors affecting osmosis:
Pressure
Concentration of solute: Hypertonic concentration, Hypotonic
concentration.

Active Transport:
 Active transport is an active process in which cellular ATP energy is used to
transport substances across the cell membrane against a concentration
gradient.
Energy required is produced by cellular respiration.
Also requires specialised proteins.
Includes pumps and transport in vesicles.
Cells involved with active transport provide a larger surface area and contain
mitochondria for producing energy.
Pumps:
They use energy to change shape allowing them to move substances across a
cellular membrane against its concentration gradient.
Transport in Vesicles:
They transport substances from one structure to another within cells
Two types of transport in vesicles:
Endocytosis - materials move into a cell in a formed vesicle
Exocytosis - materials move out of a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with the
cell membrane.

Photosyntesis and leaf

structure:
Photosyntesis:
It requires light, carbon dioxide, water and chloroplasts and produces oxygen
and glucose
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy.
The role of chlorophyll is to absorb the light energy needed for the reaction to
take place
Starch: long term storage of energy (from glucose)
Starch is a polysaccharide made up of glucose, which is then joined together in
chains to form starch molecules
Water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyl and light are required to make starch.
Formula for photosynthesis:
Chemical equation:

Glucose has the formula C6H1206

Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis:
Light intensity- as the light intensity rises, the rate of photosynthesis increases
until it reaches a max rate.
Concentration of CO2 - the higher the concentration, the faster the rate of
photosynthesis.
Temperature - as temperatures increase, the rate increases, and as temperatures
get lower, the rate gets slower.
Chlorophyll amount - the more chlorophyll there is, the faster the rate of
photosynthesis is.
The increase in magnitude of these factors, speeds up the rate of
photosynthesis, but only up to a certain point.
A limiting factor is the component of a reaction that sets a limit to the rate of
reaction.
Structure of a Leaf:
Inside the leaf are layers of cells with different functions.
Outer layers:
They have few chloroplasts, and are covered by a thin layer of a waxy material
(cuticle).
Upper epidermis - contain less or no stomata, almost transparent layer
Lower epidermis - contains stomata ( they allow CO2 to enter the plants for
photosynthesis, and allow oxygen and water vapour to diffuse out)
Middle layers:
Two layers of photosynthetic cells called the mesophyll
Palisade mesophyll layer: contains many chloroplasts
Spongy mesophyll layer: contains fewer chloroplasts, responsible for gas
exchange in leafs
Xylem:
Continiously supplies water and mineral ions to the leaf by vessels in a tissue called
the xylem.
Water is absorbed by the roots and passes up through the stem and through
veins in the leaves in the transpiration stream
Phloem:
The products of photosynthesis are carried away from the mesophyll cells by the
phloem.
The phloem supplies all other parts of the plant
Minerals Ions:
Plants also get minerals from the soil:
Magnesium: helps to produce Chlorophyll
Nitrate: for making amino acids

Digestive
Notes:
system:
https://learn.bravegenerationacademy.com/pluginfile.php/4816/mod_page/content/
11/2.7%20Human%20Nutrition.pdf
Balanced diets:
Our bodies contain many other elements that we obtain from our food.
Some are present in large amounts, and others are present in much smaller
amounts but still have essential roles.
Essential elements in the body:
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, minerals, vitamins dietary fibre and
water.
Vitamins:
The amounts of vitamins that we need are very small, but we cannot stay healthy
without them.
Vitamin D - needed for growing bones to take up calcium salts.
Vitamin A - needed to make a light-sensitive chemical in the retina of the
eye.
Vitamin C - needed to make fibres of connective tissue.
Vitamin B group - includes vitamins B1, B2 and B3; involved in the process of
cell respiration.
Dietary fibres:
They allow muscles to push the food and move it through the intestine.
This keeps the gut contents moving, avoiding constipation and helping to
prevent serious diseases of the intestine.
Water:
Makes up 55 to 60% of our body mass.
Water properties:
Water is an excellent solvent
Water participates in chemical reactions
Water absorbs and releases heat very slowly
Water requires a large amount of heat to change from a liquid to a gas
Water serves as a lubricant
Water molecules can stick together; cohesion
These properties allow water to:
Regulate body temperature
Moisten tissues in the eyes, nose and mouth
Protect body organs and tissues
Transport nutrients and oxygen to cells
Lubrication of joints
Flush out waste products
Help dissolve minerals and nutrients
If a person does not get enough of a mineral from their diet, they will show
symptoms of a mineral deficiency disease.
Examples of mineral deficiency disease:
Rickets: lack of calcium/vitamin D can lead to poor bone development and
deformation
Anaemia: lack of iron leads to a lack of oxygen in blood and therefore
causes fatigue, tireness.
Scurvy: lack of vitamin C leads to wounds failing to heal and bleeding in
various places in the body.
Beri beri - lack of vitamin B1 leads to weakening of muscles and paralysis.
Night blindness: lack of vitamin A causes seeing in dim light difficult.
Energy Requirements:
The energy content of food is measured in kilojoules (kJ)
Foods with a high percentage of lipid contain a large amount of energy while
others, mainly composed of water, have a much lower energy content.
Recommended energy requirements vary with age, sex, level of activity and
pregnancy
Digestion and the Digestive System:
Digestion is a process in which large, insoluble molecules in food are broken
down into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream
and delivered to cells in the body
The components of the food must first be broken down into their 'building blocks'
before getting absorbed.
There are two types of digestion:
Chemical digestion - sped up by the action of enzymes
Mechanical digestion - the physical breakdown of food
The three main classes of food are broken down by three different classes of
enzymes:
Carbohydrates - by carbohydrases
Proteins - by proteases
Lipids - by lipases

Two groups of organs make up the digestive tract; gastrointestinal (GI) tract and
the accessory digestive organs.
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract:
The GI tract is a continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus.
It contains food from the time it is eaten until it is digested and absorbed or
eliminated from the body.
The movement of food along the GI tractis achieved using the muscles that line the
GI tract via a process known as peristalsis.
Organs of the gastrointestinal tract include: mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
Accessory digestive organs:
The accessory digestive organs aid in digestion
They include: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas
-
Functions of the digestive system :
Ingestion
Secretion
Mixing and propulsion
Digestion
Absorption of required substances
Defecation of substances not absorbed
Peristalsis:
Muscles are also responsible for moving the food along the gut; food is moved
along the GI tract thanks to a process called Peristalsis.
The walls of the intestine contain two layers of muscles which act together to push
food:
Circular muscle layer
Longitudinal muscle layer
The gut is made narrower when the circular muscles contract and the
longitudinal muscles relax
The gut becomes wider when the longitudinal muscles contract and the
circular muscles relax
Peristalsis is the repetition of these waves of this muscle contraction which
passes along the gut, pushing the food.

