Atoms

Chapter - 12
Atoms
Atom is the smallest particle of an element. It consists of protons, neutrons and electrons.
The first model of atom was proposed by J.J.Thomson in 1898. According to this model,
the positive charge of the atom is uniformly distributed and the negatively charged electrons are
embedded in it (like seeds in a watermelon). This model was called a plum pudding model.
Thomson’s atom model failed to satisfy the results of the experiments performed later by
Rutherford and others. According to Rutherford’s nuclear model atom consists of central
positively charged nucleus and electrons revolve round the nucleus in circular orbits (like planets
revolve round the sun).
Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment (Geiger and Marsden)
In 1911, H.Geiger and E.Marsden performed the
alpha scattering experiment at the suggestion of
Rutherford. The experimental arrangement is as
shown in the diagram. S is a radioactive source
(83Bi214) contained in a lead cavity. Alpha particles
(5.5 MeV) emitted by this source are collimated into
a narrow beam. The collimated beam of alpha
particles is allowed to fall on thin a gold foil of thickness 2.1 x 10-7 m. The α-particles scattered
in different directions are observed through a rotatable detector consisting of zinc sulphide (ZnS)
screen and a microscope. The α-particles produce bright flashes on the ZnS screen. These are
observed in the microscope and counted at different angles from the direction of the incident
beam. The angle of deviation θ of the alpha particles from its initial direction is called
Scattering Angle.
The graph obtained by plotting the number of α-
particles scattered in a given time as a function of
scattering angle. The dots in the graph represents
data points in the actual experiment and the solid
curve is the theoretical prediction based on the
assumption that atom has a small positively charge
nucleus at its centre. It is from the graph that
i. Many of the α-particles pass straight through the gold foil. That means they do not
suffer any collision with gold atoms.

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ii. Only about 0.14% of incident α-particles scatter by more than 10.
iii. About one α-particle in every 8000 α-particles deflects by more than 90°.
Rutherford’s Nuclear Model Of Atom
1. The atom has a small positively charged nucleus. All the positive charge of the atom and
most of the mass of the atom are concentrated in the nucleus.
2. The dimensions of the nucleus are negligibly small as compared to the overall size of the
atom so that most of the volume occupied by an atom is actually an empty space.
3. The atomic nucleus is surrounded by certain number of electrons as atom is electrically
neutral the total negative charge on the electrons surrounding the nucleus is equal to the
total positive charge on the nucleus.
4. The electrons in the atom revolve round the nucleus in various circular orbits. The
centripetal force required for the revolution of the electron is provided by the electrostatic
force of attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
5. The size of the nucleus to be about 10-15 m to 10-14 m. The size of the atom is about
10-10 m. Therefore most of an atom is empty space in which electrons revolve round the
nucleus.
6. The trajectory of an alpha particle can be computed employing Newton’s second law of
motion and the coulomb’s law for electrostatic force of repulsion between the alpha
particle and the positively charged nucleus.
( )( )
The magnitude of this force is F=

Where Ze = charge of gold nucleus.

2e = charge on alpha particle.
r = distance between alpha particle and the nucleus.
Alpha Particle Trajectory
Alpha particle trajectory traced by a α-particle depends on
the impact parameter ‘b’ of collision. The impact parameter
is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of
the α-particle from the centre of the nucleus.
For large impact parameters, force experienced by

the alpha particle is weak because F α Hence, the alpha particle will deviate through a much

smaller angle.
When impact parameter is small, force experienced is large and hence, the alpha particle will
scatter through a large angle.

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Expression For Electron Orbits

From the centripetal force and coulomb’s force we have

F= ... (1) and F= ... (2)

From equation (1) and (2)

Or r=

We have K.E = mV2

∴ K.E = ( )

Also P.E = -

∴ T.E = K.E + P.E

E= ( )-

E= ( )

E=-

Atomic Spectra
Each element emits a characteristic spectrum of radiation. In the excited state, the atoms emit
radiations of a spectrum which contains certain specific wavelengths only. This spectrum is
termed as line emission spectrum and it consists of bright lines on a dark background. This line
emission spectrum is also called as finger print spectrum.
The spectrum emitted by atomic hydrogen is as shown

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Spectral Series
When the hydrogen atom in the lower energy state or ground state, it absorbs energy and
jumps into the higher energy state called excited state, but this state is unstable therefore
electrons returns to the ground state by emitting the energy and it is observed in the form of
radiations. These radiations give rise to spectral lines or spectral series.
In hydrogen atom, when an electron jumps from the orbit n2 to n1, the wavelength of the

emitted radiation is given by =R* + R → Rydberg’s constant (1.09678 x 107 m-1)

The different spectral series are

1. Lyman Series: When the electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from higher
energy state to the first orbit is called Lyman series.

