LESSON 2:

LOGIC: A TOOL FOR REASONING

1
Lesson Objectives
a) Know the meaning and divisions of logic
b) Distinguish opinion from truth;
c) Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth;
d) Appreciate the importance of knowing truth from falsehood.

2
 LOGIC
OVERVIEW TO LOGIC

3
Logic
It is both a science and art
because…
▹ came from the Greek word
"logos", which has a ▹ it is a science because it is a
variety of meanings systematized body of logical
including word, thought, truths and principles governing
idea, argument, account, correct thinking
reason or principle. ▹ it is also an art because it has
the power to perform certain
▹ is defined as the science of
actions guided by special
correct reasoning. knowledge and executed with
skill.
 II. FIRM UP: Formal Logic and Material Logic
Formal Logic (Symbolic Logic)

- concerns itself primarily with the correctness rather than the

truth of a logical process. It studies in detail the form of the
logical process, without focusing on the material content of the
argument.
Example:
All BS Math graduates can be Math teachers.
Juan is a graduate of BS Math.
Therefore, Juan can be Math teacher.
 II. FIRM UP: Formal Logic and Material Logic
Material Logic
Concerned with truth of the material content. It considers the
correspondence of the thought – contents with reality, a
correspondence between the logical and real order.

Though the premise is correct in form, there are still

considerations to look into if in real life Juan can be a math
teacher.
 LOGIC
DIVISIONS OF LOGIC

7
Division of Logic
Logic is divide according to three basic operations of human thought…

▹ Simple Apprehension - is the first act of the intellect wherein

by the acts of our senses we mentally grasp a thing without
affirming or denying anything about it.

▹ Judgement - the second act of the intellect wherein we join

two understood terms obtain or acquired in simple
apprehension and deconstruct them either by affirmation
or by negation.

▹ Reasoning - is the third act of the intellect wherein we draw

conclusion from a given act of validity.
 Simple Apprehension, Idea and Term

(Simple Apprehension) is the first act where the

process of grasping or abstracting the essence
of a thing without affirming or denying anything
about it.
 Simple Apprehension, Idea and Term

Its mental product is called idea whereby we can

grasp the essence of a thing, and the verbal
manifestation of which is called term, a
conventional sign that is expressive of an idea.

Example: Socrates is a human.

*Socrates and human are terms.
 Judgement, Enunciation, Proposition
(Judgement) is the mental operation that pronounces the agreement or
disagreement between two ideas.

Enunciation (or to enunciate) means to make a clear statement of (ideas, beliefs, etc.)

Proposition meanwhile, is the verbal expression of a judgement; a statement in

which something is either affirmed or denied.
(Types: Categorical - declares, Hypothetical - conditions and Modal – shows relationships)

Example: Socrates is a human.

Socrates – subject; is – copula; human - predicate
Categorical Proposition has three elements:
1. Subject – that about which something is affirmed or denied.

(Quantity of a Proposition) Quantifier – indicates the degree of

universality (quantity) of the subject.

Types:
a. Singular – single individual (Socrates is human.; This dog is fat.)
b.Particular – indefinite individuals (Some people are happy.)
c. Universal – to each and all of its referents (All girls are pretty.)
 Judgement, Enunciation, Proposition
Predicate – that which is affirmed or denied by the subject term.

• Substance • Genus
Predicaments Predicable
refers to the set • Accident Refers to the kinds • Specific difference
of fundamental – Quantity of relations which
ideas in terms of • Species
– Quality may be obtained
which all other – Relation between a term
ideas can be • Property
– Action and the subject of
expressed. – Passion which it is • Logical Accident
– When predicated.
– Where Example:
– Posture
– Habit
Man is a rational
animal.
 Judgement, Enunciation, Proposition

3. Copula – is the linking verb Examples:

indicating the agreement or All deep-thinkers are philosophers.
disagreement between the subject term
(Affirmative)
and the predicate term.
Some capitalists are greedy
Quality of a Proposition (Qualifier) – is (Affirmative)
a relation established between the two An angel is not a devil
terms of the proposition. (Negative)
Some films are not well - crafted
• Affirmative – the predicate is affirmed (Negative)
of the subject

• Negative – the predicate is denied by ▹ We consider here the affirmative and negative in
form. If the proposition is negative in form, but
the subject. positive in meaning, we still follow that the
proposition is negative.
 Judgement, Enunciation, Proposition

Quality and Quantity Combined

Standard Forms of Categorical Imperative:

A: U / S Affirmative
E: U / S Negative
I: Part. Affirmative
O: Part. Negative
Judgement, Enunciation, Proposition
 Reasoning, Argument and Syllogism

- (Reasoning) is a mental act whereby starting with

several judgements which we relate to one another, we
arrive at a new judgement which necessarily follows from
the preceding ones.
- Argument, meanwhile, is an inferential thinking
composed of conclusion and premise(s) from which the
conclusion is inferred.
Example:
All vehicles are instruments of transportation;
 Reasoning, Argument and Syllogism
Syllogism - external expression of an
arguments.
Two types: Categorical and Hypothetical

Example of Hypothetical.
Either you pass or fail.
But, you pass;
Therefore, you didn’t fail.
 Two types of reasoning
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

▹ from specific to general ▹ from general to specific

▹ based on observations in order to make ▹ draws conclusion from usually one
generalizations. broad judgement or definition and
▹ applied in prediction, forecasting or one more specific assertion,, often an
behavior. inference.

Example: Example:
Confucius is wise. All humans are mortal.
Confucius is a philosopher. Socrates is a human.
Therefore, all philosophers are wise. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Reasoning, Argument and Syllogism

The categorical
syllogism is
composed of
three terms…
 LOGIC
FALLACY

22
Fallacy
(Latin: fallere
means “to
deceive”)
– an erroneous
reasoning or an
incorrect
argument.
Fallacy

▹ Formal Fallacy – involves an error in the

form, arrangement or technical structure
of an argument.

▹ Informal Fallacy – when irrelevant

psychological factors are allowed to distort
the reasoning process.