The mouth, stomach and the first part of the small intestine all break down the
food using enzymes.
In the last part of the small intestine, the digested food is absorbed.
Lastly, the large intestine, is mainly concerned with absorbing water out of the
remains, and storing the faeces before removing them from the body.
Digestion:
Digestion begins in the mouth where mastication occurs; the teeth break down
the food into smaller pieces. The tongue, with the help of saliva( which helps
moisten and lubricate food) shapes the food into a rounded mass.
The rounded mass of food then gets swallowed with saliva.
The chewed lump of food passes along the oesophagus to the stomach.
In the stomach, food is held for several hours where mechanical and chemical
digestion takes place; Mechanical digestion consists in peristalsis that
macerates the food and mixes it with gastric juice forming chyme (which has
many enzymes).
The chyme is held back in the stomach by the sphincter muscle. When this
sphincter relaxes, it releases the chyme into the the duodenum.
Several digestive enzymes and pancreatic juice are then added to the chyme in
the duodenum. Where food keeps on getting broken down.
The liver then secretes bile into the duodenum; a green liquid which doesn't
contain enzymes, stored in the gall bladder which turns any large lipid globules into
an emulsion of tiny droplets.
As the food continues along the intestine, more enzymes are added, until it has
been fully broken down into end products, which can be absorbed.
The small intestine has the function of absorbing digested food. Aided by villi,
which provide a much larger surface area and therefore speed up the process of
absorption.
The digested food molecules then make their way to the blood system and get
distributed around the whole body.
After all the food molecules have been absorbed, the digested food passes
through the large intestine, where water is absorbed, leaving semi-solid waste
material called faeces. Stored in the rectum, until expelled out of the body through
the anus.
Removal of faeces by the body is called egestion.

Digestive Enzymes:
Amylase
Amylase digests carbohydrates and breaks them down into smaller units and
eventually into glucose.
Maltase
Maltase digests sugars and breaks them down into smaller units and eventually
into glucose.
Protease
Protease and hydrochloric acid break proteins down into amino acids.
Lipase
Lipase is used to break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol, but only digests
digest them with the help of Bile.
Bile
Bile breaks down the groups of lipids so that Lipase can act upon them.

General Transport Introduction:

Transport in Unicellular Organisms vs Multicellular Organisms:
Multicellular organisms require complex transport systems while simple,
unicellular organisms do not.
In humans, blood is pumped around a closed circuit made up of the heart and
blood vessels.
As it travels around the body, it collects materials from some places and unloads
them in others.
In humans, blood transports:
Oxygen from the lungs to all other parts of the body
Carbon dioxide from all parts of the body to the lungs
Nutrients from the gut to all parts of the body
Urea from the liver to the kidneys
Hormones, antibodies and many other substances from where they are
produced/stored to where they are required
Distribution of heat around the body
Circulatory system:
-
Unicellular organisms do not have circulatory systems, as no circulatory
system is required to carry materials around their very small bodies.
This is because materials can easily move around the cell by using diffusion only.
Unicellular organisms have no need for lungs or gills to obtain oxygen from the
environment.
They obtain oxygen by diffusion through the surface membranes of their cell.
Surface area to volume ratio:
The area of the cell's surface determines how much oxygen the organism
can get - the supply rate
The volume of the cell determines how much oxygen the organism uses or
requires - the demand rate
The ratio of supply to demand can be written as: surface area volume/volume -
affected by the size of an organism
The bigger the organism, the smaller the surface area to volume ratio.
Therefore,
Organisms with high surface area to volume ratio can rely on diffusion to
exchange everything they need. Diffusion distances are very very short. (eg. 1
micro-meter um).
Organisms with low surface area to volume ratio require more complex
transport and exchange systems. Diffusion distances are much more distant.
(eg. 5cm - 50,000 times more)
By using more complex exchange and transport systems (eg. lungs) , larger
organisms increase their surface area to volume ratio. as there's more surface area
on the inside.
In large organisms: (anything big enough to be seen with the naked eye)
Exchange systems - get substances in and out of their bodies.
Transport sytems - transport these substances to the parts of the body that need
them.
General features of exchange systems:
there must be a diffusion gradient to allow substances to diffuse through.
large surface area compared to their volume
very thin membranes
permeable membranes
Transport in Plants:

The roots, stem and leaves form a plant organ system for the transport of
substances around the plant.
Plants possess two specialist transport vessels called the xylem and
phloem.
The xylem and phloem are arranged throughout the plant in groups called
vascular bundles.
Xylem is always on the inside and phloem is always on the outside.
Xylem:
Structure and function of the xylem:
Xylem vessels transport water and minerals from the roots to the stem and
leaves (upward direction only) by transpiration.
The xylem is composed of dead cells which form hollow tubes.
They are strengthened by lignin and so are adapted for the transport of
water in the transpiration stream.
Phloem:
Structure and function of the phloem:
Phloem vessels transport sucrose and amino acids from photosynthesising
leaves to non-photosynthesising regions in the roots and stem.
 Movement of these substances can be in any direction around the plant. They
move aided by active transport.
Its cells are living cells and are not hollow; substances move from cell to cell
through pores in the end walls of each cell. (called sieve plates).
The transport of sucrose and amino acids in phloem, from regions of
production to regions of storage or use, is called translocation
Root Hair Cells:
Root hair cells are adapted for the efficient uptake of water (by osmosis) and
mineral ions (by active transport).
They are single-celled extensions of epidermis cells in the root.
They grow between soil particles and absorb water and minerals from the soil.
Root hairs increase the surface area to volume ratio significantly. This increases
the rate of the absorption of mineral ions.
Water moves into the root hair cell by osmosis as it has a low water potential.