In this series n1 = 1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4 ...∞ =R* +

This series lie in Ultraviolet region.

2. Balmer Series: When the electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from higher
energy state to the second orbit is called Balmer series.

In this series n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5 ...∞ =R* +

This series lie in visible region.

If the electron makes a transition from 3rd orbit to 2nd orbit then it is called Hα line.
Similarly 4th to 2nd, 5th to 2nd and 6th to 2nd orbits are called H , Hγ and H lines
respectively.
3. Paschen Series: When the electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from higher
energy state to the third orbit is called Paschen series.

In this series n1 = 3 and n2 = 4, 5, 6 ...∞ =R* +

This series lie in Infrared region.

4. Brackett Series: When the electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from higher
energy state to the fourth orbit is called Brackett series.

In this series n1 = 4 and n2 = 5, 6, 7 ...∞ =R* +

This series lie in Infrared region.

5. P-fund Series: When the electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from higher
energy state to the fifth orbit is called P-fund series.

In this series n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7, 8 ...∞ =R* +

This series lie in Far Infrared region.

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Series Limit: The lowest wavelength in any series is called series limit of that series. This is the
wavelength of the line due to transition from n2 = ∞ to the corresponding n1 for that series.
Eg:- Series limit for Lyman series n1 = 1 and n2 = ∞
Series limit for P-fund series n1 = 5 and n2 = ∞

Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

 According to Rutherford an atom consists of central positively charged nucleus and
electrons revolve round the nucleus in circular orbits.
 The necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between
the electrons and the nucleus (Coulomb’s force).
But according to classical mechanics, any charged particle revolving has to radiate energy i.e.,
the electron revolving round the nucleus must lose energy and follows a spiral path and then
finally fall into the nucleus. This shows that atom is unstable but practically atom is stable.
The stability of the atom was explained by Niels Bohr in 1913. According to Bohr the
postulates are,
1. The electron while revolving in particular (stationary) orbit, it neither emit energy nor
absorbs energy, it emits or absorb energy only when it jumps from one orbit to another
orbit.
2. The electron can revolve in some particular orbits which satisfy the condition

mvr = or L=

(angular momentum = integral multiple of )

Where n → principal quantum number

m→ mass of the electron
v → velocity of the electron
r → radius of the electron’s orbit
h → Planck’s constant (6.625 x 10-34J-s)
3. Let the electron make a transition from stationary orbit of higher energy E2 to a stationary
orbit of lower energy E1 then the energy emitted is given by
E = E2 – E1
Or hυ = E2 – E1

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Expression for Radius of the Electrons Orbit

Consider an atom of atomic number Z. The charge on its nucleus -e
V
is +Ze. Let an electron of charge – e is revolving round the nucleus in a r
circular orbit of radius ‘r’ and velocity ‘V’. According to Coulomb’s
+ Ze
attractive force
[[
F= ... (1)

And for centripetal force F= ... (2)

From equations (1) and (2) =

mV2 = ... (3)

We have from Bohr postulate mvr =

V=

Squaring ∴ V2 =

(3) =

r=

Note: Using constant values for first orbit in hydrogen atom (Z = 1) is r = 0.53Å
Expression for Total Energy of the Electron
We have T.E (En) = K.E + P.E ... (1)

K.E = ( )

Also P.E = -

(1) En = ( )-

En = ( )

En = -

But r=

∴ En = -

En = -

For H-atom Z = 1 ∴ En = -

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Note:
 - ve sign indicates that energy must be supplied to remove an electron from the field of
the nucleus
 Using constant values En = - eV

 P.E = - 2 K.E
 En = - K.E
Energy Level Diagram for a Hydrogen Atom
When an electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from higher
energy level to the lower energy level, the energy emitted
will be as per the radiation of particular wavelength. The
spacing’s of one orbit to another orbit are proportional to
their difference in their energies.
The energy of electron in the nth orbit of H-atom is
En = - eV

For n = 1 E1 = - = - 13.6 eV

For n = 2 E2 = - = - 3.4 eV

For n = 3 E3 = - = - 1.51 eV

For n = ∞ E∞ = - = 0 eV

Line Spectra of the Hydrogen Atom

When an electron in H-atom jumps from
the E2 to E1 then the energy emitted is in
the form of radiation of particular
wavelength.
i.e., E = E2 – E1

hυ = - +

but υ =

∴ = * +

= * +

=R* +

Where R = = 1.097 x 107 m-1.

