Logic keywords: What is logic : Logic is not but science of thoughts expressed in legal language. Logic as a formal science: * Logic is a branch of mathematics that deals with reasoning and inference. © It provides a systematic way of evaluating arguments and determining whether they are valid or not. Logic uses formal languages and rules to represent and analyze arguments. * Itis concerned with the structure and form of arguments, rather than their content. Logic is used in many fields, including philosophy, computer science, and linguistics. Logic as an art: ® Logic can also be seen as an art, as it requires creativity and skill to construct valid arguments. It involves the ability to identify and express complex ideas in a clear and concise manner. * Logical reasoning can also be used to create persuasive arguments that are appealing to an audience. © Like any art form, mastering logic requires practice and experience. The use of logic in everyday life can enhance problem-solving abilities and improve critical thinking skills. Arguments: Set of premises and conclusion. Premise : are set of facts. Valid arguments: Conclusion properly derived from set of premises. Types of valid arguments: Sound : conclusion is properly derived and is true. Ex: All man are mortal. Xis aman, Therefore, X is mortal.Unsound : conclusion is false and not properly derived. Ex: All parrots are green. All plants are green. Therefore, All plants are parrots. Invalid arguments: Conclusion is not properly derived and is meaningless. Deductive arguments/ reasoning: P1: general condition P2: specific Conclusion: irrevocable/ certain / 100% true. Ex : Law is stringent against criminals. Xis criminal. Therefore, Law is stringent against X. Inductive arguments/ reasoning: Observe for a period of time and come to generalised conclusion. Inductive arguments leads to deductive arguments . Specific to general. Conclusion is probable/ maybe true. Ex : Crow A is black. Crow B is black. Crow C is black. Therefore, All crows are black. Inference : Drawing conclusion based on evidence or premise. Taking what we know to be true and using that information to make an educated guess what is likely to be true. Can be either inductive or deductive , depending on strength of evidence or premise involved. Ex: All men are mortal. Socrates is man. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.( deductive inference)Implication : Logical relationship between two statements. Stating that one statement logically follows from another statement. If one statement is true other also has to be true. Can be expressed using’ if ...then “statements. Ex: If it rains, ground will be wet. Laws of thought : Law of identity: States that a true proposition retains it’s identity forever and is equivalent to itself. Ex: The sun rises in the east, Suneeta is a girl. Law of contradiction: States that a proposition cannot be both true and false at same time. Ex : Harshika has committed a murder. Harshika has not committed a murder. Here in this case it can only be one at a time. Law of excluded middle term : It starts with a false proposition. States that if a proposition is false it’s contradictory has to be true it can never be false. Ex : Water is not a liquid. - False Water is liquid. - True Words : A word is a unit of language that has meaning. 3 Types of words: Categorematic words: Have meaning of their own. Function as terms. Such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs . Ex: man, mortal, smart , beautiful.Syncategorematic words: Which are used to help other words. That have meaning of their own. Ex: in, a, the, of, an. Acategoremartic words: Exclamatory words , can never be used as terms. Ex: Oh ! Ah ! Hurrah! WTH ! Terms: Terms is a specific concept or idea that is expressed using one or two words. Types of terms : General terms : refer to class or a category such as “ dog” or “ mammal". Singular terms : refer to specific individual,such as proper nouns and definite description. Ex : “ John” “ The Taj Mahal”. Positive terms : terms that attribute some property to the subject of the term such as The class is full of benches (implies the presence of benches). Negative terms : Terms that deny some property of the term, such as “not red” or “ not tall “. Universe of discourse: Refers to collection of objects, individual, or entities that a particular statement or argument is concerned with. Itis a set of things that are being referred to, talked about or considered within a particular context. Ex: white - not white Car - not car. Universe of discourse : Colours. Automobile. We cannot use positive and negative terms in different context. Logical opposites should belong to same context. Features : Define scope and limits of arguments. Ensure the terms used are meaningful and coherent within the context of discussion. Avoid ambiguity and confusion.Logical opposite / contradictory terms : mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. Ex : white - not white. (all colours that are not white). Contrary terms: are English opposites Ex : white - black . Process of negation denial (logical terms) : Beautiful- not beautiful. Double negation: He is not smart - He is not not smart. Proposition: are building blocks of logic. Sentence Proposition Cannot be verified Can be verified These are longer These are shorter —Ex:laminagood Ex:The sunrises in mood today. the east. All sentences are not propositions as they cannot be verified and may be false. But , all propositions are sentences as they can be verified, but they can be true or false. Sentences and propositions mean the same but they are not a sentence. Synthetic proposition: statement that provide additional information about a subject but not explaining it. True or false based on whether the subject and predicate correspond in reality. Require empirical evidence . Analytical proposition: Statement that define the meaning of the subject. True of definition. Does not require empirical evidence .INDUCTION: The process of establishing synthetic proposition is called Induction. Induction is generalising in logical way. Induction are of two types: Primary: observing for some time and then deriving a conclusion. Secondary: Repeated indirect observations and then derive a conclusion. Usually starts with hypothesis. Simple enumeration (numbering) : process of generalising wherein observations are supported by positive instence observed. Ex: All crows are black. All roses have thorns . Characteristics: In every single instence there is uniformity of experience. Belief in uniformity of nature. Lack of analysis. Low degree of probability. Scientific induction: Process by which a law is declared . Drawing general conclusion by cause and effect method. Happens more in science . Establish relationship and between cause and effect. Simple Scientific enumeration induction Direct Direct observations observations not required. required. Donot analyse Analysis is done. anything. Just state the Explanations are fact. given. More number of — Less number of observations . observation.Analogy : Comparison between two things that share some similarities. Competitive study and drawing conclusion on basis of comparison. It is a process of going from known resemblance to unknown resemblance . Conditions of good analogy: Relevant similarities - based on similarities. Differences acknowledged: take account any important difference. Clear explanation: easy to understand and not be confusing. Familiarity: based on things that are familiar to audience. Objectivity : not biased. Based on objective facts and observations. Theories of truth: Correspondence theory: states that a statement is true if it corresponds in reality. Figuring by direct appearance. Stating what we see in world. Ex : The sky is blue. Coherence theory: states that a statement is true true if it coheres with system of beliefs or propositions. Based on series of observations and making a conclusion . Ex: All man are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. Pragmatic theory: states that a statement is true if it leads to successful action or solves a problem. Combination of both correspondence and coherence theory. Ex : The bridge is strong enough to handle a car is true if it leads us safely across the bridge . Propositions are representation of facts . Propositions are judgements of verification. Structure of propo: Yash is a student. ion / constituents and components of proposition: Yash : subject Is : copula / component Student: elements/ constituents.Denotation : consists of all the individual objects to which it can be applied. That exists now , in past or in future. Ex: manis living, dead , and yet to be born. Connotation : The common attributes possessed by all the objects to which a term it is applied . Man : rationality and animality. Three senses of connation Subject intensio1 onsists of attributes that call up in mind of person . This will include qualities by which a individual recognise that an object belongs to certain class. Objective intension : consists of all those attributes in common by the member of class. This would include known as well as unknown attributes. Conventional intension: consists of quality that are essential for class. Constitutes Man : rationality and animality. 4 fold categories of propositions : Traditional logic Universal affirmative : A ( SaP ) Ex : All men are mortal. Universal negative : E ( SeP) Ex : No man is mortal. Particular affirmative : | ( SiP) Ex: Some men are mortal. Particular negative: O (SoP) Ex : Some men are not mortal. If proposition suggest numerical expression : then it will be either A/E. Singular proposition are only A and E . Their logical form remains the same. Ex: Gandhiji is the father of the nation. Nehru was not the prime minister.Distribution of terms: Distributed terms: When we talk about entire class we call it distributed. Undistributed terms : when we talk about some part of class we call it undistributed. In A proposition subject term is distributed. In E proposition both subjects term and predicate term are distributed. In | proposition no term is distributed neither subject nor predicate. In O proposition predicate term is distributed. Trick to remember: As Eb In Op Categorial propositions: that makes statement about relationship between two classes or