The route of water through the plant:

Water moves, by osmosis, into the root hair cells, through the root cortex
and into the xylem vessels:
Once the water gets into the xylem, it is carried up to the leaves where it
enters mesophyll cells
root hair cell → root cortex cells → xylem → leaf mesophyll cells
Transpiration:
Transpiration is defined as the loss of water vapour from the parts of the plant
that are above ground
Loss of water occurs through evaporation of water at the surfaces of the
spongy mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through the
stomata.
The many interconnecting air spaces between the mesophyll cells and the
stomata creates a large surface area - evaporation can happen rapidly when
the stomata are open.
The effect of transpiration in plants:
Water moves through the xylem vessels in a continuous transpiration
stream from the roots to the leaves, to replace the water that has been lost
due to transpiration.
Due to cohesion, the water in the xylem creates a continuous unbroken
column where each individual molecule ‘pulls’ the one below it.
Transpiration produces tension and pulls the water upwards in the xylem
vessels.
If the rate of transpiration from the leaves increases, water molecules are
pulled up the xylem vessels quicker.
The function of transpiration:
Transpiration has several functions in plants:
Transporting mineral ions
Providing water to keep cells turgid in order to support the structure of the
plant
Providing water to leaf cells for photosynthesis
Keeping the leaves cool, byusing heat to convert water into water vapour.
Factors Affecting Transpiration:
Environmental conditions have an impact on the rate of transpiration:
Air movement
Humidity
Temperature
Light intensity
Practical: Factors Affecting Transpiration:
We can investigate the effect of different environmental conditions on the rate of
transpiration using a potometer:
There are 2 types of potometer:
A mass potometer - measures a change in mass of a plant as a measure of
the amount of water that has evaporated from the leaves and stem.
A bubble potometer - measures the uptake of water by a stem as a
measure of the amount of water that is being lost by evaporation
consequently pulling water up through the stem to replace it.
Method:
1. Cut a shoot underwater
2. To prevent air entering the xylem and place in tube make sure it is airtight,
using Vaseline to seal any gaps
3. Dry the leaves of the shoot as wet leaves will affect the results.
4. Remove the capillary tube from the beaker of water to allow a single air
bubble to form and place the tube back into the water
5. Set up a lamp 10cm from the leaf
6. Allow the plant to adapt to the new environment for 5 minutes
7. Record the starting location of the air bubble Leave for 30 minutes
8. Record the end location of the air bubble
 9. Change the light intensity
10. Reset the bubble by opening the tap below the reservoir
11. Repeat the experiment
12. Calculate the rate of transpiration by dividing the distance the bubble
travelled by the time periodx
13.

The further the bubble travels in the same time period, the greater the
rate of transpiration.
Other environmental factors can be investigated in the following ways:
Airflow: Set up a fan or hairdryer
Humidity: Spray water in a plastic bag and wrap around the plant
Temperature: Temperature of room (cold room or warm room)

Circulatory sytem:
Blood:
Blood consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
Plasma - makes up over half of the blood.
Red blood cells - majority of the other half
White blood cells and platelets - the remaining fraction of blood.
Red Blood Cells:
Specialised cells which carry oxygen to respiring cells.
Full of haemoglobin, a protein that binds to oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
No nucleus
Shape of a biconcave disk - provides a large surface area to volume ratio
to maximise diffusion of oxygen in and out.
Plasma:
A straw coloured liquid which the other components of the blood are suspended
within.
Plasma transports:
Carbon dioxide – transported from respiring cells to the lungs
Digested food and mineral ions – delivered to requiring cells around the
body
Urea – transported to the kidneys
Hormones – delivered to target tissues/organs of the body
Heat energy – transferred to cooler parts of the body or to the skin where
heat can be lost
Platelets:
Fragments of cells that are involved in blood clotting and forming scabs where
the skin has been cut or punctured.
When the skin is broken, platelets arrive to stop the bleeding
1. Platelets release chemicals that cause soluble fibrinogen proteins to
convert into insoluble fibrin and form an insoluble mesh across the wound,
trapping red blood cells
2. Forming a clot.
3. The clot eventually dries and develops into a scab to protect the wound from
bacteria entering.
White blood cells:
White blood cells are part of the body’s immune system, defending against
infection by pathogenic microorganisms
There are two main types: phagocytes and lymphocytes
Phagocytes:
Carry out phagocytosis by engulfing and digesting pathogens.
Can be easily recognised under the microscope by their multi-lobed nucleus
and their granular cytoplasm
Phagoscytosis:
1. Phagocyte recognizes and attaches to foreign pathogen
2. The membrane of the phagocyte envelopes the pathogen and folds inwards,
trapping it inside the phagocyte.
3. The phagocyte releases enzymes which break down the pathogen, killing it.
Lymphocytes:
 Produce antibodies to destroy pathogenic cells and antitoxins to neutralise
toxins released by pathogens.
Can easily be recognised under the microscope by their large round nucleus
and their clear, non granular cytoplasm.
Why blood clotting is important:
Blood clotting prevents continued/significant blood loss from wounds.
Scab formation seals the wound with an insoluble patch that prevents entry of
microorganisms that could cause infection.
How clotting occurs:
1. Platelets release chemicals that cause soluble fibrinogen proteins to
convert into insoluble fibrin and form an insoluble mesh across the wound,
trapping red blood cells and therefore forming a clot.
2. The clot eventually dries and develops into a scab to protect the wound from
bacteria entering
3. It remains in place until new skin has grown underneath it, sealing the skin
again.