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Excitation Energy: It is the minimum amount of energy required to raise an electron from its
ground state to an excited state.
Excitation Potential: The potential difference required to transfer an electron from its ground
state to a higher energy state.
Ionisation Energy: It is the minimum amount of energy required to remove the electron from
the influence of the nucleus.
Ionisation Potential: It is the minimum potential difference required to remove the electron
from the influence of the nucleus.
Note: Excitation Energy in eV = Excitation Potential in V
Ionisation Energy in eV = Ionisation Potential in V
De Broglie’s Explanation of Bohr’s Second Postulate of Quantisation
According to the second postulate of Bohr atom model, the angular momentum of electron

revolving around the nucleus is quantised and it has value equal to integral multiple of

i.e., L = where n = 1, 2, 3.... The explanation of this is given by de-Broglie in 1923.

According to de-Broglie, the electron in its circular orbit must be seen as a particle wave.
If the stretched string fixed at two ends is plucked, a large number of wavelengths are excited,
but the waves which survive on the string are those which form standing waves with nodes at the
two ends of the string. It means that in a string, the waves which survive are those which travel a
total distance down the string and back equal to integral number of wavelength.
For an electron moving in the nth circular orbit of radius rn with speed vn,
Total distance travelled = circumference of the orbit
= 2πrn
∴ 2πrn = nλ

2πrn = n (∵λ = )

mvnrn =

or L=

This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for angular momentum of electron.
Limitations or Drawbacks or Demerits of Bohr’s Theory
1. The theory can be applied only to hydrogen and to hydrogen like atoms i.e., only for
single electron only.
2. It fails to explain the intensity distribution of spectra lines.

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List of Formulas

K.E = ( ) P.E = - =R* +

E = E2 – E1 r= En = -

Questions
1. Obtain an expression for energy of electron orbits based on Rutherford theory.
2. Explain spectral series of hydrogen atom.
3. Define Excitation energy.
4. Define Excitation potential.
5. Define Ionisation Energy.
6. Define Ionisation potential.
7. The first member of the Balmer series of hydrogen atom has wavelength of
656.3nm. Calculate the wavelength and frequency of the second member of the
same series. Given, c = 3×108 m/s. (M.Q.P-I (5m), March-17 (5m))
8. Mention two observations of Rutherford’s alpha ray scattering experiment. (M.Q.P-
II(2m))
9. Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expression for the radius of nth stationary orbit of
hydrogen atom. (M.Q.P-II (3m), March-15 (3m), March-2020 (5m), September-2020
(3m))
10. Write three postulates of Bohr. Mention two limitations of Bohr model. (March-14 (5m))
11. Assuming the expression for radius of the orbit, derive an expression for total energy of
an electron in hydrogen atom. (July-14 (5m), July-16 (5m), July-17 (5m), July-18 (5m),
June-19 (5m))
12. Name the spectral series of hydrogen which lies in the ultraviolet region of
electromagnetic spectrum. (March-15 (1m))
13. Name the spectral series of hydrogen atom in the visible region of electromagnetic
spectrum. (July-15 (1m), June-19 (1m))
14. State Bohr’s postulates. (July-15 (3m), March-18 (3m), March-19 (3m))
15. Calculate the shortest and longest wavelengths of Balmer series of hydrogen atom. Given
R = 1.097 x 107 m-1. (March-16 (5m))
16. Draw the diagram representing the schematic arrangement of Geiger-Marsden
experimental set up for the alpha particle scattering. (March-18 (2m))

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17. Write the expression for energy of an electron in electron orbit of hydrogen atom.
(March-19 (1m))
18. Write the limitations of Bohr’s atomic model. (September-2020 (2m))
Problems
1. Calculate the radius of the first Bohr orbit of an electron in a helium atom (Z = 2).

Solution: Z=2 r=
( ) ( )
n=1 r= ( )

r=? r = 0.2656 Å
2. The radius of the electron in the first Bohr orbit of hydrogen is 0.053 nm. Calculate the
kinetic energy, potential energy and hence the total energy of the electron.

Solution: K.E = ( )

( )
K.E = ( )

K.E = 21.73 x 10-19 J

K.E =

K.E = 13.58 eV

P.E = -
( )
P.E = -

P.E = - 43.471 x 10-19 J

P.E = -

P.E = - 27.169 eV
E = K.E + P.E
E = 13.58 – 27.169
E = - 13.589 eV
3. Calculate the wavelength for Hα line of hydrogen spectrum. Find the wavelength of
Balmer series limit. Assume the Rydbery constant to be 1.097 x 107 m-1.
Solution: for Hα line n1 = 2 and n2 = 3

=R* +

= 1.097 x 107 * +

= 1.097 x 107 * +

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= 0.1524 x 107

λ=

λ = 6.561 x 10-7 m
for series limit of Balmer series n1 = 2 and n2 = ∞

=R* +

= 1.097 x 107 * +

λ=

λ = 3.646 x 10-7 m
4. The ionisation potential of hydrogen like atom is 14.2 V. Calculate the series limit in its
absorption spectrum.
Solution: Ionisation potential = 14.2 V
∴ E = 14.2 eV
E = 14.2 x 1.6 x 10-19
E = 22.72 x 10-19 J

E=

λ= =

λ = 0.8747 x 10-7 m
5. The first member of Balmer series of hydrogen spectrum has wavelength 6563 Å.
Compute the wavelength of second member, also calculate the series limit of Balmer
series.

