Atomic Structure

Thomson’s atom model, Rutherford’s atom

model and its limitations, Rutherford
scattering, Bohr’s atom model and the
postulates, Atomic Spectra, Zeeman effect.

References:
Concepts of Modern Physics (6th Ed) – Arthur Beiser
Modern_Physics_For_Scientists_and_Engineers_Thornton_4th_ed
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 Atom? what are the basic constituents of
it?
Scientists of the late nineteen century knew almost nothing about
atoms
One clue was the discovery that

Atoms electrons negative charges

So the positive charges must be present in the atoms.

How are the electrons arranged and
where are the positive charges in an
atom? 2
Thomson Atomic model
Thomson proposed a model that the positive
charges were spread out uniformly
throughout a sphere and electrons were
embedded (surrounded) in the uniform
background like raisins in plum pudding, is
shown schematically in Fig.

This is the so-called “plum-pudding” model.

As per Thomson atom model, when the atom

was heated, the electrons could vibrate about
their equilibrium positions, thus producing
electromagnetic radiation.
Thomson was unable to calculate the light
spectrum of hydrogen using his model. 3
 Rutherford Scattering experiment
Zinc sulfide screen, which gives off a visible flash of light when struck by alpha particle, was
set on the other side of the thin foil with microscope to see the flashes

Geiger and Marsden set up a alpha

particle scattering experiment
under the instruction of
Rutherford.

Rutherford expected that alpha particles

can pass through the thin foil without
any deviation or with deflected 1° or
less.

4
 But experimentally found that
most of the alpha particles
indeed were not deviated by
much a few were scattered
through very large angle.
some were even scattered in
the backward direction.

Those alpha particles which pass closer to a target nucleus, intense electric field scatters it
through a large angle. The deflection of alpha particle depends on the magnitude of the
charges of target nucleus and the separation between alpha particle and target nucleus.

5
 The Rutherford model of the atom
Rutherford suggested that atom is consisted with the nucleus and number of electrons
some distance away. He proposed that electrons circle the nucleus as planets do the sun.
The protons & neutrons are concentrated in a nucleus by the nuclear force.

Atom has a lot of space inside it.

Why do most alpha particles go

right through a thin foil?

Why do a few alpha particles

scatter through very large angle?
Atom consisted of a small, massive, positively
charged “nucleus” surrounded by moving electrons.
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 Rutherford scattering gives us a way to find an upper limit to nuclear
dimensions.
Alpha particles can approach with kinetic energy only the surface of target
nucleus.
distance of closest approach, R
Alpha
particles
target nucleus

R
2e Ze

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At the instant of closest approach the initial kinetic energy
KE of the particle is entirely converted to electric potential
energy.

We know that nuclear radii vary from 1×10-15 to 8×10-15 m.

The size of an atom was thought to be about 1×10-10m. 8
Assumptions of Rutherford Scattering:
• The target nucleus is so massive compared with the alpha particle.
• Both alpha particle and target nucleus are small enough to be considered as point masses
and charges.
• During scattering, the repulsive force between them is to be considered only.
• Both the kinetic energy and momentum are the same before and after the scattering.

Impact parameter, b:
The impact parameter is the perpendicular
distance to the closest approach between
θ
the beam particle and target if the
projectile continued in a straight line. b
Scattering angle, θ:
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Relationship between Impact parameter, b and Scattering angle, θ:

Cross section, σ:

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 Failure of Classical Physics
• We know from classical electromagnetic theory
that an accelerated electric charge continuously
radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. So the total energy E of the system must
decrease continuously.
• When the electron in an atom is accelerating due
to its circular motion about the nucleus. Electron
• It will continuously radiate energy as the electron
orbit becomes smaller and smaller until the
electron collapses into the nucleus.

Limitations of Rutherford Atom Model

He can’t explain the existence of an atom and Nucleus
can’t explain the origin of line spectra.

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Bohr Atom Model

Bohr combined ideas from Planck’s original quantum theory,

Einstein’s concept of the photon, Rutherford’s planetary model
of the atom, and Newtonian mechanics to arrive at a
semiclassical structural model based on some revolutionary
ideas.

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 Postulates of Bohr Atom Model
In an atom, electrons revolve around the charged nucleus in a definite
circular orbits or shells with fixed energy. Orbiting electrons do not
radiate energy. m
v
r

The angular momentum of the system in a stationary state is an integral

multiple of h bar

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Postulates of Bohr Atom Model
when electrons jump from lower
level to upper level, it absorbs the
required energy and an electron
moves from higher energy level to
lower energy level by losing
single photon energy.