The heart:

Structure & Function of the Heart:

The heart organ is a double pump:
Double circulatory system:
Made of two circuits:
Sistemic circuit - oxygenated blood is pumped to the rest of the budy.
Pulmunary circuit - deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the
lungs.
Left side of the heart:
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left side of the heart and is pumped
to the rest of the body (the systemic circuit)
The left ventricle has a thicker muscle wall than the right ventricles as it has to
pump blood at high pressure around the entire body.
The left ventricle and the left atrium are separated by the bicuspid valve.
Right side of the heart:
Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right side of the heart and is
pumped to the lungs (the pulmonary circuit)
The right ventricle pumps blood at lower pressure to the lungs.
The right ventricle and the right atrium are separated by the tricuspid valve.

Other things:
The right and the left side of the heart are separated by a muscle wall called
septum.
Haemoglobin is present in red blood cells and are used for transport
The coronary arteries supply the cardiac muscle tissue of the heart with
oxygenated blood.
The heart needs a constant supply of oxygen and glucose for aerobic respiration to
release energy and to allow continued muscle contraction.
Valves are present to prevent blood flowing backwards.
Arteries: carry blood away from the heart.
Veins: carry blood towards the heart
The pathway of blood through the heart:
1. Deoxygenated blood coming from the body flows through the vena cava,
into the right atrium.
2. The atrium contracts and the blood is forced through the tricuspid
(atrioventricular) valve, into the right ventricle.
3. The ventricle contracts and the blood is pushed through the semilunar
valve into the pulmonary artery.
4. The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the capillaries past the
alveoli where gas exchange takes place.
5. Low pressure blood flow on this side of the heart prevents damage to the
capillaries in the lungs
6. Oxygenated blood returns via the pulmonary vein to the left atrium.
7. The atrium contracts and forces the blood through the bicuspid
(atrioventricular) valve into the left ventricle.
 8. The ventricle contracts and the blood is forced through the semilunar valve
and out through the aorta.
9. Thicker muscle walls of the left ventricle produce a high enough pressure
for the blood to travel around the whole body.

Heart Rate & Exercise:

Control of the heart rate:
A heart rate is measured by counting the number of times a heart beats in a minute
(bpm).
The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells located in the right
atrium called the pacemaker.
The pacemaker coordinates the contraction of the heart muscle and regulates the
heart rate by sending out electrical impulses which initiate a contraction in the
cardiac muscle.
Other factors can also influence the heart rate, such as the hormone adrenaline.
Exercise and heart rate:
The heart pumps blood around the body in order to supply oxygen and glucose to
respiring cells and to remove waste products from the respiring cells.
During exercise, the cells of the muscles respire more rapidly in order to provide
energy for muscle contraction.
Respiration may be aerobic if exercise is moderate, or anaerobic is exercise is
more intense.
The nervous system responds to this requirement by increasing the heart rate to
deliver oxygen and glucose and remove waste more frequently.
The volume of blood pumped out of the heart also increases to deliver bigger
quantities of oxygen and glucose.
Production of the hormone adrenaline increases heart rate too.
At the end of a period of exercise, the heart rate may remain high for a period of
time as oxygen is required in the muscles to break down the lactic acid from
anaerobic respiration - oxygen debt is paid off.
The time taken for the heart rate to return to the resting rate is called the recovery
time.
A physically fit person will have a lower resting heart rate and a shorter recovery
time compared to an unfit person.
Heart Disease:
Coronary heart disease:
The blood is supplied to the heart by the coronary arteries which receive oxygen
andbranch off directly from the aorta.
In coronary heart disease (CHD), layers of fatty material (mainly formed from
cholesterol) build up inside the coronary arteries.
This causes the flow of blood through the arteries to be reduced, resulting in a lack
of oxygen for the heart muscle.
Partial blockage of the coronary arteries - creates a restricted blood flow to
the cardiac muscle cells and results in severe chest pains called angina.
 Complete blockage - cells in that area of the heart will not be able to respire
aerobically, leading to a heart attack
Treatment of CHD:
Increasing the width of the lumen of the coronary arteries using a stent.
Prescribing statins to lower blood cholesterol.
Risk factors of coronary heart disease:
Obesity
High blood pressure
High cholesterol
Smoking
Blood Vessels:
There are three main types of blood vessel:
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
Arterioles - Smaller vessels that branch off from arteries
Venules - Those that branch into veins (the smallest veins)
Each vessel has a particular function and is specifically adapted to carry out that
function efficiently.
Arteries:
Carry blood at high pressure away from the heart
Carry oxygenated blood
Have thick muscular walls containing elastic fibres
Have a narrow lumen
Blood flows through at a fast speed
Adapted to its function by:
Thick muscular walls containing elastic fibres which withstand the high
pressure of blood.
A narrow lumen to help to maintain high pressure.
Veins:
Carry blood at low pressure towards the heart
Carry deoxygenated blood
Have thin walls
Have a large lumen
Contain valves
Blood flows through at a slow speed
Adapted to its function by:
A large lumen reduces resistance to blood flow under low pressure.
Valves prevent the backflow of blood.
Capillaries Key features:
Carry blood at low pressure within tissues
Carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Have walls that are one cell thick
Have ‘leaky’ walls
Speed of blood flow is slow
Adapted to its function by:
One cell thick walls, so substances can easily diffuse in and out of them.
‘Leaky’ walls to allow blood plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid
surrounding cells.
Arterioles and venules:
As arteries get further away from the heart, they divide more and get narrower
The narrow vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called arterioles
Veins also get narrower the further away they are from the heart
The narrow vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called venules.

Circulatory System:
The circulatory system consists of a closed network of blood vessels connected
to the heart.
1. Oxygenated blood is carried away from the heart and towards organs in
arteries
2. These narrow to arterioles and then capillaries as they pass through the
organ
3. In the organs, respiring cells use up the oxygen from the blood
4. The capillaries widen to venules and finally veins as they move away from
the organs.
5. Veins carry deoxygenated blood back towards the heart

Transport in animals:
Circulation in Different Animals
Fish:
Mammals have a four chambered heart and a double circulation.
Fish have a two chambered heart and a single circulation
This means that for every one circuit of the body, the blood passes through the
heart once
Advantages of a Double Circulation:
Cells can be supplied with the oxygen and glucosefaster and more frequently,
given that the heart raises the blood's pressure when travelling, allowing it to travel
faster through blood vessels.