Solution: =R* +

first member of Balmer series: n1 = 2 and n2 = 3

=R* +

= R* + ... (1)

Second member of Balmer series: n1 = 2 and n2 = 4

=R* +=R* + ... (2)

( ) * +
=
( ) * +

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λ = 6563 x 10-10 * +

λ = 4861 Å

For series limit of Balmer series: n1 = 2 and n2 = ∞

=R* +

=R* + ... (3)

( ) * +
=
( ) * +

λlimit = 6563 x 10-10 * +

λlimit = 3645.7 Å
6. An electron in hydrogen atom in the ground state is excited to n = 4 state. Calculate the
energy absorbed and the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation emitted when the
atom comes to ground state.
[Ground state energy of hydrogen atom = - 13.6 eV]
Solution: E1 = - 13.6 eV
En = - eV

For n = 4, E4 = - =-

E4 = - 0.85 eV
Energy absorbed E = E4 – E1
E = - 0.85 + 13.6
E = 12.75 eV
E = 12.75 x 1.6 x10-19
E = 20.4 x 10-19 J

= 20.4 x 10-19

λ=

λ = 0.9742 x 10-7 m
7. When certain energy is supplied to hydrogen atom, electrons jumps from n = 1 to n = 3
state. Find
(i) The energy absorbed by the electron.
(ii) Wavelength of radiation emitted when the electron jumps back to its initial state.

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[Energy of electron in the first orbit = - 13.6 eV, Planck’s constant = 6.625 x 10-34 J-s,
charge on electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C and speed of light in vacuum = 3 x 108 ms-1]
Solution: E1 = - 13.6 eV
En = - eV

For n = 3, E3 = - =-

E3 = - 1.51 eV
Energy absorbed E = E3 – E1
E = - 1.51 + 13.6
E = 12.089 eV
E = 12.089 x 1.6 x10-19
E = 19.342 x 10-19 J

= 19.342 x 10-19

λ=

λ = 1.027 x 10-7 m
8. The wavelength of first line in Balmer series is 6563 Å. Calculate the longest and the
shortest wavelengths of the spectral lines in the Lyman series.
Solution: first line of Balmer series
n1 = 2 and n2 = 3

=R* +

=R* +

= R* + ... (1)

For Longest wavelength of Lyman series n1 = 1 and n2 = 2

=R* +

=R* + ... (2)

( ) * +
=
( ) * +

λ = 6563 x 10-10 * +

λLongest = 1215.37 Å
For Shortest wavelength of Lyman series n1 = 1 and n2 = ∞

=R* +=R ... (3)

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( ) * +
=
( )

λ = 6563 x 10-10 * +

λShortest = 911.52 Å
9. In accordance with the Bohr’s model, find the quantum number that characterises the
earth’s revolution around the sun in an orbit of radius 1.5 x 1011 m with orbital speed 3 x
104 ms-1. (mass of earth = 6 x 1024 kg)

Solution: r = 1.5 x 1011 m mvr =

C = 3 x 104 ms-1 n=

m = 6 x 1024 kg n=

n = 25.593 x 1073
10. The first member of the Balmer series of hydrogen atom has wavelength of
656.3nm. Calculate the wavelength and frequency of the second member of the
same series. Given, c = 3×108 m/s. (M.Q.P-I (5m), March-17 (5m))
Solution: =R* +

first member of Balmer series: n1 = 2 and n2 = 3

=R* +

= R* + ... (1)

Second member of Balmer series: n1 = 2 and n2 = 4

=R* +=R* + ... (2)

( ) * +
=
( ) * +

λ = 656.3 x 10-9 * +

λ = 486.14 nm

C=fλ

f= =

f = 0.006171 x 1017
f = 6.171 x 1014 Hz

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11. Calculate the shortest and longest wavelengths of Balmer series of hydrogen atom. Given
R = 1.097 x 107 m-1. (March-16 (5m))
Solution: for Shortest wavelength: n1 = 2 and n2 = ∞

=R* +=R* +=

λS =

λS = 3.646 x 10-7 m
for Longest wavelength: n1 = 2 and n2 = 3

=R* +=R* + = 1.097 x 107 * +

λL =

λL = 6.587 x 10-7 m

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