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Circumference =2 wavelengths Circumference =4 wavelengths Circumference =8 wavelengths

If we consider the vibrations of a wire loop we find that their wavelengths fit an integral
number of times into the loop’s circumference so that each wave joins smoothly with the
next.

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 Establish the following relationship

Circumference =1 wavelength

• Figures show the wave behavior of an electron in orbit around a hydrogen nucleus. .

An electron can circle a nucleus only if its orbit contains an

integral number of de Broglie wavelengths.

16
 2

where n is an integer called the principal quantum number.

The de-Broglie wavelength of electron is

17
Orbital radii in Bohr atom m
v
r
The centripetal force

The electric force

Electron velocity

According to Bohr’s postulate

Orbital radii in Bohr atom 18

 2

Energy levels in Bohr atom

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 n=1 , 2, 3

• From the above equations the total energy is quantized due to the presence of principal
quantum number n.
• The value n=1 gives the energy of the hydrogen atom in its lowest energy state
called the “ground” state. The values of n˃ 1 determine other possible radii or energies
where the hydrogen atom is in an “excited” states.
• As principal quantum number n increases, the total energy En approaches closer to 0.
How much energy is required to an electron from an atom in its ground?
Ionization energy: the energy required to raise an electron from an atom in
its ground state to an energy of E=0. The ionization energy is –E1 or 13.6 eV.

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 Principal quantum number, n=1 , 2, 3, …etc
n=∞ E∞= 0
Ground state Energy, =-13.6 eV

Excited states are E2, E3,E4, …etc

n=3 E3= -1.51 eV
m
v
r n=2 E2= -3.4 eV

Ionization energy:
The ionization energy is –E1 or 13.6 eV.
How much energy is required to move an electron from an
atom in its ground? n=1 E1= -13.6 eV
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 When an electron in an excited state drops to a lower state, the loss of energy is emitted as
single photon energy.
Let an electron in an excited (Let Ei) state drops to a n=∞ E∞= 0
lower state (Let Ef), the loss of energy is emitted as
single photon energy. Ei

Initial energy - final energy = photon energy n=3 Ef

n=2

n=1 E1= -13.622 eV

 The frequencies of the photons in
the emission spectrum are directly
proportional to the differences in
energy of the stationary states.

Rydber
constant

This equation represents the wavelengths of all possible transitions in hydrogen

atom. It depends on the final energy level (nf) of electron. Different types of series
are shown in the figure. 23
 Spectral Series
Lyman series: nf= 1 and ni = 2,3,4…

Balmer series: nf= 2 and ni = 3,4,5…

Paschen series: nf= 3 and ni = 4,5,6…

Bracket series: nf= 4 and ni = 5,6,7…

pfund series: nf= 5 and ni = 6,7,8…

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Transitions between many of the stationary states in the hydrogen atom
 Example
An electron collides with a hydrogen atom in its ground state and
excites it to a state of n = 3. How much energy was given to the
hydrogen atom in this inelastic (KE not conserved) collision?

Solution

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Limitations of Bohr Atomic Model
• It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The Bohr
atomic model considers electrons to have both known position
and momentum at the same time, which is impossible
according to Heisenberg.
• The Bohr atomic model made correct predictions for smaller
sized atoms like hydrogen, but poor spectral predictions are
obtained when larger atoms are considered.
• It failed to explain the Zeeman effect when the spectral line is
split into several components in the presence of a magnetic
field.
• It failed to explain the Stark effect when the spectral line gets
split up into fine lines in the presence of electric field. 26
Zeeman effect
B
The splitting of spectral lines by a
magnetic field is called Zeeman effect

27
 Zeeman effect
Establish a relationship between µ and L
m
v
r

Magnetic moment of a current

loop enclosing area A

Electron magnetic moment

28
 Zeeman effect: atoms interaction with magnetic field

The dipole moment, µ of this atom will experience a torque

The dipole also has a potential energy UB in the

field given by

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Zeeman effect

B or Lz

L
θ

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Zeeman effect
Magnetic Energy,

Energy without magnetic field B

Frequency without
magnetic field is

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 Zeeman effect
Frequency without magnetic field is
New frequency in presence of magnetic field is

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Selection Rules

In the absence of a magnetic field, a single spectral line with photon energy
Ei-Ef will be found when a transition will occur between l=2 to l=1. In
presence of a magnetic field, Figure shows the splitting of both the l=2 and
l=1 states. Equal energy difference between adjacent levels It might seem
that there are five possible photon energies.

In fact, there are only three possibilities. Not all combinations of initial and
final levels are possible because of a restriction associated with conservation of
angular momentum. A transition l must change by 1 and ml must change by 0 or
±1. These requirements are called selection rules.

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 Zeeman effect

E3

Selection Rules

E2

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