10.1 Diseases:
Pathogens:
Pathogens are microorganisms that can cause disease.
They are passed on from one host to another and the diseases they cause
are known as transmissible diseases.
Pathogens can spread through 4 different ways:
Through the air
Through contaminated food
Through contaminated water
Through direct contact
To reduce the spread:
Being hygienic
Killing the vectors
Vaccination
Quarantine
Examples of diseases and how they spread:

Viruses:
Are not living
10,000 times smaller than animal cells
Can't reproduce by themselves
They use other cells to make other copies of themselves and then burst
the cell.
The new viruses are then released and look for more cells to takeover to
reproduce.
This process damages our bodies and makes us feel ill.
Examples of viral disease:
Measles:
Spread by water droplets (when someone infected sneezes or
coughs).
Causes a red rash across the body and a fever.
Can be fatal.
HIV (human immuno-deficiency virus):
Spread by: sexual contact or exchanging bodily fluids (eg. blood,
unprotected sex).
Causes an inefficient or inadequate immune system.
At first will cause symptoms like: Fever, Tiredness, Aches, which will
then go away.
Later then develops into AIDS (a disease in which a person's immune
system doesn't work anymore).
Tabacco mosaic virus (TMV):
Only affects certain plants (tomato and tobacco plants).
Causes patches of leaves to become discoloured.
This causes the plant to not photosynthesise properly.
Causing the plant to not produce enough sugars for growth.
Bacteria:
Most bacteria is useful to our body.
However some bacteria are bad to us and infect humans.
Bacteria are:
Single celled organisms
100 times smaller than human cells
Can reproduce by themselves
Examples of bacterial infection:
Salmonella:
 Caught by consuming any food contaminated with the salmonella
bacteria. (Often caught by eating chicken that caught it while alive.)
Causes a fever, stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea.
Affects the intestines.
Usually lasts for a week.
Gonorrhoea:
Is an STD (sexually transmitted disease).
Transmitted by sexual contact (unprotected sex).
Causes pain while urinating and a thick yellow discharge from the
vagina or penis.
Prevention:
Avoiding unsafe sex.
Contraception methods.
Treatment:
Penicillin in the past (not anymore as bacteria are more resistant to it)
More expensive and rarer antibiotics.
Fungi and protists:
Fungi:
Eukaryotic organisms.
Can be multicellular or pluricellular.
Multicellular fungi have hyphae that can:
Penetrate skin.
Cause disease.
Produce pores which spread easily and grow into new fungi.
Examples of fungal infections:
Rose black spot:
Affects plants, especially roses.
Causes purple or black spots to form on leaves.
Eventually may cause the leaves to turn yellow, reducing
photosynthesises and therefore not allowing the plant to grow
properly.
Spreads by transport in water or by the wind.
Treatment:
Chop off the infected leaves.
Spraying the plant with fungicide.
Protists:
Eukaryotic organisms.
Can be unicellular or pluricellular (majority are unicellular).
Some uniucellular protists are parasites.
Parasites:
Live on or inside other organisms.
Transported by vectors, other organisms that transport the protists
between organisms. (they don't get the disease)
Example of protist infections:
Malaria:
Are parasitic protists.
Need a host to survive.
Spread from one host to the other by mosquitos.
Cause high fevers and headaches. They come and go and are
recurrent.
Can be fatal.
To reduce the spread we can:
Reduce the no. of mosquitos by using insecticides and destroying
their breeding sites.
Use mosquito nets and repellent to avoid getting bitten.

Immunity and the immune

system:
Defences Against Pathogens:
Three main ways in which the body defends itself against disease:
 Skin
Hairs in the nose
Chemical barriers – substances produced by the body cells that trap / kill
pathogens before they can get further into the body and cause disease.
Mucus – pathogens get trapped in the mucus and can then be
removed from the body.
Stomach acid – contains hydrochloric acid which kills any pathogens.
Tears
Cells – different types of white blood cell work to prevent pathogens from
spreading.
Phagocytosis – engulfing and digesting pathogenic cells
Producing antibodies – clump pathogenic cells together so they can’t
move as easily (agglutination) and release chemicals that signal to
other cells that they must be destroyed.

White Blood Cells:

White blood cells are part of the body’s immune system.
These cells defend against pathogens.
There are two types of white blood cell:
Phagocytes
Lymphocytes
Phagocytes:
Phagocytes carry out phagocytosis.
Phagocytosis:
Done by engulfing and digesting pathogens:
1. Phagocytes detect pathogenic cells by detecting chemicals
produced by pathogenic cells.
 2. Once they encounter the pathogenic cell, they will engulf it and
release digestive enzymes to digest it.
This is a non-specific immune response.
Phagocytes have a multi-lobed nucleus and a granular cytoplasm.
Lymphocytes:
(specific immune response)
Lymphocytes produce antibodies.
Lymphocytes also produce antitoxins to neutralise toxins released
by pathogens.
Includes T type and B type lymphocytes.
Antibodies:
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins with a shape that is specific to the
antigens on the surface of the pathogen.
This is a specific type of immune response.
The antibodies produced will only fit one type of antigen on a pathogen.

