DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

B.TECH
IV YEAR I SEMESTER

UNIT-I to UNIT- V
Lecture Notes

Prepared by
K. MANOJ KUMAR
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

B.TECH
IV YEAR I SEMESTER

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING GROUND
MODIFICATION
Lecture Notes

Prepared by
K. MANOJ KUMAR
Assistant Professor
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING GROUND MODIFICATION
WHAT IS MEANT BY GROUND IMPROVEMENT?
• Ground improvement, in its broadest sense is the alteration of any property of soil or
rock to improve its engineering performance.
• Ground Improvement is the application of various geotechnical techniques that are used
to re-engineer existing soils to improve their engineering characteristics.
• Ground improvement or ground modification refer to the improvement in or
modification to the engineering properties of soil that are carried out at a site where the
soil in its natural state does not possess properties that are adequate to withstand the
load of the structure.
• Ground improvement has become an important part of geotechnical practice. Different
terminologies have been used in the literature for ground improvement, such as soil
improvement, soil stabilization, ground treatment, and ground modification.
• The term “ground improvement” has been most commonly used in the literature and
practice and therefore adopted.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT: -
Ground improvement is the modification of the ground properties in order to achieve the
required ground conditions for the particular use of the ground.
• Densification of the ground, E.g.: Compaction
• Accelerate the consolidation, E.g.: Vertical drains
• Usage of geo synthetics, E.g.: Geotextiles
• Usage of admixtures, E.g.: Cement stabilization
• Preloading
• Mechanical Stabilization
IMPORTANCE OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT: -
• Before starting any construction project, contractors need to ensure that they commence
construction project on hard ground. If the construction of building is not done on solid
ground, then it may lead to repairs and instability later on. Therefore, modern
techniques such as dynamic compaction and jet grouting are essential.
• For strong basement, ground improvement is necessary, because it reduces the risk of
any damage later on. Today, jet grouting technique is used on various grounds for
hardening them. This technique involves high-pressure system through which fluid is
injected into the soil. Later, these liquids spread and break up within the soil, thus
creating a uniform mixture, which then solidifies and settles.
 • This is one of the basic processes, which is used for solidifying construction ground.
Another way to improve the solidity of ground is dynamic compaction. It is the
procedure of compressing soil by dropping huge steel rigs from a specific height of
about 40 to 80 feet. This compresses loose soil and fills the dug out areas.
• The method of soil compaction is simple, as by adopting right technique, ground
improvement can be done successfully. Once the compacting is done, the compacted
area is again dug out for about 10 to 20 feet. This is done for assuring the hardness of
the ground. After the completion of this process, the area is prepared for any
construction work.
• However, for ground improvement, combination of binder and water is essential,
because this can break up the soil and harden the ground.
• Thus, with the help of these techniques, you can turn any soil for construction. Each
technique has its drawbacks and benefits thus, using it on the requirement of the project
can really improve the stability of ground. Thus, improvement of ground is essential if
you want your building to long last.
NECESSARY DATA FOR GROUND IMPROVEMENT: -
• Subsoil profile and soil properties up to a depth near two times the loaded zone’s width
or up to hard soil strata if found earlier. The information shall be collected by
conducting soil investigations per the Guidelines.
• Engineering subsoil properties shall include index properties, shear parameters,
compressibility properties etc.
• Boreholes shall be completed by carrying a suitable number of static/dynamic cone
penetration tests up to the required depth, which will be improved. In connection with
selected boreholes, these tests work as an economical and fast method of learning the
state of subsoil before and after the ground improvement work.
• Information shall be obtained with respect to the nature of structure and area covered
by it, intensity and nature of applied loading, and permissible distortions the structure
can withstand.
NEED FOR GROUND IMPROVEMENT: -
Concerns: -
• Mechanical properties are not adequate
• Swelling and shrinkage
• Collapsible soils
• Soft soils
• Organic soils and peaty soils
• Sands and gravelly deposits
• Foundations on dumps and sanitary landfills
• Handling dredged materials
 • Handling hazardous materials in contact with soils
• Use of old mine pits
EXAMPLE: -
• Damage to buildings may occur when the volume change of the soil, due to shrinking
or swelling, is unevenly distributed beneath the foundations. For example, if there is a
difference in water content in the ground beneath a building, swelling pressures can
cause the wall to lift; this is often called ‘heave’. This can happen at the corners or
towards the centre of a building.

Strategies:-
When a project encounters difficult foundation conditions, possible alternative solutions that
need to be done are: -
• Avoid the particular site: - Relocate a planned highway or development site.
• Design the planned structure accordingly: - Some of the many possible approaches are
to use a raft foundation supported by piles, design a very stiff structure which is not
damaged by settlement, or choose a very flexible construction which accommodates
differential movement or allows for compensation. The solution will depend on the
geotechnical performance criteria stipulated, which generally relate to stability,
deformation, and/or seepage.
• Remove and replace unsuitable soils: - Removing organic topsoil, which is soft,
compressible, and volumetrically unstable, is a standard precaution in road or
foundation construction.
• Attempt to modify the existing ground.
• Enable cost effective foundation design
• Reduce the effects of contaminated soils
• Ensure sustainability in construction projects using ground improvement techniques.
OBJECTIVES OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT: -
Objectives of ground improvement is to:
• Increase strength, reduce erodibility
• Reduce distortion under stress (increase stress-strain modulus)
• Reduce compressibility (volume decrease due to a reduction in air voids or water
content under load)
• Control shrinking and swelling (improve volume stability)
• Control permeability, reduce water pressures, redirect seepage
• Prevent detrimental physical or chemical changes due to environmental conditions
(freezing/thawing, wetting/drying)
• Reduce susceptibility to liquefaction
The engineer must take a determination on how best to achieve the desired goals required by
providing a workable solution for each project encountered. Ground improvement methods
have provided adverse choice of approaches to solving these challenges.

SUITABILITY, FEASIBILITY, AND DESIRABILITY: -

The choice of a method of ground improvement for a particular object will depend on many
factors including:

• Type and degree of improvement required

• Type of soil, geological structure, seepage conditions
• Cost (the size of the project may be decisive)
• Availability of equipment and materials and the quality of work required
• Construction time available
• Possible damage to adjacent structures or pollution of groundwater resources
• Durability of the materials involved (as related to the expected life of the structure for
the given environmental and stress conditions)
• Toxicity or corrosivity of any chemical additives (government regulations may restrict
the choice of additives)
• Reversibility or irreversibility of the process
• Reusability of components
• Reliability of methods of analysis and design
• Feasibility of construction control and performance measurements
FACTORS FOR SELECTING GROUND IMPROVEMENT METHOD: -
Selection of ground improvement method should consider the following conditions:
1. structural conditions
2. Geotechnical conditions
3. Environmental constraints
4. Construction conditions and
5. Reliability and durability.
Structural Conditions: -
The structural conditions may include type, shape, and dimension of structure and footing,
flexibility and ductility of structural and footing elements, type, magnitude, and distribution of
loads, and performance requirements (e.g., total and differential settlements, lateral movement,
and minimum factor of safety).
Geotechnical Conditions: -
The geotechnical conditions may include geographic landscape, geologic formations, type,
location, and thickness of problematic geomaterial, possible end-bearing stratum, age,
composition, distribution of fill, and groundwater table. Soil type and particle size distribution
are essential for preliminary selection of ground improvement methods.
Environmental Constraints: -
The environmental constraints may include limited vibration, noise, traffic, water pollution,
deformation to existing structures, spoil, and headspace. For example, dynamic compaction
induces vibration and noise, which may not be suitable in a residential area. The wet method
to construct stone columns by water jetting produces spoil on site, which may be troublesome
for a site with limited space. Under such a condition, the dry method may be used instead.
Preloading induces settlements at nearby areas, which may be detrimental to existing
structures.
Construction Conditions: -
The selection of a ground improvement method should consider the following construction
conditions: (1) site condition, (2) allowed construction time, (3) availability of construction
material, (4) availability of construction equipment and qualified contractor, and (5)
construction cost. The selection of a ground improvement method must consider whether the
site is accessible to its associated construction equipment, such as access road and headspace.
Reliability and Durability: -
Reliability of a ground improvement method depends on several factors, such as the level of
establishment, variability of geotechnical and structural conditions, variability of construction
material, quality of the contractor, quality of installation, and quality control and assurance.
Several researchers have reported that samples from deep mixed columns have a high
variability in terms of their unconfined compressive strengths.
FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF IMPROVEMENT METHOD: -
Soil type: - this is one of the most important parameters that will control what approach or
materials will be applicable to only certain types of soil types and grain sizes
Area: - depth and location of treatment required- many ground improvement methods have
depth limitations that render them unsuitable for applications for deeper soil horizons.
Desired/required soil properties: - obviously, different methods are use to achieve different
engineering properties, and certain methods will provide various levels of uniformity to
improved sites.
Availability of materials: - Depending on the location of the project and materials required
for each feasible ground improvements approach.
Availability of skills: - local experience, and local preferences- While the engineer may
possess the knowledge and understanding of a preferred method
Environmental concerns: - With a better understanding and a greater awareness of effects on
the natural environment, more attention have been placed on methods that assure less
environmental impacts.
Economics: - when all else has been considered, the final decision on choice of improvement
method will often come down to the ultimate cost of a proposed method, or cost will be the
deciding factor in choosing between two or more otherwise suitable methods.
CURRENT AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT: -
Ground The basic principles of engineering ground modification are not new; indeed, some of
the techniques used today may be more than 2000 years old. However, significant advances have
been made in recent times. They cover many aspects.
1. Development of new machinery, particularly for deep compaction

2. Availability of new construction materials, such as geosynthetics

3. Emergence of better guidelines for determining the suitability of specific techniques for certain
types of soils and site conditions
4. Better understanding of the geotechnical processes involved and appreciation of the
significance of the construction sequence
5. Refinement of methods of analysis and computer modeling techniques

6. Advances in the techniques of performance evaluation of modified soils, such as pressuremeter

tests and seismic shear-wave velocity measurements
The results of a Delphi survey reported by the ASCE Committee on Placement and
Improvement of Soils (1978) included among the 10 most innovative suggestions for future
developments the following, presented in order of perceived feasibility:
Embankments of soil encased and stacked in tough. durable membranes to eliminate the need
for drying and compaction
Membranes for osmotic dewatering in boreholes and trenches
 In situ fusion stabilization of soils to form impermeable barriers and reinforcing elements
Probes driven and exploded to release self-dispersing grout
Stabilization with bacteriological agents
IDENTIFICATION OF SOIL TYPES: -
Identification of soil is the first and most important step in soil investigation for engineering
works. It is the determination of soil-type through which crucial information about the soil
properties can be obtained.
The principle terms used by civil engineers to describe soils are
• Gravel (particle size larger than 4.75 mm)
• Sand (particle size within 4.75 mm to 0.075mm)
• Silt & Clay (particle size less than 0.075mm)
Most natural soils consist of a mixture of two or more of these constituents and may contain an
admixture of organic material in a partly or fully decomposed state. The mixture is given the
name of the constituent that appears to have the most influence on its behaviour, and the other
constituent are indicated by adjectives.
For example, silty clay has predominantly the properties of clay but consists a significant
amount of silt.
While identifying and classifying the soils in the field, we need to use the following steps in a
logical sequence.
Step-1 (Identifying as Coarse-Grained Soil or Fine-Grained Soil)
In the first step we try to identify the soil as coarse-grained soil (CGS) or fine-grained soil
(FGS).
Coarse grained soils are those soils whose individual particles are visible by the naked eye.
Sandy soil and gravelly soil fall in this group.
Fine grained soils are those soils whose individual particles are not visible by the naked eye.
Silty soil and clayey soil fall in this group.
To know more about coarse grained soil and fine grained soil please read my post what are the
primary differences between coarse grained soil & fine grained soil
The following procedure is adopted in the field to identify the soil as CGS or FGS
• Take a representative sample of soil and spread it on a flat surface or palm of the hand.
• Remove all particles whose sizes are larger than 75 mm.
• If the soil contains more than 50% of visible particles then the soil is said to be a coarse-
grained soil.
• If the soil contains less than 50% of visible particles then the soil is said to be a fine-
grained soil.
Once the soil is identified as coarse-grained soil or fine grained soil, then we further sub divide
it on the basis of percentage of different sizes present in the soil mass. Coarse grained soil can
be sub divided into gravelly soil or sandy soil.
Step-2 (Classifying Coarse Grained Soil)
• A coarse-grained soil is said to be gravelly soil if the percentage of gravel is greater
than sand.
• If percentage of fines (i.e., silt & clay) present in a gravelly soil is less than 5%, then it
is identified as clean gravel. Clean gravel can be either classified as well graded
gravel (GW) or poorly graded gravel (GP).
• GW– if there is good representation of all particle sizes
• GP – if there is an excess or absence of intermediate particle sizes.
• If percentage of fines (i.e., silt & clay) present in a gravelly soil is more than 12%, then
it is identified as dirty gravel. Dirty gravel can be either classified as silty gravel
(GM) or clayey gravel (GC).
• GM– if the fines have little or no plasticity
• GC– if the fines are of low to medium to high plasticity.
• Gravels containing 5 to 12% fines are given boundary classification, which is generally
done at laboratory.
• A coarse grained soil is said to be sandy soil if the percentage of sand is greater than
gravel.
• If percentage of fines (i.e. silt & clay) present in a sandy soil is less than 5%, then it is
identified as clean sand. Clean sand can be either classified as well graded sand
(SW) or poorly graded sand (SP).
• SW– if there is good representation of all particle sizes
• SP – if there is an excess or absence of intermediate particle sizes.
• If percentage of fines (i.e., silt & clay) present in a sandy soil is more than 12%, then it
is identified as dirty sand. Dirty sand can be either classified as silty sand
(SM) or clayey sand (SC).
• SM– if the fines have little or no plasticity
• SC– if the fines are of low to medium to high plasticity.
• Sand containing 5 to 12% fines are given boundary classification, which is generally
done at laboratory.
Step-3 (Classifying Fine Grained Soil)
Before classifying the fine-grained soils, we need to carry out some filed tests, such as
• Dilatancy
• Dry strength
• Toughness
• Dispersion
After conducting these tests, we can use the table given below to classify the soil as silt or
clay. If you want to know the detail about these filed tests then read my post how to identify
silt and clay in the field.

WHAT ARE PROBLEMATIC SOILS?

Problematic soils, from a geotechnical point of view, are soils that have the potential to expand,
collapse, disperse, undergo excessive settlement or even to fail under relatively low stress
conditions. The above soil response phenomena are connected with the soil’s physical
properties such as soil grain composition, saturation ratio, degree of compaction, mineralogy,
and with its mechanical properties, for example, pre-consolidation or soil strength parameters.
These problematic soils are creating a number of problems, including those that are related but
not limited to bearing capacity, stability in excavation, stability in embankments, and long-
term settlements.
Some of the common problematic soils are:
1. Expansive Soils
2. Marine soils
3. Collapsible soils
IN-SITU AND LABORATORY TESTS TO CHARACTERIZE PROBLEMATIC
SOILS: -
LABORATORY TESTS:
Differential Free Swell Tests on Soil: -
Swelling is a natural reaction of some clays to saturation, and the potential for swell depends
on the mineral composition of the soil. Montmorillonite (bentonite) shows a high degree of
swell potential, whereas kaolinite exhibits almost none. A differential free swell test is carried
out to determine the swelling characteristics of the soil.
Test Procedure:
• Two specimens of 10g each, oven-dried and passing through 425 microns, is poured
into two 100ml graduated cylinder separately.
• One cylinder is filled with pure distilled water and another with kerosene up to the
100ml mark.
• After removing entrapped air, the sample is allowed sufficient time to attain an
equilibrium state of the volume.
• Finally, the volume of soil in each cylinder is recorded after 24 hours.
Differential Free swell (%) = {(Soil volume in water – soil volume in kerosene) / (Soil
volume in kerosene)} x 100
Objective:
The above laboratory test on soil is performed to estimate the swell potential of (expansive)
soils.

Liquid Limit Test: -

This test is done to determine the liquid limit of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part 5) – 1985. The liquid
limit of fine-grained soil is the water content at which soil behaves practically like a liquid, but
has small shear strength. Its flow closes the groove in just 25 blows in Casagrande’s liquid
limit device.
Procedure:
• Air-dry the soil sample and break the clods. Remove the organic matter like tree roots,
pieces of bark, etc.
• About 100g of the specimen passing through 425µm IS Sieve is mixed thoroughly with
distilled water in the evaporating dish and left for 24hrs. for soaking.
• Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device.
 • Level the mix so as to have a maximum depth of 1cm.
• Draw the grooving tool through the sample along the symmetrical axis of the cup,
holding the tool perpendicular to the cup.
• For normal fine-grained soil: The Casagrande’s tool is used to cut a groove 2mm wide
at the bottom, 11mm wide at the top and 8mm deep.
For sandy soil: The ASTM tool is used to cut a groove 2mm wide at the bottom,
13.6mm wide at the top and 10mm deep.
• After the soil pat has been cut by a proper grooving tool, the handle is rotated at the
rate of about 2 revolutions per second and the no. of blows counted, till the two parts
of the soil sample come into contact for about 10mm length.
• Take about 10g of soil near the closed groove and determine its water content
• The soil of the cup is transferred to the dish containing the soil paste and mixed
thoroughly after adding a little more water. Repeat the test.
• By altering the water content of the soil and repeating the foregoing operations, obtain
at least 5 readings in the range of 15 to 35 blows. Don’t mix dry soil to change its
consistency.
Plastic Limit Test: -
Determination of Plastic Limit is as important as Liquid Limit so as to ascertain Plasticity
Index, Ip of the soil. The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage
of the weight of the oven-dry soil, at the boundary between the plastic and semi-solid states of
consistency. It is the moisture content at which a soil will just begin to crumble when rolled
into a thread ⅛ inch (3 mm) in diameter using a ground glass plate or other acceptable surface.
Procedure:
• Take about 20 gm of thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through 425
microns I.S. sieve obtained in accordance with I.S. 2720 (Part 1)- 1983.
• Mix it thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish till the soil mass becomes
plastic enough to be easily molded with fingers.
• Allow it to season for sufficient time (for 24 hrs) to allow water to permeate throughout
the soil mass
• Take about 8 gm of this plastic soil mass and roll it between fingers and glass plate with
just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its
length. The rate of rolling shall be between 80 and 90 strokes per minute.
• Continue rolling till you get a thread of 3 mm diameter.
• Kneed the soil together to a uniform mass and re-roll.
• Continue the process until the thread crumbles when the diameter is 3 mm.
• Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread in air tight container for moisture content
determination as described in IS:2720 (Part 2)-1973.
 • Repeat the test to at least 3 times and take the average of the results calculated to the
nearest whole number.
Vane Shear Test: -
The laboratory vane shear test for the measurement of shear strength of cohesive soils, is useful
for soils of low shear strength of less than about 0.5 kgf/cm2). This test gives the undrained
strength of the soil, in undisturbed as well as remoulded conditions both. Vane shear test is a
cheaper and quicker method of measuring the shear strength of clay, as compared to very
elaborate tri-axial shear test or direct shear test.
Procedure:
The vane shall consist of four blades each fixed at 90° to the adjacent blades. The width of
vane, from edge of one vane to edge of another vane, is 12±0.15 mm. The height of vane is
24±0.25 mm. The thickness of vane is 0.5±0.05 mm. The vane should not deform under the
maximum torque for which it is designed. The penetrating edge of the vane blades shall be
sharpened having an included angle of 90°. The vane blades shall be welded together suitably
to a central rod, the maximum diameter of which should preferably not exceed 2.5 mm in the
portion of the rod which goes into the specimen during the test. The height of rod, above the
vanes, is 60mm. The vane should be properly treated to prevent rusting and corrosion.