categories such as All dogs are mammals or No dogs are mammals. Modern classification of propositions : Simple and compound propositions: Simple: that consists of only one subject and one predicate. Ex : The cat is on the mat. Four kinds of simple propositions: Subjectless propositions: no subject mentioned. Ex : It is raining , Fire! Subject - predicate propositions : which has both subject and predicate. Ex : The cat is on the mat. Symbol : S-P Relational propositions: predicate connects two subjects. Verbs : (love hatred ,drink ,take ) Symbol : x Ry or R (x,y) where x : referent, y: relatum o Ex : John is the brother of Jane, Calcutta is bigger than Bombay : x - Calcutta, R - bigger than, y - Bombay Class membership propositions: the subject belongs to a particular class or category. Ex : Dogs are mammals : a - Dogs F: mammals. Symbol : a E F where a: individual, F : classCompound propositions: Two or more propositions joined together by connectors. Connectors : not, and ,or ,if.. then, if and only. The Operators Negation And . | Conjunction Or Vv | Disjunction If... then... ama Conditional / Implication if and only if Biconditional Negation : whenever any negation is applied to proposition. Ex: Alexander was not a good teacher. Not it is false, it is not the case. p~q Conjunction: wherever two propositions are connected by conjunction. and , but Ex: Tom is a cat but / and Jury is a mouse. pq Disjunction: wherever the two propositions are connected with" or". Either tea is hot or it is cold . pvqImplicative/ conditional: When propositions are connected with words that imply a condition between two propositions. If and then. If teacher is absent then students are happy. when two propositions are interdependent on each other. Such dit | propositions. Accup of tea is hot if and only if it’s inside a flask. Note: , Stands for then. We put brackets when both are negations . Neither and nor:~(pvq)=~p.~q Not both: ~(p.q)=~pv~q Truth tables of propositions: Possibilities: Pp q T T T F F T F F And Or pa pig pq eva ror T TT T TF F TF Tr Fr F Fr Tr FF F FOF F Wfs.-then Not Pq | p>4a p_|~p rT Tr r flr TF Fr F Fr r FOF Trone eae Biconditional © Ifp and q are propositions, then we can form the biconditionalproposition pq, read as “p if and only if q” a SSS ee ca =. = x rt FE. es F r F EF e r ~ Eduction: Eductions are logical deductions that are used to transform one proposition to another proposition. Useful tool in logic. Allow us to determine validity of an argument by examining the relationship between propositions. Conversion : subject and predicate switch. SaP —> PiS SeP —> PeS SiP —> PiS O cannot be converted. 7 KINDS OF EDUCTIONS Sesser norte A- SaP To SeP De Oe Coe)Cerny OLA ccna Ayo ot eer tye in Bearer neu sieton any Bet reret ote teed ern Poesy tee Boman nnaOpposition of proposition : ae SisP No E isP — contraries ————_ N71 subalterns contradictories subalterns ‘subcontraries Some S is P ‘Some S is not P Contrary : can never be true together. But exceptionally can be false together. contradictory : if one is true other has to be false. Sun contrary : can never be false together but may be true together. Sub al : if Ais true | is also true. And if E is true O is also true . It shows only downward relationship. But if A or E is false we don’t know the truth values of | and O. White - not white contradictory terms. White - black contrary terms. Singular propositions ( A or E) they behave contradictory terms not contrary. Quantification ( Symbolic logic): We replace certain common factors with symbols. Ex: Sudhindra is smart. ‘Symbol: Ms This is a representation for this entire proposition ie, symbolic logic. The quality should be written in capital letter and the name should be written in small letter. If both first letter of quality and name are same then take second letter of quality. Ex: Chanakya was not cunning . Symbol: ~Quantifiers () : Universal quantifier ( A, E) (2x) : Existential quantifier (1, 0) Universal quantifier: Existential quantifier : dot- . Other immediate observations: Two inferences are contrary to one another. Ex : Heat expands bodies. Therefore, cold contracts them. —> inference by material obversion . (Valid ) Ex: women are broad minded. Therefore, men are narrow minded. —-> inference by material obversion . ( invalid ) Ensure drawing proper inferences. Inference by added determinants : adding of quality . Ex : All cars are vehicles. Therefore, All black cars are black vehicles. —> valid . Determinant is generally an adjective. Same word is added on both subject and predicate. Ex: An elephant is an animal. Therefore, A small elephant is a small animal. —-> invalid. Small doesn't have same meaning . Inference by complex conceptions. : Part of another thing / species becomes a part of complex conception. Ex : Adog is an animal. Therefore, The tail of a dog is the tail of an animal. Inference by converse relation : relational proposition. Ex : Russia is to the north of India. Therefore, India is to the south of Russia. — valid.Definition: Aexplanation of meaning of words, phrases or symbols . Phrases are set of words and have meaning of their own. Definiendum : the words that