Lymphocytes have a large round nucleus and a clear, non-granular

cytoplasm.
Process:
1. Antibodies attach to the antigens and cause agglutination.
2. This causes pathogenic cells to not move very easily.
3. At the same time, chemicals are released that signal to phagocytes
that there are cells present that need to be destroyed.
4. After infection, some lymphocytes remain as memory cells. This
allows for antibodies to be produced faster the next time an infection
is present.
Lymphocytes and Phagocytes work together.
Immunity:
The body’s immune system is highly complex.
White blood cells are the main component.
Once a pathogen has entered the body the role of the immune system
is to prevent the infectious organism from reproducing and to
destroy it
An organism has immunity when they have sufficient levels of antibodies
to protect it from a particular disease.
Response to infection:
Stages of immune response to infection:
Infection:
1. The pathogen enters the blood stream and multiplies.
2. A release of toxins and infection of body cells causes symptoms in
the patient.
Immune response:
1. Phagocytes that encounter the pathogen engulf and digest the
pathogens (non-specific response).
2. Eventually, a lymphocyte will encounter a pathogen and will
recognise its antigens.
3. The lymphocyte produces specific antibodies to combat that
particular pathogen.
4. The lymphocyte also clones itself to produce more lymphocytes, all
producing the specific antibody required.
5. Antibodies cause agglutination of pathogens.
6. Phagocytes engulf and digest the agglutinated pathogens.
After recovery:
1. After the patient has recovered, antibodies are retained, specific to
the disease as well as memory cells. (lymphocytes that recognise the
pathogen).
 2. If the patient encounters the same pathogen again, a secondary
response is triggered;
3. Memory cells produce much larger quantities of the required
antibody in a much shorter time to fight off the pathogen before the
patient suffers any symptoms.
-
Difference between antigen, antibody and antitoxin:
An antigen is a molecule found on the surface of a cell.
An antibody is a protein made by lymphocytes that signals the
pathogens they are on for destruction.
An antitoxin is a protein that neutralises the toxins produced by
bacteria.
Active & Passive Immunity:
Active immunity:
Making antibodies and developing memory cells for future response to
infection.
Two ways in which active immune response happens:
The body has become infected with a pathogen and so the
lymphocytes go through the process of making antibodies specific to
that pathogen
Vaccination
Active immunity is slow-acting and provides long-lasting immunity
Pasive immunity:
Ready-made antibodies, from another source, introduced to the body.
Examples of passive immunity:
From mother to infant via breast milk
Injected antibodies for certain diseases where a fast response is required.
The body does not make its own antibodies or memory cells in passive
immunity, hence the nam
Passive immunity is a fast-acting, short-term defence against a pathogen by
antibodies acquired from another individual.
Vaccinations:
Vaccines are used to induce immunity to infectious diseases.
They contain harmless versions of a pathogen.
Harmless pathogens in vaccines are obtained by:
Killing the pathogen.
Making the pathogen unable to grow or divide.
Using fragments of pathogens.
A vaccine may be administered orally, nasally or via an injection.
How vaccines work:
1. Lymphocytes recognise the antigens in the bloodstream.
2. The activated lymphocytes produce antibodies specific to the
antigen encountered.
3. Memory cells and antibodies subsequently remain circulating in the
blood stream.
Vaccinations provide long-term immunity.
The importance of vaccination:
Vaccines protect the vaccinated individuals, and also reduce the likelihood
that an infected individual will spread the pathogen to others;
Herd immunity - If a large proportion of the population is
vaccinated, it is unlikely that an unvaccinated individual will become
infected with the pathogen.
This can prevent the spread of the disease.
Vaccines have reduced the cases of certain diseases drastically or even
eradicated many diseases worldwide.
Disadvantages of vaccinations:
Mutations in the pathogen’s DNA/RNA can result in significant changes to
the antigen of the pathogen meaning that lymphocytes no longer
recognise the pathogen.
Side-effects of vaccinations can reduce the uptake in the population.
Antibiotics:
Antibiotics target bacteria;
Antibiotics work by blocking vital processes in bacteria; They kill the
bacteria or stop it from spreading. This helps the body's natural immune
system to fight the infection.
Shapes of bacteria:
Coccus: sphere shaped
Bacillus: rod shaped
Spirillum: spiral shaped
Antivirals:
Antivirals can:
Block receptors so viruses can't bind to and enter healthy cells.
Boost the immune system, helping it fight off a viral infection.
Lower the viral load in the body.

11.1 Gas Exchange

Difference between respiration and breathing:
in Humans:
Respiration is the oxidation reaction that releases energy from foods such as
glucose.
Breathing is the mechanism that moves air into and out of the lungs, allowing
gas exchange to take place.
Organs of the Respiratory
The respiratory system is made up of:
System:
Nose
Pharynx - throat
Larynx - voice box
Trachea - windpipe
Bronchi and bronchioles
Lungs - containing alveoli and pleural membranes.

The functions of the respiratory system are as follows:

Provides for gas exchange namely the intake of O2 for delivery to body cells
and the removal of CO2 produced by body cells
Helps regulate blood pH
Contains receptors for the sense of smell
Filters, warms and moistens inspired air (air we breathe in)
Produces sounds
Excretes small amounts of water and heat in exhaled air
The lungs are enclosed in the chest or thorax by the ribcage and a muscular sheet
of tissue called the diaphragm.
Route that
When we breathe in:
Air Travels:
1. Air enters our nose or mouth,
2. moves down through the pharynx into the larynx,
3. eventually reaches the trachea.
4. The trachea splits into two tubes called the bronchi:
5. The right main bronchus goes to the right lung and the left main bronchus
goes to the left lung.
6. Each bronchus divides into bronchioles, eventually ending at microscopic
air sacs, alveoli.
7. Gas exchange with the blood takes place in the alveoli.
The inside of the thorax is separated from the lungs by two thin, moist
membranes called the pleural membranes.
Between the two membranes is the pleural cavity, filled with pleural fluid (which
acts as lubricant).
The walls of the trachea and main bronchi contain C-shaped rings of cartilage,
which provide support and keep the airways open when we breathe in.
Cleaning the Air:
The respiratory system ensures that the airways and the air that reaches the alveoli
remain clean:
The trachea and larger airways are lined with a layer of cells:
Some of the cells secrete mucus, which traps particles of dirt or bacteria
that are breathed in.
Other cells are covered with cilia (tiny hair like structures). The cilia beat
backwards and forwards, sweeping the mucus and trapped particles out
towards the mouth.
Thes mucus and trapped particles are later then swallowed and killed by
stomach acid.
Ventilation:
Ventilation is the moving of air into and out of the lungs.
It requires difference in air pressure since air moves from a place where the
pressure is high to one where it is low:
When:
 The pressure inside the lungs is less than the atmospheric air pressure, we
inhale.
The pressure inside the lungs is greater than the atmospheric air pressure,
we exhale.
Ventilation is controlled by the movement of the ribs and the diaphragm:
The ribs are moved by the intercostal muscles.
When we breathe in:
The external intercostals contract, pulling the ribs up.
The muscles of the diaphragm contract, pulling the diaphragm down
(flattened).
The volume of the chest increases and causes a slight drop in pressure inside the
thorax compared with the air outside Therefore, Air enters the lungs.
When we breathe out:
The external intercostals relax, and the internal intercostals contract, pulling
the ribs down and in.
At the same time, the diaphragm muscles relax and the diaphragm rises.
The volume of the thorax decreases, and causes a slight rise in pressure in the
thorax, above atmospheric pressure. This forces air out of the lungs.