• Prepare two or three specimens of the soil sample of dimensions of at least 30.0 mm
diameter and 75 mm long specimen.
• Mount the specimen container with the specimen on the base of the vane shear
apparatus and fix it securely to the base. If the specimen container is closed at one end,
it should be provided with a hole of about 1 mm diameter at the bottom.
• Gently lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length without disturbing
the soil specimen. The top of the vanes should be atleast 10 mm below the top of the
specimen. Note the readings of the angle of twist.
• Rotate the vanes at a uniform rate say 0.10/s by suitably operating the torque applicator
handle until the specimen fails.
• Note the final reading of the torque indicator. Torque readings and the corresponding
strain readings may also be noted at desired intervals of time as the test proceeds.
• Just after the determination of the maximum torque rotate the vane rapidly through a
minimum of 10 revolutions. The remoulded strength should then be determined within
1 minute after completion of the revolution.
IN-SITU or FIELD TESTS:
The following are the in-situ tests to characterize problematic soils (soft soils):
1. Pressure meter test
2. Vane shear test
3. Cone penetration test
4. Bore hole sampling
Pressure meter test: -
A pressure meter is a device which is used to determine the stress strain relations of in-situ soil
by pumping it into the certain depth of borehole. It is designed by Menard of France so, it is
also called as “Menard pressuremeter”. From these relations at rest horizontal earth pressure of
soil, elastic modulus of soil etc., can be determined.
Pressuremeter test on soil is very quick and easy way of finding stress strain relationship of in-
situ soil. The results obtained by this test are useful for the design of foundations.
Parts of Pressuremeter:
Pressuremeter contains three parts namely:
• Probe
• Tubing
• Control unit
Probe consists of three cells which one above the other as shown in figure.
All the three cells are inflatable. The middle cell is the measuring cell or main cell which is
filled with water during test. The other two cells which are at the top and bottom of measuring
cell are known as guard cells which protects the main cell from the end effects caused by finite
length of cable.

The whole arrangement of probe is generally protected by the metal shield as shown in picture.
To pump the water and gas into measuring cell and guard cells a rigid hollow tube is arranged
through the three cells. Control unit is set up near the borehole and is connected to tubing by
hollow cables to control the pressure in the cells by pumping water and gas as well as to read
the results of the test.
Procedure of Pressuremeter Test on Soil:
The test procedure consists of three steps as follows:
1. Drilling borehole
2. Positioning of probe in the bore bole
3. Conducting test
1. Drilling Borehole
The Menard’s pressuremeter is not used to drill the borehole. To drill a borehole separate
drilling equipment is used and preferably which causes least disturbance to the soil while
drilling. The diameter of the borehole should be in between 1.03 times to 1.20 times the
diameter of the probe.
1.03Dp < Dh < 1.20Dp
2. Positioning of Probe in Borehole
After drilling the hole, the probe is lowered down to the required elevation using cables. The
probe should be lowered slowly without disturbing the surrounding soil and the apparatus itself.
After reached desired elevation, the probe is fixed using clamping device.

3.Conducting Pressuremeter Test on Soil

After the positioning of probe, now it’s time to fill the cells of probe with water and gas. This
action is done by using control unit of the pressuremeter.
The valves of the control unit are opened which admits water into the measuring cell and gas
into the guard cells respectively. Equal pressure is maintained in both the measuring and guard
cells.
Now, using measuring cell pressure is applied on the soil wall of borehole. The application of
pressure can be done by any of the two methods as follows:
 • Equivalent pressure increment method
• Equivalent volume increment method
Equivalent pressure increment method, in which certain amount of time (generally one minute)
and pressure increment value is fixed for that time. After the completion of time, the volume
change is noted. Similarly, same pressure increments for the next one minute of time is applied
and volume change is noted. This process is repeated until limited pressure is reached. In
general, ten equal pressure increments for 10 minutes of time are enough to reach the pressure
limit.
Equivalent volume increment method, in this method the probe volume is increased by 5% for
each increment. After each increment the probe is held constant for 30 seconds. After every 30
seconds the pressure readings are noted.
Finally, the reading will help to obtain the stress strain curve of soil. This test can be done for
every 1meter interval between the boreholes.
Results of Pressuremeter Test
The volume of water used for each increment of the probe volume is taken on x- axis and the
pressure value obtained for each increment is taken on y-axis. The curve obtained may contain
some errors.
To overcome this, the pressuremeter should be calibrated for pressure loss, volume loss and
hydrostatic pressure head before it is used in the design.
Vane Shear Test: -
The Vane Shear Test (VST) is an in-situ method for determining the peak and remoulded
undrained shear strength of cohesive soils.
• The VST involves pushing a four-bladed vane into undisturbed soil and slowly rotating
it from the surface to determine the torque required to shear soil in cylindrical surface.
IS recommends Height of vane, H = 2D
Length of the rod, L = 60 mm
Diameter of the rod, D = 2.5 mm
• The vane rod should be rigid enough to transfer load during the test. For, proper
determination of soil strength friction of vane rod and instrument should be accounted
for. This method is mostly useful for determining in-situ shear strength of soil where
sample for laboratory test cannot be obtained. The test is carried out as per ASTM
D2573 standards.
• The vane consists of four-bladed vane with tapered ends, the height of vane being two
(2) times the diameter. The vane is connected to the surface by steel torque. The
diameter of the rod is sufficient enough to apply load and is rigid enough such that it
does not exceed elastic limit under stressed condition.
• The coupling is done so that there is no possible tightening when torque is applied
during the test.
 • The vane housing is advanced to required depth and torque at the rate of 0.1/s is applied
and the maximum torque is recorded.
• Then, the vane is rapidly rotated with 10 revolutions to determine the remolded
strength.
• The test is moderately rapid and economical. The results can be used to correlate with
various other tests and design methods. It is most advantageous to obtain properties of
sensitive clays which are characteristically difficult to obtain for lab tests.

Cone Penetration Test (CPT): -

Static cone penetration test also known as cone penetration test (CPT) is a method of
geotechnical investigation for testing bearing capacity and penetration resistance of soil.
This test is best performed in soft clay, silt, medium and fine sands and is unsuitable for
gravelly soil or soil with SPT value > 50.
The penetro-meter used in this process consists of a 600 cone with a base area of 10 cm2 and a
friction jacket to avoid skin friction. Along with the diagrams in fig.1, the sequence of operation
of the penetro-meter is briefly described below: -
Operation procedure of Static Cone Penetration Test:
• In position l, the cone and friction jacket assembly is in collapse position. This is the
initial position of the penetro-meter.
• In position 2, the cone is shown to have been pushed down by inner sounding rods to
such a depth till a collar engages the cone while the friction jacket attains the same
position. The reading shown by the gauge in this position is the cone resistance.
• In position 3, both the cone and friction jacket are pushed together. This operation
provides the sum of cone and frictional resistance together. Additional resistance is
provided by the jacket.
• In position 4, the outside mantle tube is pushed down and this operation brings the
cone assembly in position 1. The total frictional resistance of the jacket is obtained
by subtracting the value obtained in position 2 from the value recorded in position 3.
 One should note the fact that this method is suitable in the strata of fine grained soil
only. The process mentioned above is repeated continuously till the desired depth is
reached. The cone is pushed at a standard rate of 20 mm per second.

CLASSIFICATION OF GROUND MODIFICATION METHODS: -

The various ground modification methods are

1. Mechanical method
2. Hydraulic method
3. Electrical method
4. Thermal method
5. Physical and chemical method
6. Modification by inclusion and confinement
Mechanical method: -
The mechanical method is the method of improving soil properties by changing its gradation.
This method of soil stabilization includes compaction and densification of soil matter by
application of mechanical energy using various sorts of rollers, rammers, vibration techniques
and sometimes blasting.
In this practice the soil stability is improved by mixing the existing soil with the imported soil
or aggregates to achieve the required particle size distribution and by compaction of soil
mixture to reach the desired density.
Applications:
• It is the simplest method of soil stabilization.
• The low bearing capacity of the sub grade is improved by this method.
 • Widely used in construction of roadway and railway embankments.
• This method is commonly adopted for the sub base and base coarse construction.
• It is also applied for the surface coarse construction of low-cost roads (village roads)
when the condition of low traffic and rainfall.
Hydraulic method: -
Free –pore water is forced out of the soil via (by means of) drains or wells.
In coarse grained soils, this is achieved by lowering the ground water level through pumping
from boreholes or trenches.
In fine-grained soils, the long-term application of external loads (preloading) or electrical
forces (electro-kinetic stabilization) is required.
Electrical method: -
This method of stabilization most exclusively used in clay-like soils and can also be referred
to as electroosmosis.
Electrical stabilization of soil works by inserting metal electrodes into the earth. Then, a direct
current is run through them and water moves towards one of the electrodes, most often the
cathode.
As water is removed from the soil, it is better able to be Compacted which allows it to provide
a more steady foundation for construction vehicles.
Applications:
• Electrical method of ground improvement is used for stabilization of slopes.
• It helps in the consolidation of soil.
• It can be used to improve the stability of excavations and embankments which are
unstable.
• It can be employed for injecting grouts into soil.
• It can be applied in the treatment of soils, which are affected by salts.
• Dredged soil can be dewatered using electrical method of soil stabilization.
• This method is employed to enhance the strength of backfill.
• This method of soil stabilization will eliminate or remove ground water and soil
contamination.
Thermal method: -
Thermal change in soil properties can significantly improve the properties of soil. This thermal
stabilization is done by both heating and freezing of the soil.
Heating: When soil is heated its water content is decreasing. This change will decrease electric
repulsion between clay particles and strength of the soil is increased.
Freezing: Cooling of any soil is generally resulting in a small amount of loss of strength due to
an increase in inter particle repulsion. However, if the temperature decrease to the freezing
point, the pure water freezes, and the soil stabilize.
Applications:
• Landslide stabilization
• Improving soil undergoing collapsing
• Mat foundation construction
• Forming vitrified piles in place
• Reduction of lateral stresses acting ton retaining walls
Physical and chemical method: -
One example of this method is soil stabilization by physically mixing/blending additives with
top layers at depth.
Additives include natural soils, industrial by-products or waste materials (fly ash, slag), -
Cementations and other chemicals (lime, cement) which react with each other and the ground.
When additives are injected via boreholes under pressure into the voids within the ground or
between it and a structure, the process is called GROUTING.
Chemical method involves adding chemicals into the soil. These chemicals react with the soil
which in return causes its structure to be changed. The chemicals seal the space between
particles, leaving no room for water to penetrate through. Among the most common chemicals
that are used for soil stabilization include sodium chloride, calcium chloride and sodium
silicate.
Modification by inclusions and confinement: -
In this ground modification technique, the inclusions is provided by reinforcement of bars,
strips, meshes, fibers and fabrics that should impart the tensile strength on a constructed soil
mass. It is also achieved by the in-situ soil reinforcement by nails and anchors.
The ground surface soil should be confined with concrete, steel (or) fabric elements to obtain
a stable earth retaining structure
Applications:
• Stabilization of high way cut slopes and rail roads
• For high rise buildings and underground facilities, excavation of retaining structures in
urban areas
• In steep and unstable stratified slopes, it is used for tunnel portals
GROUND MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES OR METHODS BASED ON GRAIN
SIZE: -

As per IS:13094-1992
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

B. TECH
IV YEAR I SEMESTER

UNIT-II
MECHANICAL MODIFICATION
Lecture Notes

Prepared by
K. MANOJ KUMAR
Assistant Professor
 UNIT – II
MECHANICAL MODIFICATION
What is mechanical modification: -
The mechanical modification is the method of improving soil properties by changing its
gradation. This method of soil stabilization includes compaction and densification of soil
matter by application of mechanical energy using various sorts of rollers, rammers, vibration
techniques and sometimes blasting.
In this practice the soil stability is improved by mixing the existing soil with the imported soil
or aggregates to achieve the required particle size distribution and by compaction of soil
mixture to reach the desired density.
Compaction: -
Soil compaction is the practice of applying mechanical compactive effort to densify a soil by
reducing the void space between soil particles. Compaction occurs when particles are pressed
together to reduce the air space between them, highly compacted soils contain very few spaces
resulting in soil with higher unit weight. Maximum density is achieved at an optimum moisture
content, or OMC for short.
‘Compaction’ of soil may be defined as the process by which the soil particles are artificially
rearranged and packed together into a state of closer contact by mechanical means in order to
decrease its porosity and thereby increase its dry density.
This is usually achieved by dynamic means such as tamping, rolling, or vibration. The process
of compaction involves the expulsion of air only.

Objectives/Benefits of Soil Compaction: -

The objectives/benefits of soil compaction are:
• Increases shear strength of soil.
• Increases load-bearing capacity of soil.
• Reduces the voids ratio making it more difficult for water to flow through (water
seepage) soil
• Reduction in settlement (lower compressibility).
 • Reduction in soil swelling (expansion) and collapse (soil contraction).
• Increased soil stability and slope stability in embankments.
• Reduction in frost damage.
Difference Between Standard and Modified Proctor Test: -

Saturation (Zero-Air-Voids) Line: -

The zero Air Void line is obtained when there is no presence of the air in the pores of a soil
mass and totally filled with the water and soil mass get saturated. It is determined by the
compaction test of a soil. Draw the graph between Dry Density VS water content, calculate
the dry density from the compaction test results, and Zero Air void line is drawn on the graph.
OR
Zero air void line is the line that shows the relationship between the water content and the dry
unit weight of the soil with a 100% degree of saturation or at zero void is called the zero-air
void line or 100% degree of saturation line.
A line showing the relation between water content and dry density at a constant degree of
saturation S may be established from the equation:

Substituting S = 95%, 90%, and so on, one can arrive at γd-values for different values of water
content in %. The lines thus obtained on a plot of γd versus w are called 95% saturation line,
90% saturation line and so on. If one substitutes S = 100% and plots the corresponding line,
one obtains the theoretical saturation line, relating dry density with water content for a soil
containing no air voids. It is said to be ‘theoretical’ because it can never be reached in practice
as it is impossible to expel the pore air completely by compaction.
The saturation lines when superimposed on compaction curves give an indication of the air
voids present at different points on these curves; this is shown in Figure.
Factors Affecting Compaction: -
The various factors which affect the compacted density are as follows:
• Water content.
• Type of soil
• Gradation of Soil
• Compaction energy.
• Method of compaction.
Water content:
• To achieve the desired density of the soil, the moisture content of that soil has to be
controlled properly. If the water content is low, it leads to soil being stiff which will
resist compaction. When the water content is increased, lubrication takes place between
the soil particles and the soil becomes more workable.
• Dry density of the soil increases with an increase in the water content till the optimum
water content is reached. Adding more water at this stage, will reduce the dry density.
The amount of water content added to the soil till it reaches its maximum dry density
is called the moisture content of the soil.
• Increase of water content used for compaction increases the dry density initially until
the dry density reaches its maximum. After reaching MDD, further increase in the water
content decreases the dry density.
Type of soil:
• The type of soil used for compaction primarily decides MDD achievable by the
compaction. Figure shows the compaction curves for different types of soil.
• Coarse-grained soils can be compacted to a higher dry density than fine-grained soils.
Cohesive soils usually have high air voids content.
• The void ratio of cohesive soils increases with increase in plasticity index. Thus, coarse-
grained soils have higher MDD and lower OMC than fine-grained soil. The MDD
decreases and OMC increases for low plastic silt, high plastic silt, and high plastic clay.
Gradation of Soil:
• For a given soil, a well-graded soil has higher MDD and lower OMC then a poorly
graded soil. This is because a well-graded soil contains particles of all sizes and the
finer size particles fill the void space between the coarser particles resulting in lower
air voids and higher MDD.
• Addition of small amount of fines to a coarse-grained soil increases its MDD for the
same reason. However, when the amount of fines added is more than that needed to fill
the voids of coarse-grained soil, the MDD again decreases.
Compaction energy:
• The compaction energy applied to the soil during compaction has a significant influence
on the MDD. In general, the higher the compaction energy or compactive effort, the
higher will be the MDD and lower will be the OMC.
• This is the reason why the subgrades of airfield pavements are compacted using heavy
compaction. Thus, the compaction curve of a modified Proctor test, which uses more
compactive effort on the soil, is above and to the left of that of standard Proctor test or
IS light compaction test as shown in Fig.

The increase in dry density due to the increase in compactive effort is more at water content
less than OMC (dry of optimum) than that on the wet of optimum
Method of compaction:
• Compaction of soils in the field can be done by a variety of compaction equipment. The
various variables in this aspect are i) weight of the compacting equipment, ii) the
manner of operation such as dynamic or impact, static, rolling etc, iii) time and area of
contact between the compacting element and the soil.
Effects of Compaction on Soil Properties: -
They are
• Soil Structure
• Shear Strength
• Pore Water Pressure
• Stress-Strain Relationship
• Compressibility
• Shrinkage
• Swelling
• Permeability

Soil Structure:
• Soils compacted to dry of optimum have flocculated structure due to the attraction
between soil particles because of low water content.
• Soils compacted to wet of optimum have dispersed structure due to repulsive force
between soil particles because of high water content.
Shear Strength:
• Shear strength of soil compacted to dry of optimum is morethan those compacted
to wet of optimum at lower strains.
• At higher strain, soil compacted to wet of optimum will havemore shear strength.
• Type of compaction, drainage conditions and type of soil also influence the shear
strength of compacted soil.
Pore Water Pressure:
• Pore water pressure is high for those soil whose water content is high. Hence, soils
compacted to wet of optimum compaction willexhibit more pore water pressure than
soil compacted dry of optimum.
Stress-strain Behaviour of Soil:
• Soils compacted to dry side of optimum will take more stress for little strain hence,
stress-strain curve of this type of soil is much steeper and elastic modulus is more.
Brittle failure occurs in this case.
• Similarly, soils compacted to wet of optimum will produce more stress even for smaller
stress. Hence, Stress-Strain curve, in this case, is much flatter and plastic-type failure
occurs at a larger strain. These type of soils have low elastic modulus.
Compressibility:
• The Compressibility of compacted soil varies according to the amount of pressure
applied.
• For low-pressure range, compressibility is more for soils which arecompacted to wet of
optimum than soil compacted to dry of optimum.
 • Similarly, for high-pressure ranges, compressibility is more for soils which are
compacted to dry of optimum than soil compacted to wet of optimum.

