2.6. ENERGY BALAN 31 4 1 °G3—a wa a0 DESGN SPECIAG SPEED. No Figure 2.7; General design guidelines for pumps indicating the optimum ratio of inlet to discharge tip radius, Rrs/Rra, and discharge width ratio, Ba/Rra, for various design specific speeds, Np. Also shown are approximate pump per- formance parameters, the design flow coefficient, 44), and the design head coef- ficient, vy (adapted from Sabersky, Acosta and Hauptmann 1989}, than unity. Thus the “ideal” pump would seem to be that with a design specie speed of unity, and the maximum obtainable efficiency seems to be greatest at this specific speed. Fortunately, from a design point of view, one of the spec ifications has some flexibility, namely the shaft speed, . Though the desired flow rate and head rise are usually fixed, it may be possible to choose the drive motor to turn at a speed, £2, which brings the design specific speed close to the optimum value of unity, 2.6 ENERGY BALANCE ‘The next step in the assessment of the performance of a turbomachine is to consider the application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics to such doviees. In doing so we shall characterize the inlet and discharge Rows by their pressure, velocity, enthalpy, ete., assuming that these are uniform flows. It is understood that when the inlet and discharge flows are non-uniform, the analysis actually applies to a single streamtube and the complete energy balance requires integration over all of the streamtubes,32 CHAPTER 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES 5 mre ngunon Bos = nee § 3 oth oy 4 a) : 2p 4 1 DESIGN SPECIRC SPEED, Np Figure 2.8: Compilation by Balje (1981) of maximusn efficiencies for various Kinds of pumps as a function of design specific speed, Np. Since efficiency is also a function of Reynolds number the data has been corrected to a Reynolds, number, 227}/v, of 10" EIRGIENCY RATIO Remiols MINER, 20R%, fy Figure 2.9: The dependence of hydraulic efficiency, 1p, and shaft efficiency, ns, on Reynolds number, 2073,/v (From Balje 1981)2.6. ENERGY BALAN 2} 33 ‘The basic thermodynamic measure of the energy stored in a unit mass of flowing fluid is the total specific enthalpy (total enthalpy per unit mass) denoted by AT and defined by L po} Pont Mut ge e+ 2 + dul? + ge Maha H+ oe— 042 + Sul? +o 2.2%) where ¢ is the specific internal energy, |u| is the magnitude of the fluid velocity, ‘and = is the vertical elevation. This expression omits any energy associated with additional external forces (for example, those due to a magnetic field), and assumes that the process is chemically inert. Consider the steady state operation of a fluid machine in which the entering fhuid has a total specific enthalpy of MY, the discharging fd has a total specific enthalpy of AE, the mass flow rate is m, the net rate of heat addition to the machine is Q, and the net rate of work done on the fiuid in the machine by external means is W. It follows from the first law of thermodynamics that mT A?) = 4W (2.25) Now consider incompressible, inviscid flow. It is a fundamental property of such a flow that it contains no mechanism for an exchange of thermal and me- chanical energy, and, therefore, equation 2.25 divides into two parts, governing ‘the mechanical and thermal components of the total enthalpy, as follows (let MP tae let gia? tae) = PD (226) ee = Ofm (227) ‘Thus, for incompressible inviscid flow, the fluid mechanical problem (for which equation 2.26 represents the basie energy balance) can be decoupled from the heat transfer problem (for which the heat balance is represented by equation 2.27), It follows that, if T is the torque applied by the impeller to the fiuid, then the rate of work done on the fuid is W =. Consequently, in the ease of an ideal fluid which is incompressible and inviscid, equation 2.26 yields a relation connecting the total pressure rise across the pump, pf ~ p, the mass flow rate, 1m, and the torque: (E -PT) ? Furthermore, the second law of thermodynamics implies that, in the pres- cence of irreversible effects such as those caused by viscosity, the equality in esation 2.28 should be replaced by an inequality, namely a “less thin” sign Consequently, in a real pump operating with an incompressible Bid, visoous effects will ease some of the input energy tobe converted to heat rather than to fn imerease inthe stored energy in the fluid, It follows thet the right hand side Of equation 2.28 is the actual work done on the fluid by the impeller, and the 2 (2.28)aA CHAPTER 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES loft hand side is the fraction of that work which ends up as mechanical energy stored in the finid, It is, therefore, appropriate to define a quantity, np, known as the pump hydraulic efficiency, to represent that fraction