is to be defined. Definiens : the words used to define the definiendum / meaning of definiendum. Ex: Triangle- geometric figure with three sides. Subject : triangle is definiendum. Predicate: definiens Purpose of definition : = To increase vocabulary. - To eliminate ambiguity. - To reduce vagueness of words. - To explain a word theoretically. - To influence attitudes. Kinds of definition: modern Ostensive defi ion: pointing things . Extensive definition: stating examples. Biverbal definition : using synonyms Definition per genus et differentiam: genus - bigger category , wider class. It tries to classify. Gives definition. Helps to classify. Give more clear picture to classifying into sub classes. Traditional logicians recognised only this method of defining terms. definition: writer tries to define things in own manner . Giving definition of economics by Adam smith and Karl's. Lexical definition: popularly used definition, recently invented words. Reports the meaning of a word or phrases, as actually used by people .Modern : people oriented. Assuming people know / are intelligent. Traditional classification : Rules of per genus et diffrentiam definition : A definition must be applied to everything that is included in species defined, and nothing else. When a definition is applicable to another classes too then it's called too wide definition. Ex: Square is four sided figure. Too narrow definition: The definition is not applicable to entire part of definition. (incomplete definition). Ex: Bachelor is a unmarried man. Two definition must not directly or indirectly define the thing by itself. Two fallacies of it: 1 Synonymous/ biverbal definition. Ex: An adage is a proverb. 2 Circular definition: same word is repeatedly used. Ex: murder is an act committed by murderer. It cannot be obscure or figurative language. Obscure definition: definiendum does not have any connection with definiens. When we try to say something in poetic/ decorative language it’s a fallacy of figurative definition. Ex: water is a medicine of thirst. A definition must not be negative if it can be positive. Ex: An orphan is one who has no parent living. Division: 1m division: the genus which is divided. Membra dividentia : the species to which it is divided. Ex : Triangles into isosceles,equilateral and scalene triangles. The basis on which a class is divided into it's sub classes is called fundamentum division.Logical di in and other processes: - Enumeration of individuals: This consists in stating that the individual is included in a class. Same as extensive definition. — Physical division: This is a division of individual thing into it's parts. Ex: Bicycle into handle, bars, wheels, chains and seat. Also called partition. - Metaphysical division: division of thing into its separate qualities. Ex: stone into colour , weight, solidity, extension. Gold into yellowness , preciousness and heaviness. - Verbal definition: Alike biverbal definition ( synonym). Ex: watch into time piece and guard. Here two different meanings are stated. Rules of logical division: - Each distinct division must have at a time only one principle of division. - We cannot use two principles at a time. It would be fallacious. - Cross division: a division which proceeds on basis of more than one principle. Ex: cloth into cotton, silk , rayon, nylon, costly. - The sub classes into which it's divided should be mutually exclusive . - We cannot divided different principles in one class, - It's overlapping of sub classes. Ex: Hindus into rich, poor, tall, short. - It should not be too narrow or too wide. - Division must not take a leap “ diviso non faciat saltum “. The intermediate class are not omitted. Should proceed gradually and continuously from highest genus to the lowest species. Division by dichotomy: - Having two different approaches. - The sub classes are contradictory to one another. Ex: Birds that are capable of flight, birds that are not capable of flight.Utility of logic in law: Legal arguments require careful reasoning and analysis, which are guided by logical principles. Judges and lawyers use logic to determine the validity of legal arguments, the weight of evidence, and the soundness of legal conclusions. Logical reasoning helps lawyers construct persuasive arguments and anticipate counterarguments. Logic is used to identify inconsistencies or fallacies in arguments presented by opposing counsel or witnesses. Legal decisions must be based on sound reasoning and logical principles to ensure fairness and consistency in the application of the law. Legal reasoning is based on a system of rules and principles that are designed to ensure logical consistency and coherence in the law. The use of logic in law helps to promote clarity and precision in legal language, which is essential for the interpretation and application of legal texts. Overall, the utility of logic in law lies in its ability to help ensure that legal decisions are based on rational and consistent reasoning, and that the legal system operates fairly and justly. Note : For non textual refer the PDF that is already uploaded. Don’t forget to like , share and subscribe. Law with_janvi