Shrinkage of Soil:
• Shrinkage is more for the soil compacted to wet of optimumthan dry of optimum.
• In case of dry of optimum compaction, soil particles are in random orientation
and they are in stable condition.
• But in case of wet of optimum, soil particles are in parallel orientation and they are
unstable which makes it easy for packing of particles causing shrinkage.
Swelling:
• When the soil is compacted to dry of optimum, the soil is in need of water and it swells
easily when contacted with water.
• When water is compacted to wet of optimum, the soil particles are oriented in a
dispersed manner and swelling does not occur.
• So, to avoid swelling, soils should be compacted to wet of optimum.
Permeability:
• Compaction reduces the voids present in the soil hence permeability also reduces.
• At a particular density, for the same soil sample, permeability is more for soils which
are compacted to dry of optimum thanthose compacted to wet of optimum.
Types Of Compaction: -
The different types of compaction are
1. Shallow compaction
2. Deep compaction
Shallow Compaction: -
• Surface or shallow compaction is one of the earliest, cheapest and commonly used
techniques to improve the physical and mechanical properties of loose soil specially for
imported structural fill.
• It is simply rearranging of soil particles to reduce air ratios using surface static or
vibrating mechanical effort.
• Usually, shallow compaction procedure includes subjecting the loose soil to certain
number of compacting equipment passes to archive the accepted compaction level; this
number of passes is a function of many parameters such as type of soil, initial soil
parameters, compacting equipment characteristics and thickness of soil lift.
Deep Compaction: -
• Deep compaction refers to technologies that apply high levels of compressive energy
to the ground to improve its soil properties.
 • It is done by using deep dynamic compaction, blasting, vibro- compaction,
precompression, heavy tamping techniques.
Compaction Techniques: -
1.Shallow Compaction Techniques
→ Tampers, Rammers, Vibrators
→ Rollers
(a) Smooth-Wheeled Rollers,
(b) Pneumatic-Tyred Rollers,
(c) Sheepsfoot Rollers, And
(d) Grid Rollers
2. Deep Compaction Techniques
→ Blasting
→ Vibro-Compaction
→ Dynamic Compaction
→ Compaction Piles
Shallow Compaction Techniques: -
Smooth-Wheeled Rollers:
• Smooth wheel rollers are most suitable for compacting gravels, sand and crushed rock
where some crushing action is required.
• These rollers have one large steel drum in front and two steel drums on the rear. The
gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tonne.
• The other type of smooth wheel roller is called Tandem Roller, which weighs between
6-8 tonne.
• Contact pressure upto 300 kpa.
• 100% coverage of ground under the wheel.
• The weight of the roller can be increased up to 20 tonnes by ballasting the inside space
of the roller drums with either water or wet sand.
• The desirable speed and number of passes appropriate for a specific soil should be
established in each project site to get the best production.
• About 8 passes are adequate for compacting 20 cm layer.
• A speed of 3-6 kmph is considered appropriate for smooth wheel rollers.
Pneumatic-Tyred Rollers:
• Pneumatic tyred rollers are used in both earthwork and bituminous work. These rollers
have wheels on both the axles but they are staggered so that they can compact the layers
with uniform pressure throughout the width.
• Pneumatic rollers best suitable for cohesion-less sand and gravels and, and on cohesive
soils due to the combined action of pressure and kneading.
 • The front axle may have four pneumatic smooth wheels whereas there can be five
wheels on the rear axles. The two important parameters governing compaction are the
tyre inflation pressure and the area of the contact.
• Contact presuure is upto 700 kpa.
• 80% coverage of ground under the wheel.
• The latest rollers have an arrangement to inflate the tyre to the desired pressure
automatically.
• The total weight of the roller can be increased from 11.0 tonne to 25.0 tonne or more
by ballasting with steel sections or other means.
• Generally, 8 passes of pneumatic tyred roller yield almost maximum density. The
optimum speeds are between 1.6 and 24 kmph.
Sheepsfoot Roller:
• This type of roller mostly used for compaction of cohesive soils such as heavy clays
and silty clays. Not effective with sandy soils.
• It can be used for compaction of soils in dams, subgrade layer in pavements and road
construction projects. These rollers are also called tamping rollers.
• Sheepsfoot roller consists of steel drum having many round or rectangular shaped lugs
or foot on it.
• Different types of lugs or foot are namely spindle shaped with widened base, prismatic
and clubfoot type.
• Different types of rollers are available having different diameters and widths of drum
and different lengths and shapes of the lugs. The lugs size slightly varies from one
sheepsfoot roller to another.
• Designing of the lugs of foots depend upon the specification and it varies from
manufacture to manufacturers.
• Contact pressure is from 1200-7000 kpa.
• The Ground coverage area of these roller is less. 8-12 % ground coverage under the
lugs on drum.
• 10 to 20 passes are generally required to give complete coverage.
• Sheepsfoot roller work normally at speeds from 6-10 km/h. Pressure on the feet may be
increased by filling the drum with wet sand or some other material.
Grid rollers:
• Grid rollers are used for compaction of weathered rocks, well graded coarse soils. These
rollers are not suitable for clayey soils, silty clays and uniform soils.
• The main use of these rollers are in subgrade and sub-base in road constructions.
 • As the name suggests, these rollers have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of
a network of steel bars forming a grid with square holes.
• Contact pressure is from 1400-1600 kpa.
• The weight of this roller can be increased by ballasting with concrete blocks. Typical
weights vary between 5 tonnes net and 15 tonnes ballasted.
• Grid rollers provide high contact pressure but little kneading action and are suitable for
compacting most coarse-grained soils.
Impact Roller:
• The impact roller compaction Technique is an alternative for traditional roller
compaction method, where the energy is transferred to the soil by means of the lifting
and falling motion of the non-circular rotating mass.
• The number of sides can vary from three to five. The other defining characteristic is
that Impact Rollers derive their energy by turning on their corner (major radius) and
falling to the flat side (minor radius).
• The type of roller depends on the soil type and moisture regime and depth of treatment
needed. The rollers are pulled at relatively high speeds to generate a high-impact force
that reportedly can densify material to depths which is significantly deeper than
conventional static or vibratory rollers.
• The purpose of an Impact roller or Impact Compaction Roller is to introduce energy to
the ground surface in quick succession, around two impacts per second. By doing this
in a rolling action at around 10kph large areas can be treated quickly and a large amount
of energy applied to an area in a comparatively short period of time.
Vibratory Rollers:
• Vibratory rollers are equipped with one or two smooth-surfaced steel wheels that send
vibrations through the roller. The vibrations are generated by an eccentric shaft rotating
inside the wheel, making it an ideal roller for compacting granular base courses that
would otherwise be difficult to compact.
• A vibratory roller is a compactor having a drum used to densify soil, asphalt or other
materials through the application of combined static and dynamic forces to increase the
load-bearing capacity of the surface.
• Vibratory rollers can fully cover the area underneath the wheel. It’s more efficient
compared to other road roller types when it comes to compacting.
• The vibration of the roller can arrange the particles and exerts direct pressure on the
specific layer. When the vibratory roller is in reverse, the vibration is briefly turned off
to avoid disturbing the compacted area. This roller is best used to reduce air voids and
for densifying granular soils like sand.
Rammers:
• This type includes the dropping type and pneumatic and internal commission type,
which are also called ‘frog rammers’. They weigh up to about 1.5 kN (150 kg) and even
as much as 10 kN occasionally. This type may be used for cohesion less soils,
 especially in small restricted and confined areas such as beds of drainage trenches and
back fills of bridge abutments.
Vibrators:
• These are vibrating units of the out-of-balance weight type or the pulsating hydraulic
type. Such a type is highly effective for cohesionless soils. Behind retaining walls where
the soil is confined, the backfill, much deeper in thickness, may be effectively
compacted by vibration type of compactors.
A few of this type are dealt with below:
(a) Vibrating drum:
A separate motor drives an arrangement of eccentric weights so as to cause a high
frequency, low-amplitude, vertical oscillation to the drum. Smooth drums as well
as sheepsfoot type of drums may be used. Layers of the order of 1 metre deep could
be compacted to high densities.
(b) Vibrating pneumatic tyre:
A separate vibrating unit is attached to the wheel axle. Theballast box is suspended
separately from the axle so that it does not vibrate. A 300 mm thick layer of granular
soil will be satisfactorily compacted after a few passes.
(c) Vibrating plate:
This typically consists of a number of small plates, each of which is operated by a
separate vibrating unit. These have a limited depth of effectiveness and hence are
used in compacting granular base courses for highway and airfield pavements.
Applicability of compaction equipment: -
Deep Compaction Techniques: -
Blasting: -
In this technique a certain amount of explosive charge is buried at a certain depth of a
cohesionless soil required to be compacted and is then detonated. In this the shock waves
produced by the blasting cause densification.
A pipe of 7.5 to 10 cm is driven to the required depth in the soil strata. The sticks of
dynamite and an electric detonator are wrapped in the water proof bundles and lowered through
the casing shown in below figure. The casing is withdrawn and a wad of paper or wood is
placed against the charge of explosives to protect it from misfire.
The hole is backfilled with sand in order to obtain the full force of the blast. The
electrical circuit is closed to fire the charge. A series of holes are thus made ready. Each hole
is detonated in succession and the resulting large diameter holes formed by lateral displacement
are backfilled. The surface settlements are measured by taking levels or from screw plates
embedded at certain depth below the ground surface.

Usually, the explosives are arranged in the form of a horizontal grid. The spacing of the
charges is decided by the depth of strata to be densified, the size of charge and the overlapping
of the charges. A spacing of 3 to 8 m is typical and a spacing less than 3 m should be avoided.
Compaction is carried out in a single tier only if the depth of stratum to be densified is
10 m or less. In such a case the depth of explosive charge should be below half the depth of the
mass or stratum to be densified (approximately at 2/3 point). More than one tier should be
planned if the depth of stratum to be densified is more than 10 cm. Generally, the depth of
charge should be greater than the radius of sphere of influence.
As a rough guidance, the weight of charge required is computed from the following
relationship.
W = 164 C R3
Where, W = Weight of explosive (N)
C = Coefficient (0.0025 for 60% detonator
R = Radius of influence (m)
Blasting technique involves less time, labour and expense. This technique needs no
special equipment and could be successfully used for densifying soil at a great depth. Further
this could be effectively used to compact a large volume to a substantial depth up to 20 m and
in small areas where the use of other methods would be impractical. Relative densities of the
order of 70 to 80% can be achieved. In remote areas where vibrations are favourable, the
technique may prove most cost effective. Invariably the blasting work should be executed only
by an experienced contractor under special supervision.
Disadvantages
• Non uniformity, potential adverse effects on adjacent structures and danger associated
with the use of explosives in populated areas.
• Very fine-grained soils which have high cohesive forces cannot be compacted by this
method.
• Maximum compaction is obtained only when the soil is dry or completely saturated.
• In partially saturated soils due to capillary tension between the soil grains, less
densification is achieved.
• In case of saturated soils shock waves cause liquefaction leading to expulsion of water
resulting in a better arrangement of particles.
Dynamic Compaction or Dynamic Tamping: -
Dynamic compaction is an efficient and cost-effective soil improvement technique that uses
the dynamic effect of high energy impacts to densify weak soil. The dynamic effect is generated
by dropping a static weight (15-40 tones) from a defined height (10-30 m).
The drop weight, which manufactured from steel; steel box and concrete, or reinforced mass
concrete, is commonly manufactured from steel and cranes are used to lift and release it
repeatedly from a certain height. These droppings exert a vibration on the soil and improves it
at a depth.
The dynamic compaction is used to improve weak soil such as loose medium to coarse grained
sand with salt or clay content. It effectively enhances the soil to a depth of 10m, but its
influences reach till 12m depth. Not only does it utilized for settlement improvement and
liquefaction mitigation but also for improvement of long-term performance, and backfilling
landfill sites or collapsing cavities.
Purpose
The purpose of dynamic compaction technique is to transmit high energy waves through a
compressible soil layer to improve Geotechnical properties of soil at greater depths.
Dynamic Compaction Process
The concept of Dynamic compaction is simple but experienced engineers and good planning
is essential. Dynamic compaction process includes lifting and dropping a heavy weight several
times in one place.

Fig: Dynamic Compaction Process

It is repeated on a grid pattern across the site. The spacing of grid patterns is determined based
on underground condition, foundation loading, and foundation geometry.

Fig: Dynamic Compaction Grid

The resulting high energy impact transmits shock waves through the ground to the depth to be
treated. This reduces air and water voids between soil particles resulting in enforced settlement.
 Fig. How Dynamic Compaction Densify Soil at Great Depth
Deeper layers are compacted at wider grid spacing and upper layers are compacted with closer
grid spacing.

Fig: Dynamic Compaction of Soil

Suitability
Deep dynamic compaction is suitable for the following conditions:
• Loose and partially saturated fills
• Saturated free-drained soils
• Silts with plasticity index less than 8
• Clayey soil with a low degree of saturation (moisture content lower than plastic limit)
Advantages
 Densify and compact soil to a depth of 12m
 Effective in various soil conditions
 Cost effective
 Dramatic cost savings in excess of deep foundations and most undercut and replace
options
 Accelerate schedules
 Mitigate soil liquefaction
  Improves bearing capacity of soil
 Decreases the volume of landfill waste
 Reduces post-construction settlements
 Environmentally friendly

Fig. 6: Schematic Influence of Dynamic Compaction on Soil

Disadvantages
 It cannot be used within 30m from buildings and 15m from underground services.
 Dynamic compaction is not appropriate if water depth is less than 1.5m.
 It cannot be applied if soft cohesive soils are located in the upper part of the compaction.
 Dynamic compaction is not effective when soils have fines content in excess of 20%.
 Requires an intensive in situ testing programme to examine the result of compaction.
Vibro-Compaction or Vibro-Flotation: -
Vibro-compaction also known as vibro-flotation is a ground improvement technique that
densifies clean, cohesionless granular soils with a downhole vibrator. This technique was
originated in Russia in mid-thirties and was applied in 1939 in Germany for improvement of
building foundation soils.
The vibro-flotation equipment comprises of a vibroflot probe, accompanying power supply,
water pump, crane and front-end loader. Vibroflot probe consists of a cylindrical penetrator,
about 400 mm in diameter and about 2 m in length with an eccentric weight inside the cylinder
developing a horizontal centrifugal force of about 100 kN at 1800 rpm. A typical vibroflot is
formed of two parts. The lower part is the horizontal vibrating unit which connects to the upper
part, a follow-up pipe, the length of which can be varied depending on the compaction depth.
The devise provided for water flow from jets at top and bottom at the rate of 225 to 300
litres/min at a pressure of about 400 to 600 kPa
The water jets the vibroflot into the ground as it is lowered with the crane. The front-end loader
is used to supply the backfill material as the in-situ soils are densified.
The probe is freely suspended from a crane. Each compaction sequence has four basic steps (as
suggested by Brown (1976) and Vibroflotation Foundation Co. USA). They are:
i. Vibroflot is positioned over the spot to be compacted and its lower jet is then fully
opened.
ii. Water is pumped in faster than it can drain away into the subsoil. This creates a
momentary "quick" condition beneath the jet which permits the vibroflot to settle of its
own weight and vibration.
iii. Wateris switched from the lower to the top jets and the pressure is reduced enough to
allow water to be returned to the surface, eliminating any arching of backfill material
and facilitating the continuous feed of backfill.
iv. Compaction takes place during the 0.3 m per minute lifts, which return the vibroflot to
the surface. First, the vibrator is allowed to operate at the bottom of the crater. As the
particles densify, they assume their most compact form. By raising the vibrator step by
step and simultaneously backfilling with sand, the entire depth of the soil is compacted
into a hard core.

Advantages
The main advantages of vibro-flotation in construction are:
• Reduce differential settlement
• Fastest and easiest way to improve soil with weak bearing capacity.
• Best choice to improve harbor bottoms.
• Can be performed on existing structures
• Does not harm the environment and nearby structures
 • No need for excavation
• No water table issue
• Reduce liquefaction during an earthquake
• Reduce hazards and contamination of the soils.
Limitations
• Where the fine silt and clay exceeds 20 percent, Vibro-compaction is not effective.
• There is a size limit of coarser grain which is applicable to vibro-compaction.
• It cannot be used in soils with low permeability.
• Depending on the circumstances and stiffness the permeability of soil reduces from 2
to 10 folds.

Vibro-Replacement (Stone Column): -

Vibro-replacement method also called as Stone column or granular pile method are installed
mostly using vibration techniques. Stone columns are very much suitable for soft, inorganic
cohesive soils.
A cylindrical vertical hole is made and gravel backfill is placed into the hole in increments and
compacted by a suitable device which simultaneously displaces the material radially. This
results in a densely compacted stone column of certain depth and diameter.
Formation of stone columns using a vibroflot is quite suitable techniques for improvement of
cohesive soils. The vibroflot is allowed to sink into the ground due to its own weight, assisted
by water or air as a flushing medium, up to the required depth. The soil surrounding the
vibroflot is disturbed or remoulded and the softened material can be removed by jetting fluid
(water or compressed ar).
Water is used as a jetting fluid for fully saturated soils while compressed air is used for partially
saturated soils. By this process a borehole of larger diameter than the vibroflot is formed once
the vibroflot is withdrawn shown in below figure. So formed borehole is backfilled with gravel
of 12 to 75 mm size or furnace slag.
With the repenetration of the vibroflot the backfill material is displaced into the sides of the
borehole and compacting underneath its tip. While backfilling the vibroflot is raised and
lowered. This procedure is repeated till the hole is completely filled and compacted which
forms a cylindrical granular pile.
The spacing of stone columns is determined based on the settlement tolerances for the loads to
be applied and the degree of improvement required. Stone columns are spaced from 1.2 to
about 3 m on center over the site.
Top feed and Bottom feed method of stone column: -
Depending upon the feeding of stone aggregates into the columns there are basically two
methods for the installation of stone columns:
1.Top-feed method
In the top-feed method, the stone aggregates are fed into the top of the hole. The probe is
inserted into the ground and is penetrated to the target depth under its own weight and
compressed air jetting. However, jetting of water is also done especially when the soil is
unstable. This also helps to increase the diameter of the stone columns and to washout the fine
materials from the holes.
The top-feed method is suitable when water is readily available and there is enough working
space to allow for water drainage. Moreover, the soil types should be such that it would not
create messy surface conditions due to mud in water.
The top-feed method is preferable when a deeper groundwater level is encountered.

2.Bottom-feed method
The bottom-feed method involves the feeding of stone aggregates via a tremie pipe along the
vibroflot and with the aid of pressurized air. The bottom-feed method is preferable when the
soil is highly collapsible and unstable. However, the stability of holes will also depend upon
the depth, boundary conditions, and the groundwater conditions. In areas, where the availability
of water and space and the handling of mud in process water are limiting factors, the bottom-
feed method can be implemented.
Due to limited space in the feeding system, a smaller size of aggregates is used in the bottom-
feed method compared with that used in the top-feed method. On the other hand, the flow of
stones to the column is mechanically controlled and automatically recorded in the bottom-feed
method.
Advantages
Weak soil, which has very low shear strength and high compressibility to support structures
require strengthening to be capable of carrying loads from structures. Stone columns are ideally
suited for structures, because:
• To reduction of total and differential settlements.
• To reduction of liquefaction potential of cohesion less soil.
• To increase the bearing capacity of a site and increase the stiffness.
• To improve the drainage conditions and environment control.
• To control the deformation and accelerate consolidation
Disadvantages
• Not suitable for organic soil areas or places that have inadequate lateral retention.
• Challenging to apply at confined sites or areas that are environmentally unstable
• Requires a broad and extensive analysis.
• Requires repeated sampling to thoroughly understand and deflate risks.
• The Vibro stone columns method is only effective for granular and non-cohesive soils.
• The densification of the soil is generally achieved when the granular soil contains more
than 12-15% silt or more than 2% clay.
• The provision of the stone columns does not reduce the total consolidation settlement.
The reduction depends on the stone columns spacing, generally ranging from 2.0 to 3.0
c/c over the site.
Effectiveness on different types of soils:

Difference:

Compaction Piles: -
The sand compaction pile method (hereinafter abbreviated as the SCP method) is a method for
improving soft grounds by means of installing well-compacted sand piles in the ground. It
combines such fundamental principles for ground improvement as densification and drainage.
It can be applied to all types of soil.
Sand compaction piles are one of the potential methods for improving ground stability,
preventing liquefaction, reducing settlement and similar applications.
This method consists of driving a hollow steel pipe with a detachable bottom plate down to the
desired depth. The driving can be done either by using an impact hammer or a vibratory driver.
Sand is introduced in lifts with each lift compacted concurrently with the withdrawl of the pipe
pile. Compressed air is blown down inside the casing to hold the sand in place. The in-situ soil
is densified while the pipe is being driven down. The compacted sand pile prevents collapsing
of the surrounding soil as the pipe is withdrawn. During the process of compaction, the
compacted column expands laterally below the pipe tip forming a caisson pile. This technique
is also referred to as vibro-composer method
The procedure is as follows:
Positioning: Set the casing pipe at the predetermined place.
Penetration of a casing pipe: By operating the vibrator, penetrate the casing pipe into
the ground.
Feeding sands through a hopper: After the casing pipe has reached the required
depth, feed sand into the casing through the upper hopper.
Drawing up the casing pipe: By drawing up the casing pipe, the sand in the pipe is
forced out through the void by compressed air.
Re-driving the casing pipe: Re-drive the casing while compacting the sand pile
pressed out by the vibrations, resulting in its enlargement.
Completion: Form each compacted sand pile to reach the ground surface by repeating
the above procedure.