In inspired air;
21% oxygen
0.04% carbon dioxide
78% nitrogen
In expired air;
16% oxygen
4% carbon dioxide
78 % nitrogen

Gas Exchange:
The rate of diffusion is affected by the concentration gradient, surface area to
volume ratio, distance and temperature.
Alveoli:
Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli, via diffusion.
Alveoli increase the rate of diffusion:
1. They drastically increase the surface area to volume ratio; two lungs
contain about 700 million alveoli giving a total surface area of 60 m2.
2. The alveoli are covered in tiny blood capillaries whose thin walls reduce
the distance of diffusion.
3. Blood is constantly taking oxygen away and bringing in carbon dioxide;
helps to maintain the maximum concentration gradient possible.
4. Each alveolus is constantly ventilated, removing CO2 and replenishing the
oxygen.
Process of diffusion between the blood and alveoli:
Around the lungs, the blood is separated from the air inside each alveolus by
two cell layers:
Cells of the wall of the alveolus
Capillary wall
Oxygen diffuses from the air of the alveolus into the blood.
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveolus.
The oxygenated blood is pumped around the body again by the heart, to
supply the respiring cells.
The carbon dioxide rich air left in the alveolus is then exhaled.
A layer of moisture on the surface of the alveoli helps diffusion as gases dissolve.
Pleural membrane:
Covers the lungs, keeps them moist and reduces friction.
Effect of Smoking on the Lungs:
Cigarette smoke contains a strongly addictive drug known as nicotine. Smoke also
contains over 7000 chemicals, including carbon monoxide, arsenic, ammonia,
formaldehyde, cyanide, benzene, and toluene.
Smoking disrupts all of these necessary functions: the air passages need to be
clear, the alveoli need to be free from dirt particles and bacteria and they must
have as big a surface area as possible in contact with the blood.
Smoking is associated with lung cancer, bronchitis and emphysema. It is also a
major contributing factor to coronary heart disease and ulcers of the stomach
and intestine.
Pregnant women who smoke are more likely to give birth to underweight babies.
Damage done by cigarettes:
Bronchitis:
Bronchitis blocks normal air flow, so the sufferer has difficulty breathing properly.
In the trachea and bronchi of a smoker, the cilia are destroyed by the
chemicals in cigarette smoke.
The smoke irritates the lining of the airways, stimulating the cells to secrete
more mucus. The sticky mucus blocking the airways causes smoker's cough.
Irritation of the bronchial tree, along with infections from bacteria in the
mucus, can cause bronchitis.
Emphysema:
One type of emphysema is caused by smoking;
Smoke damages the walls of the alveoli, causing them to break down and
fuse together again, resulting in enlarged, irregular air spaces.
This results in gas exchange becoming very inefficient: the blood of a
person with emphysema carries less oxygen.
There is no cure for emphysema.
Cancer:
More than 60 of the chemicals present in sigarettes are known to cause cancer
and are contained in the tar that collects in a smoker's lungs.
 Cancer happens when cells mutate and start to divide uncontrollably,
forming a tumour.
Tumours in the lungs usually cause no pain so they are not discovered until it
is too late.
The more cigarettes you smoke, the more the risk of lung cancer
increases.
Heart disease:
Carbon monoxide gas is present in cigarettes smoke.
This gas, when inhaled, interferes with the ability of the blood to carry oxygen:
Carbon monoxide can combine with the haemoglobin much more tightly than
oxygen can forming carboxyhaemoglobin.
When this happens, the blood carries much less oxygen around the body.
Carbon monoxide from smoking is a major cause of heart disease.
In pregnant women:
If a pregnant woman smokes, she will be depriving her unborn fetus of oxygen.
This has an effect on its growth and development and leads to the mass of the
baby at birth being lower than the mass of babies born to non-smokers..

11.2 Gas Exchange in

Plants:
Leaf Structure:
The structure of the leaf is adapted to carry out both photosynthesis and gas
exchange:
The different cell types and tissues are arranged in a specific way to facilitate
these processes.
Leaf gas exchange:
There are 3 key gases which we must consider:
Carbon dioxide – released in respiration but used in photosynthesis
Oxygen – released in photosynthesis but used in respiration
Water vapour – released in respiration and transpiration
Pathway of carbon dioxide:
from atmosphere to chloroplasts by diffusion;
atmosphere → air spaces around spongy mesophyll tissue → leaf mesophyll
cells → chloroplast
Adaptations of the leaf for gas exchange:
Adaptations of leaves to maximise gas exchange:
They are thin which gives a short diffusion distance
They are flat which provides a large surface area to volume ratio.
They have many stomata which allow movement of gases in and out of the
air spaces inside the leaf to maintain a steep concentration gradient
Other adaptations of the internal leaf structure/tissues include:
Air spaces to allow gas movement around the loosely packed mesophyll
cells
 Many stomata in the lower epidermis open in sunlight to allow gas movement
in and out of the leaf
Thin cell walls allow gases to move into the cells easily
Moist air which gases can dissolve into for easier movement into and out of
cells
The close contact between the cells and the air spaces allows efficient gas
exchange for photosynthesis and respiration