of the work done on the fluid that ends up as an increase in the mechanical energy stored in the fini: np =m (ph — ph) foro (2.29) Of course, additional mechanical losses may occur in a pump. These can case the rate of work transmitted through the external shaft of the pump to be greater than the rate at which the impeller does work on the fuid. For example, losses may occur in the bearings or asa result of the “disk friction” losses eansed by the fluid dynamic drag on other, non-active surfaces rotating with the shaft Consequently, the overall (or shaft) elciency, ns, may be significantly smaller than yp. For approximate evaluations of these additional losses, the reader is referred to the work of Balje (1981) Despite all these loss mechanisms, pumps can be surprisingly efficient. A well designed centrifugal pump should have an overall elliciency in the neighborhood of 85% and some very large pumps (for example those in the Grand Coulee Dam) can exceed 90%. Even centrifugal pumps with quite simple and crude geometries can often be 60% efficient. 2.7 NONCAVITATING PUMP. PERFORMANCE It is useful at this point to develop an approximate and idealized evaluation of the hydraulic performance of a pump in the absence of cavitation. This will take the form of an analytical expression for the head rise (or ¥) as a function of the flow rate (or 62). To simplify this analysis itis assumed that the flow is incompressible, ax- igymmotric and steady in the rotating framework of the impeller blades; that the blades are infinitely thin; and that viscous losses can be neglected. Under these conditions the fow in any streamtube, such as depicted in igure 2.2, will follow the Bernoulli equation for a rotating system (see, for example, Sabersky, Acosta and Hauptmann 1989), ro? = 2P2 4 ug yn? (2.30) > ‘This equation can be usefully interpreted as an energy equation as follows. ‘The terms p+ jw? on either side are the total pressure or mechanical saeray per unit volume of fluid, and this quantity would be the same at inlet and discharge were it not for the fact that “potential” energy is stored in the rotating uid. ‘The term p(r? — r3)02/2 represents the difference in this “potential” energy at inlet and discharge. Clearly, when there are losses, equation 2.30 will no longer be true28. SEVERAL SPECIFIC IMPELLERS AND PUMPS 35 Using the definition of the total pressure (equation 2.13) and the relations between the velocities derived from the velocity triangles of figure 2.2, equation 2.30 can be manipulated to yield the following expression for the total pressure rise, (p] — p?), for a given streamtube: oof =m-nt$(d- an) = p(Mrave2 — Iriv91) (2.32) In the absence of inlet swirl (vs = 0), this leads to the nondimensional perfor mance characteristic » using the definitions in equations 2.16 and 2.17. Here we have assumed that the inlet and discharge conditions are uniform which, in effect, restricts the result to a turbomachine in which the widths, B; and Bp (figure 2.1), are such that By < Rrx,By < Ry2, and in which the velocities of the flow and the impeller are uniform across both the inlet and the discharge. Usually this is not the case, and the results given by equations 2.32 and 2.33 then become applicable to each individual streamtube, Integration over all the streamtubes is necessary to obtain the performance characteris of this integration was given in section 2.3. Even in these no: simple expression 2.33 is widely used in combination with some m discharge blade angle, 62, to estimate the performance of pump. Tis important to note that the above results ean be connected with those of the preceding section by applying the angular momentum theorem (Newton's second law of motion applied to rotational motion) to relate the torque, T, to the net flux of angular momentum out of the pump: $2 cot doo (2.33) ic for the machine. An example form cases, the 2 oF effective T= (rave — rive) (234) where, as before, m is the mass flow rate. Note that this momentum equation 2.34 holds whether or not there are viscous losses. In the absence of viscous losses, a second expression for the torque, T, follows from equation 2.28. By equating the two expressions, the result 2.32 for the performance in the absence of viscous losses is obtained by an alternative method. 2.8 SEVERAL SPECIFIC IMPELLERS AND PUMPS ‘Throughout this monograph, we shall make reference to experimental data on various phenomena obtained with several specific impellers and pumps. It is, appropriate at this point to include a brief description of these components, ‘The descriptions will also serve as convenient examples of pump geometries. Impeller X, which is shown in figure 2.10, is a five-bladed centrifugal pump impeller made by Byron Jackson Pump Division of Borg Wamer International