Functions of compaction pile

• The main function of compaction pile is to compact the loose granular soils, thus
increasing their SBC.
• Compaction piles directly transfer their self-weight to the soil through the concept of
skin friction, making the soil compacted properly.
• By driving the compaction piles adjacent to each other, soil properties such as porosity,
compressibility decreases which make the soil fit for construction.
Advantages
• The construction process of the sand columns is very quick.
• Improves ground stability
• Preventing liquefaction
• Reduces settlement
• Once, the hole is formed, it’s completely supported by casing throughout construction
that restrains the chance of collapsing the structure.
• Sand compaction piles are useful for making pervious embankment foundations
stronger against liquefaction or impervious foundations against durability issues during
an earthquake.
Disadvantages
• Sand compaction piles contains a low stiffness with regards to other methods. So, the
greater quantity of weak soil should be replaced.
• These piles do not contain adequately high permeability to function since effective
vertical drains all through earthquakes.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

B. TECH
IV YEAR I SEMESTER

UNIT-III
HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION
Lecture Notes

Prepared by
K. MANOJ KUMAR
Assistant Professor
 UNIT – III
HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic Modification can be termed as dewatering. The removal of excess water from the
saturated soil mass is termed drainage or dewatering. In many civil engineering problems, such
as excavations for basements and foundations of buildings, foundations of dams, or laying
sewer lines, the excavations are often carried below water table. Such excavations require
lowering of water table below the bottom of excavation to prevent revelling or sloughing of
the sides and to get dry working conditions for construction purposes.
Dewatering is to lower an existing groundwater table by open pumping (sumps, trenches, and
pumps), a well system (well points or deep wells), and the electroosmosis method. The most
common purpose for dewatering is for construction excavations. Dewatering for construction
excavations is mostly temporary. There are structures and highways constructed with
permanent dewatering systems, but they are far less than temporary or construction dewatering
systems. Permanent dewatering systems require continuous operation without interruption;
therefore, they should be conservatively designed and maintained.
Drainage is also required for increasing the stability of soil by reducing seepage and pore water
pressures and for reducing the danger of frost action. Drainage reduces the natural stresses in
cohesionless soil and thereby increases the effective stress and strength. Other problems
associated with ground water are drainage of water behind retaining structures, basement walls,
and earth dams and embankment to prevent build-up of hydrostatic pressure.
Dewatering and drainage have similarities but also have differences. Both methods remove
water from soil. Dewatering is to lower a groundwater table from the existing level to a lower
level. However, drainage is to remove water that enters into a system from the surface, side, or
bottom of the drainage layer. Without a drainage system, the water level may rise. Drainage
mostly relies on gravity while dewatering mostly relies on pumping.
Objectives of Hydraulic Modifications or Functions of Dewatering: -
Dewatering is carried out for one or more of the following reasons:
→ To lower the water table permanently for construction of permanent subsurface
construction.
→ To provide a dry working area, such as in excavations for building foundations, dams
and tunnels.
→ To reduce lateral pressures on foundations or on retaining structures,
→ To increase the stability of soils.
→ To reduce compressibility of granular soils.
→ To increase bearing capacity of foundations.
→ To prevent liquefaction due to upward gradients.
 → To reduce the liquefaction potential during earthquakes.
→ To prevent soil particle movement by groundwater (leading to piping)
→ To prevent surface erosion.
→ To prevent or reduce damage due to frost heave
Dewatering system applicable to different soils: -

Criteria for Selection of Dewatering Methods: -

The following are the criteria for selection of dewatering methods:
→ Factors controlling selection of dewatering methods
→ Location and features of the project site
→ Types, size, and depth of planned excavation
→ Type and thickness of soil layers to be excavated
→ The water table at the project site
→ Permeability of soil that would be located underneath the foundation structure
→ Timeline of the project
→ Importance of the project
→ Cost of installation and operation of the dewatering system
→ Factors governing the cost of the dewatering system, including pumping requirement,
power availability and its type, labour resources, time period of pumping, time available
for the construction work, required speed of dewatering, and presence of structures
around the project site.
Methods or Techniques of Dewatering: -
The various methods or techniques of dewatering are
1. Open sumps and ditches
2. Well point systems
3. Vacuum dewatering systems
4. Deep-well drainage
5. Dewatering by Electro-osmosis
OPEN SUMP AND DITCHES: -
The application of sumps and ditches within an excavation is one of the elementary method of
dewatering employed in construction. The water entering these installed units can be pumped
out.

The sump is located below the ground level of the excavation as shown in figure, at one or
more corners or the sides. The procedure involves the cutting of a small ditch around the bottom
of the excavation, that is falling towards the sump.
The sumps is the name given for the shallow pits that are dug along the periphery of the
excavation or the drainage area, which is named as ditches. Under the action of gravity, the
water from the slopes will flow to the sumps. The sumps collect the water and is later pumped
out.
This is a simple method used for dewatering shallow excavations that have coarse grained soils
or the soils that have permeability that is greater than 10 -3 cm/sec.
Advantages of Sumps and Ditches
The advantages of Sumps and Ditches are:
 The method is widely used. It is appropriate for small depth lowering.
 This method is found to be most economical one among dewatering systems while
considering the installation and the maintenance procedures
 This method can be applied for most of the soil and rock conditions.
 The site is mostly recommended where boulders or massive obstructions are met within
the ground.
 The greatest depth up to which the water table can be lowered by this method is 8m
Disadvantages of Open Sump and Ditches
The disadvantages of this method are:
 In areas where there is high heads or steep slopes, the method is not demanded. This
method will bring collapse of the slopes and cause dangerous problems
 The use of sumps and ditches in open or timbered excavation will bring risk in the
stability of the base
WELL POINT SYSTEMS: -
Wellpoint systems are used to lower groundwater levels to provide stable working conditions.
They consist of a series of small diameter wells that are connected by a header pipe to a
wellpoint pump. The pump creates a vacuum in the header pipe drawing water up from the
ground.
Wellpoints are typically installed along or around an excavation. The height to which water
can be drawn by vacuum in this way is approximately 6 metres. To function at greater depths,
well points can be installed in stages as the excavation proceeds.
Types of well point systems:
There are two types of well point system, namely single stage well points system and multi-
stage well point system. These systems are briefly described in the followings.
Single Stage Well Point system – A well point consists of a pipe about 1 m long and 50 mm
in diameter. It has perforations, which are covered with a screen to prevent clogging in. At the
lower end, a jetting nozzle is provided. This nozzle also acts as a drive point. A ball valve
provided near the lower end allows the water to flow only in downward direction during
installation of the well point. A sketch of the well point is shown in Fig.1 below.
A riser pipe having the same diameter as the well point connects the well point at its bottom
end. The riser pipes are connected to a horizontal pipe, known as header pipe, at the ground
level. The header pipe is connected to a pumping unit. The well points are spaced every 0.6 to
1.5 The well points are installed to the required depth by jetting water through riser pipes in
the downward direction. Once installed pumping is started continuously till the excavation
work is completed.
Single stage well point system is used when the depth of excavation is less than 6 m. They are
effective in granular soils. By Single stage well point stage method the water table is lowered
by about 6m.This method is suitable to soils having coefficient of permeability between 10-2 to
10-4 cm/sec.
Multistage Well Point system – These systems are used if excavation exceeds 6 m and there
is a chance of slope failure. The setup of the system is shown in Fig.2.In this system the well
points are installed in stages. In the first stage well points are installed to a depth of around 6
and put into action till the water table is lowered by about 6 m. Then the area is excavated up
to this 6 m depth. After this second stages of well points are installed within the area, which is
excavated already. The water table is further lowered by another 6 m.

In this way the excavation is carried out till the excavation reaches to about 15 m. By well point
system method excavation greater than 15 m cannot be made.

Applications of well point system:

→ A typical application of wellpoint system is temporary dewatering.
→ We lower the water level in the ground during construction and engineering works.
→ We use it to establish drainage systems for building trenches/excavations.
→ Lowering ground water level for general purpose like subways construction
→ Dewatering or lowering ground water to stabilize land and reduce slips / failures.
 → Dewatering for agriculture purpose
→ To obtain water for house, garden, or other irrigation purpose.
→ Laying of deep sewer lines
→ Tunnel Excavation or subway construction
→ Hydro projects or canals
→ Water distribution system projects
→ Construction of bridges and basements
→ Underground water tank construction

Advantages and Disadvantages of well point system:

Advantages
→ Quick installation
→ Easy maintenance
→ Versatility for both small- and large-scale projects
→ Can be used even in limited space projects
→ Cost effective
→ More effective than deep well dewatering system

Disadvantages
→ This system is more efficient in sands and gravels than in fine-grained soils. A suction
lift of 5 to 6m in sands and gravels can be achieved but this may be limited to 3.5 to
4.5m in fine-grained soils.
→ While using header main you can face problems at sites in terms of access restrictions.
VACUUM DEWATERING WELLS: -
Vacuum wells are an adaptation of deep well systems. Each well in the system is pumped by a
submersible pump, but a vacuum is also applied to each well via a vacuum pump located at the
surface. The application of a vacuum allows the wells to be more effective in reducing pore
water pressures in poorly draining fine grained soils.
When silts and other fine-grained soils are encountered, gravity is insufficient to draw the water
to the well; thus, a vacuum is applied to the well point system to assist in the water removal.
This method is most suitable in layered or stratified soils with coefficient of permeability of
the range 0.1 - 10x 10-4 cm/s.
System can operate in several stages depending upon the conditions of the site.
A Vacuum Dewatering system requires the well or well point screens, and riser pipe that should
be surrounded with filter sand extends to a few meters of the ground surface.
The top few portions of the hole is sealed or capped with an impervious soil or other suitable
material.
By having the pumping main, a vacuum pressure, the hydraulic gradient for flow to the well
points is increased.
In this system the well points should be placed closer than the conventional system. It is
common to use suction pump in this system and the practical maximum height of lift about 3
to 6

DEEP-WELL DRAINAGE: -
Deep-well drainage system consists of deep-wells and submersible or turbine pumps which can
be installed outside the zone of construction operations and the water table lowered to the
desired level. Deep-wells are usually spaced from 8 to 80 m depending upon the level to which
water table must be lowered, permeability of the sand stratum, source of seepage and amount
of submergence available.
Deep-well system is suitable for lowering the ground water table where the soil formation is
pervious with depth, the excavation extends through or is underlain by coarse-grained soils.
This method is also suitable when a great depth of water lowering is required or where a head
due to artesian pressure has to be lowered in a permeable stratum at a considerable depth below
the excavation level. Deep-wells may be combined with the wellpoint system on certain field
conditions for lowering the groundwater table (shown in below fig).

Figure: Deep well dewatering

The installation of a deep-well is done by sinking a cased borehole having a diameter of about
200 to 300 mm larger than the well casing which depends on the size of the submersible pump.
The inner well casing is inserted after the completion of the borehole.
A perforated screen is installed over the length of soil which required dewatering and is
terminated in a 3 to 5 m length of unperforated pipe to act as a sump to collect any fine material
which might be drawn through the filter mesh.
Graded filter material is placed between the well casing and the outer borehole casing over the
length to be dewatered. Then the outer casing is withdrawn in stages as the filter material is
placed. The space above the screen is backfilled with any available material.
The water in the well is then surged by a boring tool to promote flow back and forth through
the filter, and at the same time any unwanted fines which fall into the sump are cleared out by
bailer before the submersible pump is installed. This is the last operation before putting the
well into commission. Below figure shows the details of a completed installation

Figure: Details of deep well installation

Advantages and limitations:
Advantages.
→ Drawdown only limited by depth of well and soil stratification.
→ Pressure relief can be provided in deep layers.
→ Wells can placed away from working areas (at the top of batters for example).
→ Wells are usually installed at relatively wide spacing which minimises surface access
restrictions.
Limitations.
→ Relatively high installation costs per well
→ Comprehensive, good quality site investigation information required for design.
→ Flexibility of equipment is restricted because individual pumps cover limited range of
flow and discharge head.
 → Pumps are electrically powered so both duty and standby power supplies are required
for reliability.
ELECTRO-KINETIC DEWATERING: -
Electro-kinetics deals with the relative movement of particles in between solid and liquid
mediums with the effect of electric field. This comprises of electro-osmosis, electro-phoresis,
flow potential and electrical stabilization.
The process of causing the pore water flow towards the cathode in saturated soil mass by
applying an electric potential is electro-kinetic dewatering. Pore water at the cathode is
collected and then removed, resulting in low moisture content. This in turn leads to increase in
strength and decreases compressibility. The process of electro-kinetic dewatering is similar to
that of consolidation.
The principles of electrokinetic dewatering are:
1. Electro-phoresis, the movement of collidal particles in a direct current electric field.
2. Di electrophoresis, the movement of collidal particles in a non-uniform electric field.
3. Electro-osmosis, the water flow in porous media in a direct current electric field.
Electro-osmosis: -
L. Casagrande in 1952 has developed the application of electro-osmosis to dewatering of soil.
This method is best suitable for fine grained cohesive soil, to drained or stabilized by electric
current.
Applying an electrical current (electric potential) to a saturated soil will cause the water (and
some positively charged adsorbed molecules) to flow toward the cathode, or negative terminal.
If the water collected at the cathode is removed (usually by mechanical pumping), then the
result is reduction of water content, which in turn results in consolidation of the soil mass, with
corresponding strength gain and reduction is soil compressibility.
This process is called electro-osmosis, or electrokinetic dewatering, which is the process of
moving water and other positively charged ions through application of direct electrical current.
It has been shown that for certain low permeability fine-grained soils the application of an
electrical gradient is more efficient in producing a water flow than a hydraulic gradient.
When the soil is microscopic, it is difficult to draw water from it, as the permeability of such
soils is very poor. Such soils hold water by capillary. The electrical properties of the water in
the cavity, between the soil particles are used to dispose of water from such soils.
In saturated soil, two electrodes, one positive and the other negative, are lowered.
A direct current is passed between these two poles. The water in the soil is repelled by
the anode and is attracted by the cathode.
Cathodes are kept in well-points. Water stored near the cathodes well. This water is removed
by pumping. This way the water level in the ground can be lowered.
The removal of water from the soil increases the stability of the slope and increases the shear
strength of the soil.
Advantages:
• When no other dewatering method can be used for certain soils, this type of dewatering
technique can be applied
• There are no limitations for drawdown
Disadvantages:
• High maintenance and installation cost
• The control becomes difficult in case of optimum operation
GEOSYNTHETICS:
 GEO
Soil, Rock or other Geotechnical material
 SYNTHETIC
Man made
Polymeric material
• Geo-synthetics are materials made from various types of polymers, used with
geological materials like soil, rock etc. to enhance, improve or modify the behavior of
various civil engineering works.
• Used to enhance, augment and make possible cost-effective construction
• The products’ polymer nature makes them ideal for use in the ground where long-term
durability is needed.
• Geosynthetics are manufactured goods with at least one part made of a synthetic or
natural polymer in the form of a sheet, strip, or three-dimensional structure.
TYPES OF GEOSYNTHETICS:
The various types of geosynthetics are:
→ Geotextiles
→ Geogrids
→ Geonets
 → Geomembranes
→ Geofoam
→ Geosynthetic clay liner
→ Geocells
→ Geo-composites
Functions of Geo-synthetics: -

Advantages of geosynthetics:
→ Geosynthetic sheets consume less space and can fit anywhere in a landfill.
→ Geosynthetic materials are homogeneous because they are manufactured in a
workshop with quality control.
→ It improves the soil properties as compared to conventional materials.
→ These geosynthetic materials are less expensive to purchase, transport, and install as
compared to aggregates and soils.
 → Geosynthetic materials are exceptional for achieving high-performance rates and
superiority in work.
Disadvantages of geosynthetics:
→ Handling, storage, and installation must be taken with quality control and quality
assurance.
→ Clogging of geotextile, garnets, geo pipes and geo-composites is a challenging design
for some soil abnormal conditions.
→ For any geosynthetic material, long-term performance should be assured using
appropriate additives including antioxidants, UV screeners, and filters.
Applications of Geo-synthetics: -
The application of geosynthetics has been spread in many,
→ Geo-technical constructions
→ Hydropower construction
→ Environmental engineering
→ Railway construction
→ Road construction
→ At seaports and airports
→ Mine construction
→ In urban construction
→ Coastal defenses
→ Sludge dewatering
→ Sealing and protection of storm water basin protection of slopes
→ Air field facilities
→ Construction of waste disposal sites
→ Construction of retaining walls reinforced soil works
→ Drainage
→ Fin drains
→ Active and passive rock fall protection fibres for reinforcing concrete
Properties of Geo-synthetics: -
Considering the all aspects the properties of geosynthetics can be grouped under the following
categories:
1. Fibre and material properties
2. Mechanical properties
3. Geometrical aspects
 4. Chemical (or) Durability properties
5. Hydraulic properties
Fibre and Material Properties
In order to determine the material and fibre properties, standard testing methods are adopted.
The two important parameters that affect the properties of geosynthetics are temperature and
water content, The properties of fibre used in the production of geosynthetics depend upon the
structural arrangement of the macromolecules, as these are originated from linear molecules
and mostly depends upon the bonding forces present between atoms.
Mechanical Properties
Generally, load-deformation characteristics are referred to as mechanical properties. These
mechanical properties depend upon properties of the fibre material structure of the fibre
structure of the yarn and geo-synthetics material. Tensile stress-strain characteristics, Burst,
puncture strepgth, interface friction, resistance to fatigue, resistance to creep, abrasion
resistance, tear-strength and seam strength are some over vital mechanical properties.
Geometrical Aspects
The parameters which are taken into account for the selection of material to be used as geo-
synthetics are executional methods and boundary conditions of field. In order to the above,
other aspects like width, length, thickness, mass per unit area and prefabrication techniques
also play a vital role in the selection and construction process of geo-synthetics. The standard
values to be adopted are
Length: 50 m-200 m
Width: 5 m- 5.5 m (Both for woven and non-woven)
Thickness: 0.2 mm - 10 mm
Mass per unit area: For woven type it is in the range of 100 g/m2 to 2000 g/m2- and
for non-woven type the value lies in between 100 g/m2 to 1000 g/m2. Generally
smaller grades which lie between 100 g/m2 to 200 g/m2 are used.
Chemical (or) Durability properties
The chemical properties of the material are also considered to be of immense importance along
with physical and mechanical properties. Polymers usually are not sensitive by the addition of
chemicals. But synthetic polymers are sensitive to oxidation and due to oxidation effect,
various mechanical properties like elasticity strength, and strain absorption capacity will be
lowered and ultimately decrease the quality of geosynthetics. Hence, special additives are used
in order to solve this defect.
The other two parameters that affect durability of geo-synthetics are ultra-violet resistance and
abrasion resistance, Abrasion on, occurs as a result of rubbing action (friction) between
movement of rock and soil against fabric surface like wave. sand scour sediment, or aggregate
cover in case of roadways and railways. To estimate the degree of abrasion, stand methods of
testing are adopted.
Hydraulic Properties
One of the most important functions of geo-synthetics is they are used as filters in protection
works near river banks downstream culverts and bed protection works. When geo-synthetics
are used in road works, they are placed in the substructure (or) in between substructure and
sub-soil. Also, geo-synthetics must be impermeable to avoid excess pore water pressure
development.
FILTRATION AND FLUID TRANSMISSION:
Geosynthetics can be used in filtration and drainage system in a similar way as that of soil
filters and drains. Geosynthetics have been used in various field situation with success. Some
of the field conditions wherein geosynthetics have been used for filtration and drainage are
illustrated in Fig (Koerner, 1985). In each case, the geosynthetics is being used as a filter (for
cross plane flow), a drain (for in place flow), or both.
The two functions are distinguished as given below:
Geosynthetic filtration occurs in fabrics where water flow brings some of the finer particles of
the soil being protected into the structure of the geosynthetics itself. This soil modification
above the fabric and void modification within the fabric attain equilibrium. Clear water passes
through only after the attainment of equilibrium.
Geosynthetics such as geotextiles allow the movement of a liquid across the plane of geotextile
while retaining the soil on the upstream side. To achieve this, the material should meet
conditions of both adequate permeability, requiring an open fabric structure, and soil retention
requiring a small opening size. The long-term soil to geotextile flow compatibility is also
important in that the filter must not clog excessively during its lifetime.
Geosynthetic drainage occurs either cross plane, when the above-described process have
reached the equilibrium, or in plane, when water is transmitted within the geosynthetic structure
itself. The drainage function of geotextiles enables flow in the plane of geotextile. Apart
from geotextiles that transmit the fluids, nowadays, their specific products such as geonets and
drainage composite meet drainage requirements.
Necessary Controls of Seepage Required During and After Construction: -
Necessary Controls of Seepage Required During Construction
→ To provide a dry site for the excavation purpose.
→ To improve stability of side-hill fills and excavation slopes.
→ To minimize transverse loads acting on bracing and sheeting in excavations.
→ To stabilize quick bottom conditions and to avoid piping and heaving.
→ To reduce capillary rise and to avoid frost heaving and piping in pavements.
→ To minimize the effect of air pressure in tunnelling works.
→ To develop the supporting characteristics of foundation materials.
Necessary Controls of Seepage Required After Construction
→ To minimize or to nullify uplift pressures on bottom slabs inorder to lower the slab
thickness for basements, canal linings, spillways, buried structures, dry docks etc.,
resulting in low cost.
→ To minimize the lateral pressures exerting on retaining structures.
→ To regulate the embankment seepage.
→ To regulate pore pressures under the pavements, side-hill fills.
→ To maintain dry basements
DRAINS: -
A Drain consists of filter, conduit and disposal system. A filter is necessary for continued
efficiency of the drain and to prevent seepage erosion. The collection of water is done in the
drain conduits. Normally the size of the conduit is 5 to 10 times larger than its hydraulic dictate.
The commercial pipes have perforations of diameter 8 to 9mm and are need of 12 to 15mm
gravel filter.
Two types of drains
1. Open drains 2. Closed drains
3. Horizontal drains 4. Foundation drains
5. Blanket drains
6. Interceptor drains
7. Vertical drains
Open drains:
The oldest method of draining excavations, roads, etc. is by open drains, viz., a ditch or a sump.
A sump is merely a shot ditch which could be constructed easily with unskilled labour.
Closed drains:
When seepage erosion or piping is troublesome or where a permanent drain is desired,
perforated pipe can be laid at a required depth in ditches and the ditch is back filled with a
suitable filter material shown in below figure.
As far as possible pipes should be laid in straight lines. Openings should be provided for every
30 to 50 m to flush out the pipe occasionally. Also, manholes should be provided at changes in
direction and at intervals of 100 to 150 m along straight sections.

Foundation drains:
Where groundwater is present in the vicinity of a structure, provision should be made to quickly
carry away the water from the building. In the worst condition the effect of groundwater may
be allowed only on the exterior side of a building. When the depth below the water table is not
too great, it is feasible to control the water by foundation drains. An arrangement of such a
drain is shown in Fig.
However, such drains should not be placed lower than the bottom of the footing. Such drains
consist of perforated pipes or pipes with open joints so that the groundwater can enter into the
pipe. A suitable filter should surround the pipes.
The collected water in the pipes is disposed of by gravity flow to a storm drain system or other
drainage facility such as a ditch, dry well, etc. If disposal by gravity flow is not possible, the
drainage water has to be directed to sump pit or other collector and pumped to a disposal.
Blanket drains:
Blanket drains are constructed beneath dams and basement floor slabs to provide a highly
permeable drainage path for removal of groundwater acting against the bottom of the slab.
If an escape path is provided the uplift pressure can be reduced and the possibility of seepage
through the floor arrested. The blanket consists of a fine filter layer in contact with the soil
followed by a coarse filter cum collector layer (Fig) and the latter is in contact with the
underside of a masonry dam or basement floor.
The blanket is connected by conduits to a sump where the collector water is dumped out or to
drainage pipe where disposal is by gravity. Such blankets are also provided beneath pavements
to prevent capillary flow upward.

Interceptor drains:
In paved highways and airfield runways trench drains are provided parallel to the shoulder.
Such drains are termed as interceptor drains which are provided to lower the groundwater table
to a level beneath the pavement and to permit easy lateral drainage for water finding its way
into the coarse base material.
The purpose of such drainage facility is to keep the base and subgrade soils dry so as to maintain
adequate strength and stability. The drains also provide a means for disposal of surface and
near surface water and also shall help to intercept underground flow trying to enter the
pavement from the side areas.
Similarly, open drainage ditches located adjacent to shoulder area may help to intercept surface
and near surface water flowing towards the roadway area from the sides also prevent
development of excess pore water pressure.
Horizontal drains:
Horizontal drains are commonly installed to draw down water levels in slopes to add stability.
One way of reducing excess pore-water pressure and high seepage forces created by perched
water tables or of lowering the normal water table is through the use of horizontal drains.
Horizontal drains are holes drilled into an embankment or cut slope and cased with a
perforated-metal or slotted-plastic liner. They are used to drain slope embankments or water-
storing strata behind an impervious embankment. Further, they may be used underground to
assist drainage galleries or shafts placed adjacent to an open cut works.
Horizontal drain systems can be effective at lowering the water table and relieving groundwater
pressures in a wide range of soil types, including relatively low permeability clays.

Horizontal drains are conveniently used where the drainage water can be discharged at the face
of a slope or bench, or collected at the toe of a slope into a suitable discharge drain or other
outlet (e.g., natural streambed, waterway, or culvert). While termed “horizontal” drains, these
types of drains are usually installed at small inclines of 2-5 so they can drain by gravity.
PRELOADING: -
Preloading is an economical and effective soil improvement method that can reduce settlement
and increase soft soil bearing capacity. Pre compression or preloading technique is simply to
place a surcharge fill on the top of the soil that requires large consolidation settlement to take
place before construction of the structure. Once sufficient consolidation has occurred, the fill
can be removed and construction process takes place. In general, this technique is adequate and
most effective in clayey soil. Since clayey soils have low permeability, the desired
consolidation takes very long time to occur, even with very high surcharge load.
It has been reported (Stamatopoulos and Kotzias, 1985) that preloading has been used in many
civil engineering works such as road embankments, bridge abutments box culverts,
warehouses, gravity quay walls, housing complexes, runways, storage tanks, multistored
structures, canals and industries.
Preloading methods have several advantages, in comparison with the other methods adopted
for improving ground support, such as
→ the cost involved is comparatively less and vary between 10 to 20% without using
vertical drains and 20 to 40% with the use of vertical drains,
→ especially attractive when the fill material, after completion of preloading, is
subsequently used in the same project as fill material or for site preparation,
→ simple conventional construction equipment needed for earth moving job is sufficient
for the preloading works,
→ cost of monitoring instruments are cheap and the time needed for installation is only
two to three weeks,
→ effect of preloading can be observed periodically from the field instrumentation and
makes possible future predictions about the behaviour, and
→ provide uniform improved properties of the ground.
The decision to adopt preloading technique will be quite reasonable and successful only when
the following conditions are satisfied (Stamatopoulos and Kotzias, 1985):
→ there should not be any base failure during preloading or during the operation of final
structure,
→ the duration of preloading will be within the time allotted by the construction schedule,
→ there will be no damage to adjoining structures,
→ there will be no undue disturbance to nearby communities,
→ settlements after construction will be within the range of tolerances, and
→ the cost is less compared to other methods.
VERTICAL DRAINS: -
The vertical columns which are placed continuously in clayey soils are called vertical drains.
These columns are made of pervious material and allow the pore water to escape through them
by creating an easy path.
Fine cohesive soils have low permeability and it takes relatively long periods for them to
consolidate under loads. Installation of vertical drains greatly shortens the water drainage path
and significantly reduces the consolidation time.
Vertical drains are continuous vertical columns of pervious (sand or fibrous) material installed
in clayey soils. These drains provide the pathway for the pore water to escape from the
consolidating soil by travelling a shorter distance than would be necessary without them.
Further, they allow the flow inside the soil to take place along the horizontal which is the
direction of least resistance. Thus, it serves the purpose of collecting and discharging the
expelled water faster during the process of consolidation.
Installation of vertical drains in conjuction with preloading brings about the rapid dissipation
of excess pore water pressure and thereby accelerating the primary consolidation. Vertical
drains have no direct effect on the rate of secondary compression. However, the early
completion of primary compression leads to the earlier occurrence of secondary compression
and thus amounting to a total reduction in the time for consolidation.

Advantages of Vertical Drains:

→ It helps to accelerate primary consolidation for Soft Soil.
→ Develop in-situ shear strength of soft soil.
→ Applicable in case of non-replaceable significant depth of Soft Soil.
→ Depending upon the site condition, vertical drain efficiency may maximise up to 80%.
Types and construction of vertical drains:
Vertical drains are mainly of two columnar types:
(i) sand drains, and
(ii) prefabricated drains.
Sand drains are made by filling a cylindrical hole with sand.
Prefabricated drains are also known as wick drains or wicks and if sand is packed in filter
stockings, they are called sand wicks.
These drains can also be of flexible corrugated plastic pipe, wrapped inside a filter. The first
step of the installation procedure is to place a working platform for the equipment. This is done
by placing a free-drainage soil which serves as a drainage blanket when connected to the drains.
The blanket thickness must be adequate to allow for loss of grade during consolidation.
Sand Drains:
They have been widely used for over fifty years. They range in diameter from 180 to 450 mm.
The holes required for sand drain installation should be made with least cost. There are three
methods of sand drains construction, viz., (1) high-pressure water jetting, ii) displacement of
the natural ground, and (iii) wash boring.
In all these methods a steel pipe is inserted in the ground and later withdrawn as sand is poured
from the top to fill the hole. All the methods are labour intensive. The spacing of drains varies
from 2.5 to 5 m. These are constructed by the inserting hollow casing into the soil and are filled
by the sands after this casings are taken out. Now, the surcharge is applied on the top of soil.
There will be increase in the pore pressure of the soil making the water to move horizontally
and vertically. Now, the sands drains will take care of the horizontal pore water due to which
the dissipation is accclerated and the pore water releases faster than previous.

The sand used for filling the holes should not contain fines and be uniformly graded. The sand
should not be coarse also as to over facilitate the migration of fine particles from the soil into
the drain. For this reason particles larger than 4 mm should not be used. However, before using
necessary tests the gravel-sand mixture is compatible with the surrounding soil. The voids in
sand created by filling the hole should be sufficiently pervious to allow the unobstructed flow
of water from the soil into the drain and from the lower part of the drain to the top.

Advantages of Sand Drains:

The following are the advantages of using sand drains:
→ Provision of sand drains allows drainage of pore water in radial direction in addition to
the drainage in vertical direction.
→ Since the permeability of soil in horizontal direction is usually several times larger than
that in vertical direction, the rate of consolidation becomes considerably faster
compared to conventional soil system.
→ With faster consolidation, the soil gains shear strength rapidly, allowing faster pace of
construction and thus reducing the project cost.
→ The long-term stability of the structure is also increased significantly as the potential
settlements are completed mostly before or during the construction.
→ Sand drains avoid potential problems during construction in soft compressible soils.
Disadvantages of Sand Drains:
→ Installation of sand drains by driving down hollow mandrels causes a disturbance of the
soil surrounding each drain. This may reduce the flow of water to the drain.
→ During filling, bulking of the sand might appear which could lead to cavities.
→ Construction problems and/or budget problems might arise due to the large diameter of
sand drains.
Prefabricated Vertical Drains or Wick Drains:
Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs) or ‘Wick Drains' are composed of a plastic core encased
by a geotextile for the purpose of expediting consolidation of slow draining soils. They
are typically coupled with surcharging to expedite preconstruction soil consolidation.
They are installed in soft soils in order to accelerate consolidation of the soil by providing
additional drainage paths for pore water to escape.
PVD is best suited in clay, silt, organic layers, clayey and silty sand. PVD is placed into steel
mandrill then the mandrill is pushed into the ground to the determination depth with a mast
mounted on back hoe. Anchor plate is attached to the wick material to hold it in place as
mandrill is removed. Then the PVD is cut off a little above the ground.
PVDs are used to reduce surcharging process time and accelerate settlement not reduce it. Pore
water will move laterally to the nearest drain instead of moving vertically to the permeable
layer. Therefore, the drainage distance decreased. Whenever the distance between drains
becomes closer, the surcharging time decreases.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

B. TECH
IV YEAR I SEMESTER

UNIT-IV
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL MODIFICATION
Lecture Notes

Prepared by
K. MANOJ KUMAR
Assistant Professor
 UNIT – IV
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL MODIFICATION
INTRODUCTION:
This chapter deals with modifying soils by the mechanical addition of granular materials or
chemical compounds such as cement, lime, bitumen, and calcium chloride.
The purpose of mixing these additives with the ground is to:
• Increase strength
• Reduce deformability
• Provide volume stability (control shrinking and swelling)
• Reduce permeability
• Reduce erodibility
• Increase durability (inhibit degradation of aggregates)
• Control variability
On specific civil or mining engineering projects, soil additives may help to:
• Enhance subgrade or subbase properties in order to reduce the required overall
pavement thickness
• Improve traffic ability on construction sites
• Prepare the ground for shallow foundations
• Stabilize slopes by improving the soil’s shear strength and/or by changing the failure
geometry
• Reduce erosion by surface runoff or internal seepage (piping)
• Construct embankments
• Form load-bearing columns (in situ)
• Improve the workability of borrow materials
• Reduce traffic-generated dust
• Contain hazardous wastes
• Rehabilitate polluted or mined ground
CEMENTING STABILIZATION:
• Cementing stabilization is also known as Portland cement stabilization. Binding of soil
particles without their alteration is referred as soil stabilization by cementing.
• Portland cement and bitumen cause stabilization of soil by cementing.
• Portland cement is one of the most successfully used soil stabilization. Cement and soil
blended material is referred to as soil-cement.
 • The mechanism involved in the process of stabilization of soil by cement is not fully
known. It is generally accepted that cement reacts with the siliceous soil to cement the
particles together.
• In a soil-cement more of coarse-grained particles are cemented and the proportion of
fine-grained soil cementation is small.
The physical properties of soil-cement mainly depend on
• The nature of soil treated,
• The type and
• Amount of cement utilized,
• The placement and
• Cure conditions adopted.
Soil-cement has been employed for many applications and in particular for the bases of roads
and airfields.
There are three categories of soil-cement. They are:
• Normal soil-cement usually contains 5 to 14 percent cement by weight and is used
generally for stabilizing low plasticity soils and sandy soils.
• Plastic soil-cement has enough water to produce a wet consistency similar to mortar.
This material is suitable for use as waterproof canal linings and for erosion protection
on steep slopes where road building equipment may not be used.
• Cement-modified soil is a mix that generally contains less than 5 percent cement by
volume. This forms a less rigid system than either of the other types, but improves the
engineering properties of the soil and reduces the ability of the soil to expand by
drawing in water.
Nature of soil:
• All inorganic soils which can be pulverized can be stabilized using cement. Soils should
be low in organic matter for successful stabilization since this constituent tends to
reduce the strength of soil-cement. About 2% of organic matter is considered to be the
safe upper limit.
• Soils with higher specific surface require more cement for stabilization. Presence of
clay in soil causes problems in pulverization, mixing and compacting the mixture.
Further it is difficult to stabilize soils with clays of expanding type.
• Exchangeable ions in a soil influence the response of soil treatment. Calcium is the
most desirable ion for ease of cement stabilization. Lime or calcium chloride is
sometimes added to clays being stabilized with cement.
• Apart from organic matter, the chemical composition of the soil is of importance only
appreciable quantities of deleterious salts, such as a sulphates, are present. The harmful
effect of these compounds is thought to be due not to a reaction affecting the setting of
 the cement, but to a subsequent disruption of the soil-cement structure caused by
crystallization of highly hydrated salts in the pores.

Amount of cement:
Soil-cement has been made with cement content varying from 5 to 20% for satisfactory
stabilization, the following amounts of cement are usually required (Lambe, 1962)
For gravels, a cement level of 5 to 10% by weight
For sands, a cement level of 7 to 12% by weight
For silts, a cement level of 12 to 15% by weight
For clays, a cement level of 12 to 20% by weight
when the cement is hydrating satisfactorily in a mixture, an increase in strength is obtained
with increasing cement content.
Mixing:
• More uniform soil-cement water mixture, provides strong and durable soil-cement. The
intimacy of the mixture is not directly proportional to the mixing energy.
• As a matter of fact, increase in continued mixing causes a decrease in the degree of
mixing and may lead to segregation of components. Thus, continued mixing should be
only up to the optimal level.
• Further, mixing after cement hydration has begun can have deleterious effects. It is
observed that mixtures made in the laboratory have higher strengths and greater
durability than similar mixtures made in the field.
• Soil-cement made by mix-in-place method and rotary tiller have shown about 50% and
70% of the strength of a laboratory mixture.
Moisture Content:
The moisture content plays two roles in soil-cement
i. it influences the compaction characteristics, as with natural soil, and
ii. it furnishes water for cement hydration.
Of these two, the effect of moisture content on the quality of soil-cement largely arises from
its influence on the compaction. The best moisture content for compaction is governed by the
soil type and method of compaction. The moisture required for the hydration of cement is
adequately provided by the moisture necessary for maximum compaction
Age And Curing:
As with concrete, the compressive strength of a soil-cement increases with age. In practice,
soil-cement is cured after compaction under conditions that prevent drying of the surface.
The condition under which soil-cement is cured influences the resulting product. Like concrete,
a damp environment is most desirable for curing.
Soil-cement cures rapidly with increase in temperature although it will harden at all
temperatures.
Admixtures For Soil-cement:
In order to accelerate the set and to improve the properties of soil-cement, lime or calcium
chloride is added. Addition of some of the chemicals shown remarkable improvement in the
strength of soil-cement.
These chemicals, by increasing the effectiveness of cement as a stabilizer, permit (Lambe,
1962):
1. A reduction in the amount of cement required to treat a soil responsive to cement.
2. Stabilization of some of the soils (e.g., certain organic soils) which are not responsive
to cement above.
Certain alkalie metal compounds, especially sodium carbonate, suits most of the soils. The
type of additive which could be effective should be found by trial.
Use of some chemicals along with cement have important advantages such as
i) reducing the additive quantity needed to perform a given job, thus simplifying the
handling and mixing, and
ii) reducing the total stabilizer cost.
Construction Procedure of Soil-cement:
Construction of soil-cement usually involves the following operations:
i. Shaping the soil to be treated,
ii. Pulverizing the soil,
iii. Adding water and cement,
iv. Mixing
v. Compacting,
vi. Finishing, and
vii. Curing
Cement is the most successful soil stabilizer and excellent results are guaranteed if used
properly.
BITUMINOUS STABILIZATION: -
• Bituminous soil stabilization refers to a process by which a controlled amount of
bituminous material is thoroughly mixed with an existing soil or aggregate material to
form a stable base or wearing surface. Bitumen increases the cohesion and load-bearing
capacity of the soil and renders it resistant to the action of water.
• Bituminous soil stabilization is an effective method which is being widely used.
Bituminous materials are: bitumen, asphalt and tar.
Bitumens are nonaqueous systems of hydrocarbons which are completely soluble in
carbon di sulphide.
Asphalts are materials in which the primary components are natural or refined
petroleum bitumens or combinations there of.
Tars are bituminous condensates produced by the destructive distillation of organic
materials such as coal, oil, lignite, peat and wood.
Bituminous material stabilizes the soil either by binding the particles together or protecting the
soil from the deleterious effects of water (i.e., waterproofing) or both these effects may occur
together. The first mechanism takes place in cohesionless soils and the second one in cohesive
soils. Among the bituminous materials, most of bitumen stabilization has been with asphalt.
Therefore, soil stabilized by asphalt may be referred to as soil-asphalt.
Asphalts are produced by three processes:
• Vacuum distillation producing straight-run asphalt
• High-temperature pyrolysis of refinery heavies, producing cracked asphalt
• High- temperature air blowing straight-run asphalt, producing blown asphalt.
As the straight-run asphalt has low softening temperature and low melt viscosity, it is
commonly used in soil stabilization. Asphalt cannot be directly added to the soil because it is
too viscous. Its fluidity can be increased by
(i) heating,
(ii) emulsifying in water (emulsions), or
(iii) cut back with some solvent like gasoline (cutbacks).
Both emulsions and cutbacks are used in soil stabilization. Although soil-asphalt has varied
applications, it is mostly used in bases for highway and airfield pavements.
Nature of Soil
All inorganic soils with which asphalt (emulsion or cutback) can be mixed can be stabilized.
Soils satisfying the following requirements yield the best results:
• Maximum particle size less than one-third the compacted thickness of the treated soil
layer.
• Greater than 50% finer than 4.76 mm size.
 • Thirty five to 100% finer than 0.42 mm size.
• Greater than 10%, but less than 50% finer than 0.074 mm size.
• Liquid limit less than 40%.
• Plasticity index less than 18%.
Organic matter of acid origin is detrimental to soil-asphalt. Asphalt stabilization cannot be
effective in fine grained soils with high pH and dissolved salts. It is difficult to handle plastic
clays because of mixing problem.
Amount of Asphalt
• An increase in asphalt content gives better results. In fine-grained soils addition of
asphalt does not increase the strength but tremendously improves the waterproofing
property and thereby yielding a better stabilized soil. Asphalt also should be added
optimally otherwise results in a gooey mixture which cannot be properly compacted.
Mixing
• A thorough incorporation of the additive with the soil yields a better stabilized soil
Compaction Conditions:
• The density of a mixture of soil and asphalt is governed by the volatiles content and
amount and type of compaction. In general lower the volatiles content, the higher the
strength.
Cure Conditions:
The following behavior have been reported to be true (Lambe, 1962):
i. the longer the period of cure and warmer the temperature of cure, the greater the
volatiles lost;
ii. the longer the period of immersion, the greater the water pickup.
Construction of Soil-Asphalt:
The conventional sequence of construction operation is as follows (Lambe, 1962) :
i. Pulverization of the soil to be treated,
ii. Addition of water for proper mixing,
iii. Adding and mixing of the bitumen,
iv. Aeration to the proper volatiles content for compaction,
v. Compaction,
vi. Finishing,
vii. Aerating and curing, and
viii. Application of surface cover.
The important items to ensure proper stabilization which need control are mixing, compacting,
drying and applying the surface protection. The mixing plants used for soil-cement can be used
for soil asphalt also. The necessary field control tests are moisture content determination before
and during processing, bitumen content determination after mixing and density determination
after compaction.
CHEMICAL STABILIZATION: -
Chemical stabilization consists of bonding the soil particles with a cementing agent (the
primary additive is a chemical) that is produced by a chemical reaction within the soil. The
reaction does not necessarily include the soil particles, although the bonding does involve
intermolecular force of the soil. The use of chemical as secondary additive to increase the
effectiveness of cement and of bitumen (asphalt) have been studied. The primary additives
generally in wide use are lime, salt, lignin and polymers.
LIME STABILIZATION:
Lime-Soil stabilization is the process of adding lime to the soil to improve its properties like
density, bearing capacity etc
Lime has been used as a soil stabilizer for roads from olden days. Lime is produced from natural
limestone. The type of lime formed is based upon the parent material and production process.
There are five basic types of lime
High-calcium quicklime --- CaO
Dolomite quicklime --- CaO + MgO
Hydrated high-calcium lime --- Ca(OH)2
Normal hydrated dolomite lime --- Ca(OH)2+ MgO
Pressure-hydrated dolomite lime --- Ca(OH)2 + Mg(OH)2
Hydrated lime (also called slaked lime) is the most commonly used lime for soil stabilization.
Lime is also used in combination with other admixtures, viz., fly ash, cement, bitumen for soil
stabilization.
Principle of Lime-Soil Stabilization
The principle involved in lime-soil stabilization is the exchange of ions between lime and soil
when added. When clayey soil is treated with lime, Cation exchange takes place between them
which increases plastic limit and reduces plasticity index which finally results in increase in
stability of soil. If clay contains gravel in it, then lime acts as binding material for clayey gravel.
Lime-Soil stabilized mix are useful to construct sub-base and base course for pavement. Lime
treated soil is more suitable for warm regions where temperature is very high and for colder
regions it is not suitable.
lime soil stabilization is suitable for soils like clay, silty clay, clayey gravel etc. and is not
suitable for granular soil or sandy soil.
Method of Mixing Lime into Soil (OR) Construction Procedure
The method of mixing lime into soil for stabilization contains following steps.
• The soil which needs stabilization is scarified and pulverized by suitable equipment.
 • Now add some amount of lime to the pulverized soil either in powder form or in the
form of slurry and mix using suitable equipment. In general slurry is recommend for
better mixing.
• If lime powder is used, water should be sprayed allover the soil.
• Leave this mixture for 1 to 4 days since, lime-soil reaction is slow process and needs
some time.
• After that, add rest of the lime content and mix it for the final time.
• Spread the soil to required grade and compact it using rollers. compaction should get
required maximum dry density.
• The compacted lime-soil layer is allowed for moist curing for 1 week.
• Field tests are conducted to check water content and maximum dry density of
compacted soil.
Factors Affecting Lime-Soil Stabilization
Factors affecting lime-soil stabilization are as follows:
1. Soil Type
2. Lime Type
3. Lime Content
4. Compaction
5. Curing
6. Additives
1. Soil Type
• The type of soil used in stabilization should be of reactive type soil. Which means the
soil should react with lime content when added.
• To reacts with lime, the soil should contain pozzolan content in good amount.
• When lime is added to pozzolanic soil in presence of water, calcium hydroxide from
lime reacts with siliceous and aluminous materials of soil and form a mix with
cementitious properties. This reaction is called pozzolanic reaction.
• This reaction will increase the strength of lime-soil mix and strength gain is gradually
increased with age since pozzolanic reaction continues for very longer periods.
2. Lime Type
• Quicklime (CaO) is more effective than hydraulic lime (Ca(OH)2) but however, there
is only slight difference in the final results.
• If Quick lime is using, care should be taken by workmen otherwise skin burns etc. may
occur.
 • So, in most of the cases hydraulic lime is used either in dry powder form or by mixing
water.
3. Lime Content
• When lime content is added to soil in presence of water, plastic limit increases thereby
plasticity index decreases.
• When lime content is added further, after certain point the plastic limit starts decreasing.
This point is termed as lime fixation point.
• To obtain desirable stability, plasticity index should be very low or zero which means
make the clay or soil as non-plastic material.
• Adding proper quantity of lime also increases shrinkage limit.
• Swelling can also be minimized by increasing lime content in the soil.
4. Compaction
• To obtain greater strength of lime-soil mix, density of mix should be greater.
• Lime-Soil mix should be compacted at optimum moisture content (OMC), at which soil
gets maximum compacted density.
5. Curing
• Curing is also an important factor in achieving good stabilized lime-soil mix.
• Proper curing must be provided for the mix especially during initial stages where rate
of strength gain is rapid.
• But this strength gain is dependent of temperature of that area, for low temperature
regions rate of strength gain is very less. For freezing zones it is almost zero.
• Humidity also effects curing and rate of strength gain of lime-soil mix.
6. Additives
• Additives are the materials which are added to improve lime-soil mix to improve its
strength.
• Some additives generally used are Portland cement, fly ash, surkhi etc.
• If fly ash is available as a waste product, then it is most recommended additive since it
gives desirable strength at economical rates.
• Chemical additives like sodium metasilicate, sodium sulphate, sodium hydroxide etc.
are also available.
CALCUIM AND SODIUM CHLORIDES:
Both calcium and sodium chlorides as soil stabilizers react in some what similarly. Salt has
been used in recent years as additive in the construction of granular stabilized road wearing
and base courses.
The effect of salt on soils is from
 i. causing colloidal reactions, and
ii. altering the characteristics of soil water.
Although calcium and sodium chlorides act as soil flocculants, they are not as effective as other
chemicals such as ferric chloride.
Most of the beneficial actions of salt in soil are mainly due to the changes salt makes in the
characteristics of the water in the soil pores. These changes reduce the loss of moisture from
the soil and are explained by the fact that the salts (especially calcium chloride) are deliquescent
and hydroscopic and lower the vapour pressure of water. Frost heave in soil is reduced due to
addition of salt by lowering the freezing point of water.
As most of the benefits of salt are due to the presence of the salt in the soil pore fluid, any loss
of salt concentration may reduce the strength of the stabilized soil. Thus, the performance of
salt-stabilised soil depends on the amount of ground-water movement.
Salt addition shows a slight increase of maximum compacted density and a slight reduction in
the optimum moulding water content.
SODIUM SILICATE:
Sodium silicates, as well as other alkali silicates, have been successfully used for soil
stabilisation. The chemical is used as solution in water, known as water glass. The chemical is
injected into the soil. Sodium silicate gives strength to soil when it reacts with it. It also makes
the soil impervious It also acts as a dispersing agent.
The maximum compacted density is increased. The quantity of the chemical required varies
between 0.1 to 0.2% of the weight of the soil. This method of stabilisation is relatively
inexpensive, but its long-term stability is doubtful. The treated soil may lose strength when
exposed to air or to ground water.
LIGNIN:
Lignin is available both in powder form and in the form of sulphite liquid. Lignin in both the
forms has been in use as an additive to the soil for many years.
Lignin is water-soluble; hence its stabilizing effects are not permanent. In an attempt to
improve the action of lignin, the chrome-lignin process was developed and studied by Smith
(1952).
An insoluble gel is formed when sodium bichromate or potassium bichromate is added to the
sulphate waste. The effect of lignin on the soil properties is based on the form of lignin and the
type of soil treated. Lignin acts as an acid if not neutralised. It is also reported that lignin also
reduces from heave.
SHOTCRETE: -
Shotcrete or Guniting is the process of spraying concrete onto a surface pneumatically
projected at high velocity. The particles are compacted into the receiving surface during the
application process, creating a strong, uniform layer.
It requires a potable machine and is found very economical compared to the conventional
concrete which since it do not require formwork.
The shotcrete is applied on the surface by two methods:
1. Dry process
2. Wet process
Dry-Mix Process:
The dry mix process involves placing the dry ingredients into a hopper. And this mix is then
conveyed pneumatically through a hose to the nozzle. The addition of water at the nozzle is
controlled by Nozzleman. The water and the dry mixture is not mixed completely, but it is
completed when the mixture hits the receiving surface. A skilled nozzleman is required,
especially in the case of thick or heavily reinforced sections. The dry mix process has an
advantage of the water content. It can be adjusted immediately by the nozzleman, allowing
more effective placement in overhead and vertical applications without using accelerators. The
dry mix process is useful in repairing works when it is necessary to stop frequently, as the dry
material is easily discharged from the hose.
Wet-Mix Process:
Wet-mix shotcrete consists of pumping the already prepared concrete, typically ready-mixed
concrete, to the nozzle. Compressed air is introduced at the nozzle to compel the mixture onto
the receiving surface. The wet-process procedure normally produces less dust, rebound and
waste compared to the dry-mix process. The greatest advantage of the wet-mix process is that
all ingredients are mixed with the water and additives and also larger volumes can be placed in
less time than the dry process concrete.
Uses of Shotcrete:
• It is very effective in repair and rehabilitation works.
• We can pour concrete either on a horizontal or vertical surface.
• Mostly shotcrete used to construct a retaining wall where the soil is very loose.
• The shotcrete concrete is mainly used in underground oil line or water pipeline where
the pipe is buried under the earth to avoid the pipe corrosion.
• To avoid internal damages of the surface.
Advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages
• It has excellent bonding, makes concrete layers very strong.
• Economically good compared to the conventional concrete.
• We can easily control the water-cement ratio.
• It requires less formwork.
• It provides ease in application even for uneven surfaces.
Disadvantages
• Cost of production is more.
• High skill man power required to do the job.
 • It has more wastage of concrete.
• It has a problem of dusting.
• The efficiency of the shotcrete work depends upon the operator.
Applications of Shotcrete:
• It is used for stabilized rock slopes.
• It is used for repairing and restoration work.
• It is used in a thin overhead vertical and horizontal surface.
• It is used for waterproofing walls.
• It is used in curved and folded sections like canals, tanks, tunnels etc.
• Used in hard rock mining.
GROUTING: -
Grouting is a process of ground improvement attained by injecting fluid like material into
subsurface soil or rock. The modern grouting was first started in mining works for arresting
seepage and strengthening in civil engineering works.
Grouting is particular valuable in foundation works before construction (e.g., to control water
problem, to infill voids to control settlement, to increase soil bearing capacity, etc.), during
construction (e.g., to control groundwater flow to stabilise loose sand against liquefaction, to
provide adequate lateral support, etc.), and after construction (eg, to reduce machine foundation
vibrations, to eliminate new seepage, to apply in underpinning work, etc.).
Grouting is usually limited to zones of relatively small volume and special problems.
Grouting is a process whereby fluid like materials, either in suspension, or solution form, is
injected into the subsurface soil or rock.
Examples of grout materials include cement, fly ash, cement + clay etc.
The purpose of injecting a grout may be any one or more of the following
1. To decrease permeability.
2. To increase shear strength.
3. To decrease compressibility.
Grouting is adopted both for temporary and permanent works and the following applications
have been in use (Harris, 1983):
• Sealing pockets and leaves of permeable or unstable soil or rock prior to excavation of
a tunnel heading or alternatively grouting a stratum from ground level.
• Sealing the base of structures (such as cofferdams or caissons) founded on pervious
ground.
• Fixing ground anchors for sheet pile walls, concrete pile walls, retaining walls,
stabilising rock cuttings, tunnels, etc.
• Repairing a ground underneath a formation or cracks and structural defects on building
masonry or pavement and sunken slabs or damp proof course.
• Filling the void between the lining and rock face in tunnel works
 • Forming a grout curtains in layers of permeable strata below a dam.
• Fixing the tendons in prestressed post tensioned concrete.
• Sealing the gap between the surface of a conerete foundation and the base plate of a
stanchion.
• Producing mass concrete structures and piles.
Aspects of Grouting:
The principle of grouting is to introduce a substance into rock fissures or into a soil by pumping
fluid (called grout) down a small diameter tube in the required location. It is essential that a
particular grout should penetrate satisfactorily into the permeable materials or rock fissures and
seal all the voids.
The three basic functions involved in soil and rock grouting:
1. Permeation or penetration: grout flows freely with minimal effect into the soil voids
or rock seams
2. Compaction or controlled displacement: grout remains more or less intact as a mass
and exerts pressure on the soil or rock
3. Hydraulic fracturing or uncontrolled displacement: grout rapidly penetrates into a
fractured zone which is created when the grouting pressure is greater than the tensile
strength of the soil or rock being grouted.

Groutability:
• To obtain a satisfactory performance of a grout, its grain size distribution should be
known because it shall show the relationship between the grout particles size and void
dimensions.
• Pumping pressure should not be greater enough for the particles of soil to be distributed.
• Coarser and moderately permeable soils require high viscosity grouts whereas low
viscosity grouts are suitable for fine grained soils of low permeability.
• Grouting pressure is limited to 20 kN/cu.m
 • Quality of the grout should be sufficiently fluid to enter the soil quickly, but at the same
time movement should not be too fast.
• The rate of injection of grout depends on the viscosity of the grout, permeability and
shear strength of the soil.
• A grout is not always expected to be permanent, but it has to last long enough to fulfil
necessary operational function.
• Life of grout depends on the geological and hydrogeological situations. For Ex: A water
soluble chemical grout may not be suitable in locations where there is movement of
water.
Grout Materials:
GROUT can be defined as a solution, an emulsion or suspension in water, which will harden
after a certain time interval. It can be divided into two main groups:
1. Suspension Grout
2. Emulsion Grout
3. Solution Grout
• Suspension grout is a mixture of one or several inert materials like cement, clays etc.
suspended in a fluid -- water. According to its dry matter content it is either of the stable
or unstable type. suspension grout is a mixture of pure cement with water.
• Emulsions consists of colloidal droplets of liquid dispersed in a liquid medium;
Bituminous emulsions falls under this category.
• Solutions are liquid homogeneous molecular mixtures of two or more substances;
chemical grouts such as sodium silicate solutions or acrylic resigns are examples of
solutions. They are fluid in the initial state and can be pumped into the soil and then
after reaching the desired location in the soil mass they form a gel or set with time.
Uses of Grouting:
• Grout is used to fill the spaces between tunnel walls and the surrounding earth in
order to distribute earth stresses evenly across the structures.
• Grout is widely used in dams to fill cracks that form after the concrete hardens and sets.
• Grout is also used to inject soil to increase its bearing capacity.
• Grouting can be used to improve the mechanical properties of soil or rock foundation
materials used to support structures or excavations.
• Grout is also used to fill hollow concrete blocks in order to develop a bond between the
steel reinforcement and the concrete.
Applications of Grouting:
• The main application is the control of ground movement during tunneling operations.
• Used to regulate the control of groundwater flow.
• It is also applied for strengthening of soil to reduce the need for lateral support.
• Control of volume change in expansive soil via pressure injection of lime slurry.
• Soil strengthening for piles to increase their lateral and vertical resistance.
• To avoid excessive settlement, voids must be filled by grouting.
• For stabilizing loose sand to prevent liquefication.
• Underpinning of foundation.
• To provide excavation support.
• Bearing capacity improvement.
Advantages of grouting
• Grouting can be done any ground conditions.
• Vibration are not used in the process.
• Improve the ground structure.
• Very useful for slab hackling.
• It can be done adjacent to an existing wall.
• It controls the ground water flow, seepage, hazardous waste materials.
Different types of grouting methods:
The different types of grouting methods are
1. Compaction Grouting
2. Permeation or Penetration Grouting
3. Jet Grouting
4. Fracture Grouting/ Compensation Grouting
Compaction Grouting:
The basic concept of compaction grouting technique is that of injecting an expanding bulb of
high viscous grout with high internal friction into a compressible soil or into a soil mass
containing large voids.
The injected grout acts as a radial hydraulic jack which compresses the surrounding soil and
thus achieving controlled densification. This is also called a displacement grouting.
It is essential to distinguish between conventional penetration grouting and the compaction
grouting. Conventional penetration grouting basically involves in filling openings in soils and
rocks by a fluid grout, to reduce permeability or to increase the strength. Compaction grouting
does not depend upon grout entering openings but involves displacement and compaction of
soils as a result of the intrusion of a mass of thick grout.

Suitability: This grouting is suitable for almost all types of soil conditions. This method is
applicable in the clay and silts for strengthening and increasing the bearing capacity. It leads
to lateral densification of strata, lift the settled structures, remediation for karst, sinkholes.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
• Minimum disturbance to the structure and surrounding ground during repair.
• Minimum risk during construction.
• Greater economy.
• Supports all portions of structures.
• Reduced need for extensive exploration.
• Greater flexibility.
• Groundwater not affected.
Disadvantages:
• Relative ineffectiveness in stabilising near-surface soils.
• Prohibitive cost for some structures if the soil to be treated is excessively deep.
• Grouting adjacent to unsupported slopes may be ineffective.
• Difficulty of analysing results.
• Not suitable in decomposable materials.
• Effectiveness questionable in saturated clays.
• Danger of filling underground pipes with grout.
Permeation Grouting:
It is a type of grouting in which grout is injected into the soil to fill the pores and joints without
disturbing the soil's structure and volume. Thus, it permeates coarse and granular soils creating
a cemented mass.
Various types of binders are used in this grouting technique, the choice mainly depends upon
the permeability of soil. It is also known as cement grouting or pressure grouting.
Permeation grouting can increase soils structural capacity, reduce the soils permeability to
water and stabilize loose soils.
When the coefficient of permeability is greater than 10-2 cm/sec, water-cement mixes are used
and for permeability as low as 10-5 cm/sec, expensive resin-based grouts are used. Soils with
K values lower than 10-6 cm/sec are normally not groutable by permeation method.
Suitability: This grouting technique is suitable for gravel, sandy soils, decomposed rock, and
fissured rock. Features of permeation grouting are to provide protection by increasing the
cohesion between particles while excavating to adjacent structures.

Advantages:
• Possible in limited space or where access is difficult
• Economical for underpinning applications over alternative methods like removal and
replacement or piling
• The footprint of excavations is maximum when compared to piled solutions
• It can be adopted adjacent to existing foundations
• Can be performed disrupting normal facility operations
Uses:
• Creates barriers to groundwater flow
• Underpinning foundations
• Provide excavation support
• Stabilize and strengthen granular soils
Jet Grouting:
Jet grouting is a method of soil stabilization which involves the injection of a stabilizing fluid
into the subsoil (or the soil under treatment) under high pressure under high velocity. The
injection process involves a certain amount of site preparation as well as injection equipment.
The soil stabilization by jet grouting is occurs due to the hardening of grouted fluid within the
soil. These hardened bodies forms like cemented columns which are grouted in numerous
numbers as per requirement, thus stabilizing the soil. These columns are called as jet columns
or jet grouted columns.
Jet Grouting can be carried out using three different systems. The choice of method is
determined by the soil conditions, the required geometry, the required grout parameters and
the application. The compressive strength of grout is a function of the cement content of the
grout and grading of the portion of soil within the grout mass. The permeability and strength
of the grout can be controlled by the addition of additives to the grout mix. Type of Soil Silt or
Clay Sand Gravel.
Single fluid System: Single System operates with a grout jet for simultaneous cutting and
mixing of the soil. The Single System is used for small to medium sized grout columns in low
density soils.
Double fluid System: The Double System uses a compressed air shroud around the jet nozzle
to increase the erosion capability of the jet. The Double System is used in dense soils, installing
panel walls, underpinning and mass treatment.
Triple fluid System: Typically used for underpinning and in sensitive or highly variable soils,
the Triple system erodes the soil with an air shrouded water jet and simultaneously injects grout
into the eroded soil through an additional nozzle.
Suitability: This grout technique gives more strength to soils; this is suitable for the clays,
silts, sandy soils, and gravel but less use in boulder conditions. This grouting is not suitable for
the fissured rock and void-filled mass condition but uses in the decomposed rock conditions. It
is applicable for retaining the ground systems, cut-off barriers, underpinning.
Applications of Jet Grouting
Jet grouting finds is a method of ground improvement and finds applications in the following:
• For construction of horizontal barriers
• Control of groundwater
Jet columns can act as horizontal barriers to control the ground water around dams or
areas of contaminated ground. This also decreases the soil permeability.
• Underpinning
Jet grouting can be employed as a method to stabilize foundation systems mainly
shallow ones. The procedure involves drilling through the nearby foundation and
making a stable bed underneath the footing for better load distribution.
• Tunneling
Jet grouting stabilizes the local area under tunnel construction so that heavy
equipment required for tunnelling can be used without destabilizing the nearby areas.
• Support for excavation
Advantages of Jet Grouting
Jet grouting provides with the following advantages when implemented which are the root
causes behind its success:
• Large cemented material column creation without causing huge ground disturbances
(subsoil)
• Columns form continuous elements forming in different shapes thus improving the
mechanical properties and decreasing porosity.
• Improvement in construction process thus emerging out with a better design philosophy
• It's attractive nature in terms of confined space working and under difficult site
conditions
Fracture Grouting/ Compensation Grouting:
This grouting is a process of injecting grout slurry of thick grout under high pressure.
Compensation Grouting is a process used to control or reverse the settlement of structures. It
consists of the injection of material into the soil between the foundation to be controlled
settlement.
The material injected is forced into fractures thereby causing an expansion to take place
counteracting the settlement that occurs or producing a controlled heave of the foundation.
Because the process requires that the soil is fractured and not permeated, Compensation
Grouting may be used in most soil types ranging from gravels to clays or weak soils.
The grout flowing the fractured path follows the plane of minor principle stress. Thus, this
method compensates for the settlements and is used to uplift the deformed structures.
Suitability: This technique is applicable mainly in the sand, silt, clay, decomposed rock,
fissure rock, and fills with rock. It is suitable for void filling, restoration/ uplift the settling
structure. This grouting will be ineffective in the gravel and voided groundmass conditions.

Advantages:
• Can be done from shafts/tunnels below the structure without accessing the affected
building.
• Real-time monitoring of the grouting process and displacements of the soil and
structures.
Uses:
This type of grouting is used for different purposes such as
• Releveling structures.
• Bearing capacity/ settlement control.
• Mine stabilization/void filling.
ASCENDING AND DESCENDING STAGES OF GROUTING: -
Ascending Stage Grouting:
Permeation grouting at shallow depths is carried out in a single stage from a grout pipe
inserted in a cased hole made in the ground. The annular space between grout pipe and casing
is filled with sleeve grout (bentonite cement grout) and then the casing is withdrawn. The grout
hole is made upto the full depth of soil strata to be grouted and the grouting proceeds upwards
in stages starting from the bottom. This is termed as ascending stage grouting. Thus in
ascending stage grouting, grouting follows drilling as a separate phase. The most suitable
type of grout, pressure and quantity of grout can be selected since water pressure testing,
soil testing at different depths is possible before grouting.
Descending Stage Grouting:
It involves drilling of cased hole upto a certain depth and then grouting is done through grout
pipe placed in it. The space between casing and grout pipe is filled with sleeve grout. After
withdrawing the casing, grouting is done through the grout pipe to stabilize the soil at the
sides and bottom of the hole. After the grout has set, the hole is deepened for the next stage of
grouting. Descending stage grouting allows increase in pressures to be used for increasing
depth of grout hole and reduces loss of grout due to leakage at surface. The method is
used when relatively high grouting pressures are to be employed to achieve satisfactory
penetration of grout in deep holes as tighter sections of holes. In Descending method, infusion
of ground occurs in advance of borehole that could be advantageous in loose soil or rock.
GROUT CONTROL: -
The success of grouting depends on effective monitoring of grout programme by taking the
following observations during and after grouting programme
Monitoring during Grouting
• Thorough inspection of the equipment
• Random verification of grout for gel time, viscosity etc. and complying with certificates
available
• Monitoring the grout taken as a function of pressure
• Observing ground heave to have control on ground fracturing
Post Grouting Monitoring
• Recording piezometer levels to have information about seepage of grouted soils
• Collection of grouted soil samples from inspection pits and testing them for strength,
permeability etc.
• Photographing walls of borehole for visual examination
• Conducting pressuremeter tests/ penetration tests
• Conducting borehole permeability tests to check permeability of grouted soil
The success of grouting depends on site investigations carried out before grouting as it helps
in selection of proper grouting strategy.
POST GROUTING TEST: -
Post grouting involves pumping high pressure grout below the base of the shaft through a
specially designed distribution system. It allows the end bearing capacity of drilled shafts to
the ultimate capacity.
Post grout test is mainly used to regain the unusable ultimate capacity which takes place due
to the large displacement in the shafts.
Procedure
• Initially install the grout distribution system during cage preparation which enhances
the grout tube to the bottom of the shaft.
• After the shaft gets cured, pump the high-pressure grout below the base of the shaft.
• In this process it densifies all in-situ soil and compress all debris.
• Due to the high pressure grout it increase the tip capacity of shaft.
• Post grouting also decrease the foundation settlement.
Compare the relative advantages and disadvantages of permeation grouting using cement
and chemical grout:
Cement Grouting
Advantages
• Cement grouting is the most common method and is widely used.
• Cement grouts are usually formed from ordinary portland cement and water. Therefore,
cement grouts are economical when compared to chemical grouts.
• Lower water-cement ratios avoid segregation and filtering of cement.
• Various additives can be used with cement grout based on the properties required.
Disadvantages
• The presence of particulate material in cement grouts makes it inefficient for use in fine
grained soils.
• Low water-cement ratios cause difficulty in the process of injection and increase the
friction losses in pumping system.
• Additives are to be added separately to achieve better results which may incur more
expenses.
 • Cement grouts do not affect ground water. However, they may cause obstruction in
ground water flow.
Chemical Grouting
Advantages
• Particulate material is absent in chemical grout facilitating the process of injection.
• Depending upon the requirements, a chemical grout can be selected from numerous
types available.
• Chemical grouts are less viscous and therefore can be easily used for fine ground soils.
• With chemical grouts, better control over setting times helps in achieving desired
results.
Disadvantages
• Chemical grouts are more expensive than cement grouts.
• Chemical grouts are prone to corrosivity or toxicity. Therefore, chemical grouts are to
be chosen keeping toxic nature in consideration.
• Chemical grouts may contaminate ground water or may cause unnecessary obstruction
in ground water flow.
• Chemical grouts such as solution grouts are less effective in saturated soils or clays.
THERMAL MODIFICATION: -
Heating or cooling a soil can cause marked changes in its properties. The principles of
temperature effects on soils have been studied extensively and have become fairly well
delineated. Although thermal stabilization appears to be very effective, it has several inherent
undesirable features which have totally limited its use. The cost is the main disadvantage since
cost of heating or cooling to effect stabilization is no way competitive with the cost of other
techniques.
STABILIZATION BY HEATING:
In general, the higher the heat input per mass of soil being treated, the greater the effect. Even
a small increase in temperature may cause a strength increase in fine-grained soils by reducing
the electric repulsion between the particles, a flow of pore water due to thermal gradient and a
reduction in moisture content because of increased evaporation rate. Hence, it is technically
feasible to stabilize fine-grained soils by heating.
The effect of increase in temperature and the corresponding possible change in soil properties
are the following:
Temperatures 100°C - Cause drying and significant increase in the strength of clays, along
with decrease in their compressibility.
Temperatures500°C - Cause permanent changes in the structure of clays resulting in decrease
of plasticity and moisture adsorption capacity.
Temperatures1000°C - Cause fusion of the clay particles into a solid substance much like
brick.
It is reported that heat has changed an expansive clay into an essentially non-expansive
material. Burning of liquid or gas fuels in boreholes or injection of hot air into 0.15 m to 0.20
m diameter boreholes can produce 1.3 to 2.5 m diameter stabilized zones after continuous
treatment for about 10 days.
Soviet engineers have used this technique exhaustively for strengthening partially saturated
loessial soils. This technique was found to be economical than pile foundations in loessial soils.
It should be noted that the injection of hot gases is applicable only to non-saturated soils. Beles
and Stanculescu (1958) have used thermal stabilization to increase the strength and to decrease
the compressibility of cohesive soils. This technique can be favourably used only when a site
is located near a large and inexpensive heat source.
STABILIZATION BY COOLING:
A reduction of heat (i.e., cooling) in a clayey soil increases interparticle repulsion resulting in
a small loss in strength and moves the pore water because of the imposed thermal gradient.
Freezing of pore water in soil is the most effective method of thermal stabilization. Ground
freezing technique has gained popularity during recent years.
Water in a soil freezes at or below 0°C with the initiation of freezing, the soil strength increases
rapidly with decreasing temperature as more soil is frozen and the strength of ice increases.
Frozen soil is far stronger and less pervious than unfrozen ground. It also forms non-vibration-
sensitive barrier to seepage flow or soil deformation. This technique can stabilize a wide range
of soil types.
Ground freezing is accomplished by bringing a refrigerant into the proximity of soil pore water.
The pore water may be stationary or moving at a rate less than 2 metres per day. Once freezing
is initiated the pore water around the refrigerant pipes begins to freeze, and with continued
exposure the ice layer expands until it comes into contact with the ice spreading out from
adjacent refrigerant pipes. Thus, a continuous wall is formed.
A number of schemes are possible to provide refrigerant to the soil. Different schemes reviewed
by Shuster (1972) and the same is illustrated in Fig. Two most common schemes are the use of
expandable liquid refrigerants, like liquid nitrogen, liquid carbon-dioxide, or liquid propane,
and the in-situ pumped-loop method via a secondary coolant.
Of these two methods, the first one is relatively simple. Freeze pipes are installed at one metre
centres, sufficiently vented and the liquid refrigerant is injected and allowed to boil. Freezing
takes place very rapidly but the frozen zone is often very irregular and energy consumption by
this process is very high. However, for a small project of short duration freezing, this technique
is quite useful.
The second technique is a much more popular one which uses a primary plant and a pumped
loop secondary circulating coolant. This method is well suited to single installations of freeze
pipe elements intended to provide maintenance freezing over a long period of time. The
primary source of the refrigeration is one- or two-stage ammonia or freon refrigeration plant.
The coolant distribution system consists of a closed-loop supply manifold connected to a
number of parallel-connected freeze pipes placed in the ground and to a return manifold.
Diameter of ground freeze pipes is typically 100 to 200 mm with sealed lower ends. Feed pipes
of 25 to 75 mm diameter are placed inside the larger capped pipe. Coolant is circulated into the
feed pipes and returns through the annular space between the two. The proximity of the return
coolant to the soil is what produces the freezing. The conventional coolant is brine, a mixture
of sodium chloride and water with 10 to 23% sodium chloride, although diesel oil, propane,
and glycol-water mixtures have also been used.
Advantages of Ground Freezing Technique
• Temporary underpinning of adjacent structure and support during permanent
underpinning.
• Shaft sinking through water-bearing ground.
• Shaft construction totally within non-cohesive saturated ground.
• Tunneling through a full face of granular soil.
• Tunneling through mixed ground.
• Soil stabilization.
Disadvantages of Ground Freezing Technique:
• Very expensive.
• Needs continuously monitoring.
• Volume expansion of water during freezing, leading to soil heave and thaw
settlement.
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

B. TECH
IV YEAR I SEMESTER

UNIT-V
MODIFICATION BY INCLUSIONS AND CONFINEMENT
Lecture Notes

Prepared by
K. MANOJ KUMAR
Assistant Professor
 UNIT – V
MODIFICATION BY INCLUSIONS AND CONFINEMENT
MODIFICATION BY INCLUSIONS AND CONFINEMENT: -
Reinforcement by fibers, strips, bars, meshes, and fabrics imparts tensile strength to a
constructed soil mass. In situ reinforcement is achieved by nails and anchors. Stable earth-
retaining structures can also be formed by confining soil with concrete, steel, or fabric elements
(including crib and bin walls and sandbags).
CONCEPT OF SOIL REINFORCEMENT: -
According to its original usage, the term “reinforced soil” refers to a soil which is strengthened
by a material able to resist tensile stresses and which interacts with the soil through friction
and/or adhesion. Subsequently, the meaning of soil reinforcement was broadened, and this term
is now also used for other mechanical and structural methods of soil improvement, such as
compressive reinforcement and reinforcement by confinement and encapsulation.
The primary purpose of reinforcing a soil mass is to improve its stability, in- crease its bearing
capacity, and reduce settlements and lateral deformation. The broader definition of soil
reinforcement also includes methods of erosion control and stress transfer via anchors and
piles.
The terminology is complicated by the fact that many of the materials used to improve
engineering properties of Soil, such as geotextiles, can fulfill multiple functions, e.g., provide
structural strengthening, control groundwater flow or accelerate consolidation with their
drainage capacity, prevent particle migration through filter action, and maintain separation of
different soil layers during construction or under the influence of repeated external loading.
Soil reinforcement can be achieved even by relatively flexible, extendable, and sometimes
compressible materials, such as nonwoven fabrics or large quantities of individual fibers. Also,
the actual strengthening of a soil mass may be a secondary effect, e.g., as achieved through
accelerated consolidation. This is why the term inclusions rather than "reinforcement" is
favoured by some researchers working in this field.
SOIL REINFORCEMENT (OR) EARTH REINFORCEMENT: -
Reinforced earth is a combination of earth and linear reinforcing strips that are capable of
bearing large tensile stresses. Reinforced soil or reinforced earth consists of a compacted soil
mass with in reinforcing elements or membranes, usually in the form of horizontal strips of
metal (such as galvanized steel, stainless steel or aluminium alloys), rods of metals, wire grids,
fibre glass strips/rods, bamboos or geotextiles, are embedded Soil reinforcement is performed
by placing tensile elements in the soil to enhance its natural stability and strength.
This is achieved by bringing reinforcement elements in contact with surfaces in the aggregate
and sub-base of soil mass. When pressure on the soil mass causes a strain on the reinforcements,
it creates a tensile load which can resist soil movement and provide additional support for
increased strength. This way, a soil-reinforcement system is created which provides greater
shear strength than the soil mass alone.
The basic principles of incorporating reinforcement members into a soil mass are mass are
much the same as those utilised in the design of reinforced concrete. The membranes are used
to provide tensile strength in the earth mass in locations where shear stresses are generated.
The provision of membrane leads to the re-distribution of stresses internally within stresses are
each of the membrane encapsulated layers. The reinforced soil concept/technique is essentially
based in the mobilisation of inter facial shearing resistance between the soil and reinforcement
which in turn restrains the lateral deformation of the soil.

Components/Elements of Soil Reinforcement: -

The main application of the reinforced earth technique is the reinforced earth wall shown in
Fig. A reinforced earth wall consists of three Components
1. Wall facing elements/Skin
2. Reinforcing elements/membranes
3. Compacted backfill / Soil
Wall facing elements/Skin:
The wall facing elements are provided at the free boundary of a reinforced earth structure, to
provide some form of barrier so that the soil mass is Contained. These elements, usually known
as skin, may be either flexible or stiff; it should be strong enough to hold back the soil and
should allow fastening to attach reinforcing elements.
The facing units are usually prefabricated units which are small and light enough for
transportation for quick and easy construction. The wall facing elements or units are generally
made from steel, aluminium, plastic, fibre, glass or reinforced concrete. The facing units
require a small foundation of concrete from which they can be built.
Reinforcing elements:
The reinforcing elements consists of any or the following:
• Galvanised steel strips, 50 to 100 mm wide and upto 9 mm thick, several metres in
length, are the most commonly used reinforcing elements. Data available on the rate of
 corrosion of galvanised steel in soil indicates that elements of this material are likely to
have a service life of 120 years.
• Rods of galvanised steel.
• Strips or rods of other metal such as stainless steel, aluminium
• Galvanised iron grids
• Fibre glass strips
• Bamboos
• Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP)
• Geosynthetic reinforcements such as geotextiles, geomembranes, geogrids, geostrips,
geo-composites etc.
Compacted earth fill/Soil:
The soil used for the backfill should be predominantly coarse-grained and it has been proposed
that not more than 10% of the particles should pass the 63 mm sieve. The first layer of
reinforcement strips is placed at the level ground surface and the backfilling is done with
granular soil, compacting it in the processes of laying. The entire process of laying strips and
backfilling and compacting is continued till the required height of the reinforced earth wall is
attained. It is vital that the fill should be adequately drained to prevent it from becoming
saturated.
Advantages of Reinforced earth structures: -
The following are advantages of reinforced earth structures.
• Reinforced earth structures are quite flexible. Hence these can withstand foundation
deformations/settlements.
• Reinforced earth structure, being flexible, can withstand earth-quake forces more
efficiently than conventional rigid structures.
• Reinforced earth structures are much more economical in comparison to the
conventional structures of masonry or concrete.
• Reinforced structural elements can be transported easily. Hence these can be
constructed speedily.
• Reinforced earth structures can also be constructed in stages.
• The reinforcing elements used for such structures are easily available in various sizes
and shapes. They can be easily stored, handled and placed during construction.
Applications of Soil Reinforcement:
Several soil reinforcement field applications, some of which are
• Reinforced earth walls
• Bridge works
• Dams
 • Embankments
• Foundations
• Highways
• Root pile systems
• Water way structures
• Underground structures
Objectives of Soil Reinforcement:
Soil offers good resistance to compression but weak against tensile and shear loads (or forces).
Soils can withstand their own only up to their respective angles of repose. Therefore, to hold
soil at steeper slopes, lateral supports are required.
The main objectives of soil reinforcement are mentioned as follows:
• Reinforcement of soil is performed by placing tensile elements in the soil to enhance
the stability and strength of the soil.
• Reinforcement improves the strength and bearing capacity of the soil.
• Soil reinforcement is a cost-effective technique which is used to improve tensile and
bearing strength of the soil.
• It is opted to improve the engineering and mechanical properties of soil.
• Reinforced soil bed increases the bearing capacity of the soil and reduce the differential
settlement of soil bed.
• To reduce the quantity of earth fill. Steeper embankment slopes reduce the land take
required.
STRIP REINFORCEMENT: -
These are flexible linear elements having their breadth greater than their thickness. The
thickness usually ranges between 3 mm and 9 mm, while the breadth between 40 mm and 120
mm. The most common strips are metals (galvanized steel, Aluminium-Magnesium alloy, 17%
chrome stainless steel).
The strip may either be plain or having several projections such as ribs or grooves to increase
the friction between the reinforcement and soil. Wherever, metal strips are used as
reinforcement, provision should be made for loss of thickness due to corrosion. Marine sand
dissolves 150-200 microns per year of strips of mild or galvanized steel, and 2-3 microns per
year of strips of Al-Mg alloy.
Maximum rate of corrosion of the same metals with other soils is 15 to 20 times less. Ferric
steel with 17% chrome steel is found good corrosion resistant metal. This factor should be
examined carefully keeping in view the durability of the structure.
However, metal reinforcements are used by providing an additional thickness of 0.75-1.25 mm
for galvanized steel and 0.1 to 0.2 mm for stainless steel, depending upon the nature of soil, for
making up the loss of corrosion. Strips can also be formed from bamboo, polymers and glass
fibre reinforced plastics.
GRID REINFORCED SOIL: -
Geogrids are considered to be most effective geosynthetics in provision of tensile soil
reinforcement. The grid can be made from plain or galvanized steel wire mesh. When
reinforcement is provided to resist tensile force geogrids are used. Grids and geogrids are used
as reinforcement. Geogrids are originated from polymers like polypropylene (or) polyester.
Grids are made up of steel which is in the form of plain steel (or) galvanised weldmesh (or)
from the metal which is expanded.
Now-a-days reinforcement with geo-grids is becoming popular because of its advantages (soil
being interlocking and giving composite nature).
The key feature of all geogrids is that the openings between the adjacent sets of longitudinal
and transverse ribs, called “apertures,” are large enough to allow for soil strike-through from
one side of the geogrid to the other. The phenomenon by which geo-grids work is interlocking
phenomenon. They interlock the particles of soil placed in between the steel frame since these
appear in the form of open-grids, soil can easily pass through the grids/spaces and hence they
interlock with each other giving a composite behaviour.
Reinforcement with geo-grids can be either un1axial or biaxial which mainly depends upon the
intended purpose of construction
The advantages of using grid reinforced soil are, it will minimize cost of construction and also
it requires small quantity of aggregates thereby providing less transportation costs.
The design life of a structure can also be increased by incorporating geo-grid soil reinforcement
and it is widely used for constructing steep slopes, retaining walls, foundation in road ways etc.
SHEET REINFORCEMENT: -
Sheet reinforcement may be formed from metal such as galvanized steel, fabric (textile) or
expanded metal not meeting the criteria for the grid. Geofabrics are very common sheet type
reinforcement. These are porous fabrics manufactured from synthetic materials such as
polypropylene, polyester, polyethelene, polyamide and glass fibres. They come in thicknesses
ranging from 0.125 mm to 7.5 mm with permeability comparable in range from coarse gravel
to fine sand.
They can be constructed in a variety of ways, the most common methods being; (i) woven,
made from continuous monofilament fibres, and (ii) non-woven, made from continuous or
staple fibres laid down in a random pattern and then mechanically entangled into a relatively
thick, felt-like fabric by means of punching with barbed needles.
A wide variety of both woven and non-woven fabrics are available where the fibres are either
bonded or interlocked. In India, many firms are active in manufacturing geofabrics in the trade
name of geotextile.
STABILITY CHECKS:
External Stability (as for any earth-retaining structure):
The external stability of a reinforced soil wall is easily investigated since it behaves essentially
as a rigid body and conforms to the simple laws of statics external stability assessment should
consider the effects of dead loads, other loads (live load, dynamic load etc.) and forces acting
on the structure.
The failure for sliding, overturning, tilting/bearing and slip should be checked by external
stability
• Sliding
• Overturning
• Bearing Capacity
Short- and long-term stability of soil needs to be considered to allow for the construction and
in-service condition as well as in changes in pore water pressure. Passive earth pressure acting
on the foot of the wall/structure below ground level may be ignored while considering various
forces for stabilization.
Internal Stability (MSE retaining structures):
Stability within a reinforced structure is achieved by the reinforcing elements carrying tensile
forces and then transferring to the soil by friction, friction and adhesion, or friction and bearing.
In addition forces can be transferred the soil through fill trapped by the elements of the grid.
The fill is than able to support the associated shear and compressive forces. In the case of
anchored earth such as soil nailing, stability within a structure is achieved by the anchor
elements carrying tensile forces and transferring these by friction along the anchor shaft or
anchor loop and bearing of the anchor to the surrounding fill.
• Reinforcement Failure
• Pull-out
• Failure of Reinforcement/Facing Connection
Local stability check:
The resistance of the reinforcing element should be checked against rupture and adherence
failure whilst carrying the factored loads.
Wedge stability:
The reinforcement structure will assume to fail internally in the form of wedge. It is not known
at which level the wedge is originated. Therefore, the wedge originate from different level to
be checked. Checked for stability considering all the forces acting on it. Wedges are assumed
to behave as rigid bodies and may be any size and shape. Stability of any wedge is maintained
when friction forces acting on the potential failure plane in connection with the tensile
resistance/ bond of the group of reinforcing elements or embedded in the fill beyond the plane
are able to resist the applied loads tending to cause movement.

IN-SITU GROUND REINFORCEMENT: -

In situ ground reinforcement is a technique to stabilize existing unstable ground due to the
change of geotechnical conditions by nature and/or human activities. For example, intensive
precipitation may destabilize existing slopes and induce landslides due to increased soil weight,
reduced soil strength, and water seepage. Scour of a slope toe in a river may destabilize the
river bank. Excavation in the ground for wall or foundation construction (i.e., a cut situation)
induces unbalanced forces and results in ground movement and even failure if not properly
designed and protected. Underground tunneling may also induce ground movement and even
collapse.
Ground anchors, soil nails, and Rock bolting have been used as in situ ground reinforcement
techniques to mitigate the preceding problems.
GROUND ANCHORS:
Prestressed grouted ground anchor is a structural element installed in soil or rock that is used
to transmit an applied tensile load into the ground. Grouted ground anchors, referenced simply
as ground anchors, are installed in grout filled drill holes. Grouted ground anchors are also
referred to as “tiebacks”.

The basic components of a typical ground anchor, which includes three parts:
i. Anchorage set, which consists of an anchor head, a bearing plate, and a trumpet
ii. Unbonded prestressing steel tendon
iii. Bonded steel tendon with grout
The anchorage component is to transmit the prestressing force from the prestressing steel to
the ground surface or the supported structure.
The unbonded steel is prestressed and can have elastic elongation and transfer the resistance
from the bond length to a structure. A smooth plastic sleeve as a bond breaker is placed over
the steel tendon to separate the prestressing steel from the surrounding grout.
The bonded steel with grout can provide a tensile load into the ground; therefore, the bond
length should be behind a critical slip surface.
Suitability:
Ground anchors are suitable for a variety of geotechnical conditions. They can be used in situ
soils, rocks, or other geomaterials.
Different techniques may be used to install ground anchors in different geomaterials, mostly
related to drilling and stability of the hole.
Ground anchors may experience excessive creep deformations when they are installed in
organic soil or soils with high plasticity.
Caution should be exercised when ground anchors are used under such conditions
Applications:
• To rehabilitate the already existing retaining walls.
• To withstand uplift pressure in hydraulic structures like dams, spillways and weirs.
• To stabilize the existing and potential landslides.
• To avoid heaving in soils.
• To anchor guy wires and suspension cables.
• To tie back temporary excavation support systems.
• To avoid underwater structure flotation
• To withstand lateral forces that occur in tall and slender structures
• To avoid rock falls in tunneling and mining works.
Types:
Ground anchors are classified based on,
i. Function
ii. Type of construction
iii. Performance
Function
The functions of an anchor varies with respect to mode of stress transferring from anchor to
ground.
• The anchors for resisting the bearing-capacity formulation are bearing-type anchors.
• Friction anchors are used to transfer the stress by means of adhesion or/and skin friction.
• Underreamed anchors are used for both the modes of stress transferring.
Type of Construction
• The anchors are tensioned to certain extent, to resise the active load with a minimal
variation in the force of tendon. These anchors are classified as prestressed anchors.
Post tensioned anchors are another form of prestressed anchots.
• By expecting the working load conditions, permissible stressing force is applied only
to a certain part of anchor. These anchors are classified as tensioned anchors.
Untensioned anchors are those which does not undergo any tension.
Performance
• The anchors having limited life expectancy are classified as temporary anchors.
• The anchors which are designed for the life time usage are classified as permanent
anchors.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages
• Execute excavations neatly to create large construction plan without using props in
order to make mechanized excavation.
 • Keep excavation walls sustainable, make very deep excavations without depending on
the basement structure.
• Anchors combine with soft retaining walls to redistribute the internal forces of wall
structure, so this can reduce the size, depth of steel bars in retaining walls.
Disadvantages
• It is necessary to use specified equipment, experienced professional engineers.
• It is difficult to apply anchors in weak soil and to implement anchors with great depth.
• Anchor execution would affect the land of surrounding construction works, which must
be accepted by their owners.
SOIL NAILING: -
Soil nailing is a ground improvement technique that we use to reinforce soil to make it more
stable. Soil nailing is the process of installing reinforcement with slender elements such as
reinforcing bars which are called as nails in the existing ground using a top-down construction
technique.
The soil nail process is proceeded by installing reinforcement (bar/rod) in the drill hole in the
ground, followed by grouting throughout the length. These nails are installed at an inclination
of 10 to 20 degrees with vertical.
This technique is applied for stabilizing the slopes, excavations, and retaining walls. This
technique’s construction is top to bottom, and head plates are installed on each nail on the
ground surface. Shotcrete is applied on the excavation face to make a construction of a soil nail
wall.
The soil nailing method is used for temporary stabilization of soil slopes that do not provide
corrosion protection to the reinforcement steel or nails.

Principle and Installation of Soil Nail System:

The process of soil nailing can be done in various methods. This choice is completely
dependent on the cost, the accessibility to the site, the working space, the ground water level
and the conditions. The common methods are:
1. Drill and Grout Soil Nailing Method
2. Self-Drilling Soil Nailing Method
3. Driven Soil Nailing Method
Drilling and Grout Soil Nailing Method
In this method, the soil nail reinforcement is inserted into a hole that is already pre drilled.
After insertion of reinforcement, it is filled using a cement grout either by gravity or low-
pressure method.
The holes are drilled using a down-the-hole hammer or a rotary percussion or a rotary. The
technique is selected based on the soil and the ground conditions.
Self-Drilling Soil Nailing Method
In this method, a drill bit is used to directly insert the reinforcement bar into the soil. The rebar
act as a drill rod and a grout pipe. This method involves simultaneous drilling and grouting,
hence it is rapid. The flushing medium used here is cement grout instead of air or water which
helps to maintain the stability of hole.
Driver Soil Nailing Method
Here, the soil-nail reinforcement is driven into the soil by ballistic method using compressed
air launcher. This can be performed either using hammering equipment or by vibratory methods
using a vibrator.
In this process, while driving the nail, the soil around the reinforcement will be displaced and
compressed. Hence, the method creates less soil disruption.
CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE:

Application of Soil Nailing

• Roadway cuts.
• Tunnel portals
• Underbridge abutments.
 • Slope stabilization
• Repair and reconstruction of existing retaining structures.
• Temporary excavation shoring.
• Steep cutting stabilizations
• Landslide redemption
• Stabilization of existing retaining wall
• Stabilizing of over steep existing embankments.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
• It is used for confined spaces with restricted access.
• It can be used on new construction, temporary structures, remodelling process as well
as to repairs the existing wall system.
• This technique is flexible, relatively quick and easy to install.
• It is a time-saving and cost-saving method.
• It requires less labour.
• No harmful impact on the environment.
• There is a restriction on wall height.
• It uses fewer materials and minimum shoring.
Disadvantages
• The metal nail will corrode.
• Not suitable for use in areas of the high-water table.
• The soil might be overexposed prior to the installation of a nail.
• Not recommended for permanent long-term application in sensitive and expansive soil.
• Requires specialized and experienced contractors.
• Sand and gravels might not be compatible with soil technique.
• In soils of low shear strength, very high soil density may be required.
ROCK BOLTING: -
Rock bolting is the process in which bolts are inserted into the fractured rocks which keeps
them in position and provides sufficient grip to them. This is the most popular and widely used
method in tunnels to keep the fractured rocks together as a mass.
A rock bolt is a long anchor bolt, for stabilizing rock excavations, which may be used in tunnels
or rock cuts. It transfers load from the unstable exterior to the confined (and much stronger)
interior of the rock mass.
The process of rock bolting consists of
(1) anchoring the bolt in a hole;
(2) applying tension to the bolt to place the rock under compression parallel to the bolt; and
(3) placing the bolts in such a pattern that they will properly support the rock structure.
Rock bolt reinforcement can be used in any excavation geometry, is simple and quick to apply,
and is relatively inexpensive. The installation can be fully mechanized. The length of the bolts
and their spacing can be varied, depending on the reinforcement requirements.
Rock bolts are used in slope stabilization, in open excavations, in tunnels, mines and in concrete
dam foundations to provide resistance to uplift and sliding.

Types of rock bolts and their functions:

1. Mechanically anchored rock bolts
2. Resin anchored rock bolts
3. Split-set friction rock bolts
4. Swellex friction bolts.
Mechanically-anchored Rock Bolts
Mechanically anchored rock bolts use expansion shells on the end of the shaft to connect the
bolt to the rock. The holes are drilled in advance and the expansion shell is placed into the role.
Make the hole about 100 mm longer than the bolt. Once the bolt is inserted pull it sharply so it
will expand a dig into the rock. This kind of bolt is best for moderately hard to hard rocks.
Resin Anchored Rock Bolts
Resin anchored rock bolts also called grouted rock bolts are sealed using a resin and a catalyst.
A catridge full of resin is placed at the resin end of hole and bolt is stuck in the hole after it.
The rebar then drilled through the hole, puncturing the catridge and causing the resin to dry
and seal the bolt in the hole. This type of rock bolt is very common because it is very simple
to install.
Split-set Friction Rock Bolts
Split-set function friction rock bolts are placed inside pre-drilled holes. They are made of
collapsed steel tubing, which is placed within the hole and twisted. This twisting causes the
tubing to expand which secures the bolt to the hole's wall. These bolts are simple to install, but
they lack tension and the bolts can't be anymore 3 m long.
Swellex Friction Bolts
Swellex friction rock bolts are similar to split-set-friction bolts. They are also made of collapsed
tubes except they expand through the use of water pressure. They are extremely simple to
install. The main problem with them is their lack of durability.
Applications of rock bolting:
• Rock bolting technique is used to stabilize the excavations of rock in rock cuts (or)
tunnels.
• It is use in underground mining such as coal mining to provide support to the rock roof
and sides of the cavity.
• It is used to enhance the drifting level in coal mines.
• It is used in reducing the damage and deformation of surrounding rock.
• This technique enhances the efficiency and driftage speed of roadway.