Stomata:
Stomata are spaces found between two guard cells on the lower epidermis of
the leaf.
The guard cells are responsible for the opening and closing of the stomatal pore
which controls gas exchange and water loss
Stomata open when water moves (by osmosis) into the guard cells causing them
to become turgid.
This allows gases to diffuse in and out of the leaf through the stomatal pore
Stomata tend to open when there is plenty of water and sunlight
Stomata close when the guard cells lose water (by osmosis) to the neighbouring
epidermal cells and they become flaccid.
This prevents any diffusion into or out of the leaf.
Stomata tend to close due to low water availability or low sunlight
Photosynthesis & Respiration:
The processes of respiration and photosynthesis both rely on the exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Gas exchange during respiration:
Requires the uptake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide

Oxygen diffuses down the concentration gradient, from outside the leaf
to the inside of the leaf.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses down the concentration gradient from inside the
leaf to outside of the leaf.
Gas exchange during photosynthesis:
Requires the uptake of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen

Oxygen diffuses down the concentration gradient from inside the leaf to
outside the leaf.
Carbon dioxide diffuses down the concentration gradient from outside
the leaf to inside the leaf.

Gas Exchange: Day & Night:

Gas exchange in plants varies throughout a 24 hour period:
During the daytime:
Plants both respire and photosynthesize
The rate of photosynthesis is higher than the rate of respiration.
There is net diffusion of carbon dioxide into the plant and net diffusion of
oxygen out of the plant.
During the nighttime:
Plants only respire.
There is a net movement of oxygen into the plant and net diffusion of
carbon dioxide out of the plant.
At low light intensities:
The rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration.
There is no net movement of oxygen or carbon dioxide in either direction.

Core practical:
Hydrogencarbonate indicator will change from orange/red to yellow with
increasing carbon dioxide or purple with decreasing carbon dioxide

12.1 - Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration occurs in all the cells of our body:
and ATP:
Cells get their energy by breaking down food molecules to release the stored
chemical energy that they contain. This process is called cellular respiration.
Aerobic respiration uses oxygen while anaerobic respiration can occur without
oxygen.
ATP:
Cells produce and use ATP to produce energy;
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is composed of an organic molecule called
adenosine attached to three phosphate groups
Producing chemical energy:
ATP can be broken down by losing one phosphate group and forming ADP
(adenosine diphosphate)
During cellular respiration, the opposite happens - energy from the oxidation
of glucose is used to add a phosphate to ADP to produce ATP.
The energy stored in the ATP molecules can be used for:
contraction of muscle cells
active transport of molecules and ions
building large molecules such
 cell division
energy released as heat
Respiration:
Two types:
Aerobic
Anaerobic
Aerobic Respiration: (USES OXYGEN)
During aerobic respiration oxygen is used to produce energy.
Carbon dioxide and water are released as waste products
Takes place in the mitochondria.
Glucose is the main food oxidised.
Formula:
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy (32ATP)
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Three steps:
1. glycolysis
2. the Krebs cycle
3. oxidative phosphorylation
Glycolysis: (doesn't require oxygen)
Takes place in the cytoplasm where glucose is broken down into two pyruvate
molecules.
This releases a small amount of energy; two molecules of ATP and two NADH
molecules.
NADH molecules store high energy H+ ions, used to produce ATP.
Pyruvate molecules are then oxidised and produce two acetyl CoA molecules
and two NADH molecules and release two molecules of CO2 as waste.
1 Glucose molecule -> 2 pyruvate molecules -> 2 acetyl
CoA + 2 NADH + 2ATP + 2CO2
Products of glycolysis:
2 molecules of ATP
2 NADH molecules
2 acetyl CoA
2CO2- waste product
Krebs cycle: (requires oxygen)
This process occurs inside the mitochondria of the cell, where the acetyl CoA
molecules undergo a series of reactions;
Per every acetyl CoA molecule, the Krebs cycle produces:
1 GTP molecule
3 NADH molecules
1 molecule of FADH2
Two molecules of CO2 are produced as a waste product.
Per every Glucose molecule (2 acetyl CoA), the Krebs cycle produces:
2 GTP molecules
6 NADH molecules
2 molecule of FADH2
4 molecules of CO2 are produced as a waste product.
Oxidative phosphorylation: (requires oxygen)
Takes place in the mitochondria where all the NADH and FADH2 produced are
used to generate ATP through a series of reactions:
Oxidative phosphorylation produces 28 molecules of ATP and 6 molecules of
H20 as waste products.
One molecule of glucose undergoing aerobic cellular respiration results in 32
molecules of ATP and 6 molecules of H20 as waste products.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 32 ATP
Anaerobic Respiration: (no oxygen)
Occurs when there is not enough oxygen.
Glucose is not completely broken down, so less energy is released.
Sometimes is the only option.
In Yeasts:
Used in commercial processes such as making wine and beer, and baking bread.
When yeast cells are prevented from getting enough oxygen, they stop respiring
aerobically and start to respire anaerobically.
Glyicosis occurs: the two pyruvates which are formed are then furtherly broken
down into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Formula:
glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide + some energy
Ethanol has alot of chemical energy stored in it.
In Animal cells:
Muscle cells can also respire anaerobically when they are short of oxygen: (eg. a
‘burst’ of activity, such as a sprint, or quickly lifting a heavy weight).
Glycolisis occurs:
1. Glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules.
2. The pyruvates are further broken down into lactate (lactic acid).
Formula:
glucose → lactate + some energy

Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells does not produce CO2 as a waste product.
After the exercise, the lactate is respired aerobically in the mitochondria (mainly
in the liver), to oxidise the lactate: broken down using oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water as waste products.
The volume of oxygen needed to completely oxidise the lactate that builds up
in the body during anaerobic respiration is called the oxygen debt.
Practical investigation: demonstrating
the production of carbon dioxide:
Using Hydrogencarbonate indicator:
Becomes yellow In high CO2 levels
Orange in atmospheric CO2 levels
Becomes purple in low CO2 levels

Germinating seeds in tube A (should become yellow)

Boiled/dead seeds in tube B (should remain orange)
Glass beads in tube C (should remain orange)

13.1 - Excretion: