Chapter 12 Atoms

The first model of atom was proposed by J.J. Thomson. According to this model the positive charge of
atom is uniformly distributed throughout the volume and negatively charged electrons are embedded in
it like seeds in watermelon. This model failed to explain many properties of atom.
Failure of Rutherford's Model
In Rutherford's model of an atom revolving electron is considered stable like Sun planet system while
planetary system is held by the gravitational force, the nucleus- electron system been charged objects
interact by the coulomb’s force.
But the electron revolving in circular of it is constantly accelerated. According to classical
electromagnetic theory the accelerated charged particle emits radiation in the form of electromagnetic
waves. The energy of the accelerated electrons should therefore, continuously decrease. The electron
was spiral in words and eventually fall into the nucleus such atom cannot be stable.
According to classical electromagnetic theory, the frequency of the electromagnetic waves emitted by
revolving electrons is equal to the frequency of revolution. As the electron continuously spiral in words
its angular velocity and hence its frequency would change continuously. Thus the electrons to emit a
continuous spectrum, but we can observe line spectrum.

Alpha particle scattering experiments:

As per the suggestions of Rutherford Geiger and Marsden performed this experiment.

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Alpha-particles emitted by a 𝐵𝑖83 radioactive source were collimated(parallel) into a narrow beam by
their passage through lead bricks. The beam was allowed to fall on a thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1 ×
10–7 m. The scattered alpha-particles were observed through a rotatable detector consisting of zinc
sulphide screen and a microscope. The scattered alpha-particles on striking the screen produced brief
light flashes which were viewed through a microscope and the distribution of the number of scattered
particles may be studied as a function of angle of scattering.
The alpha particle emerging from the gold foil in different directions could be counted by α- particle
detector. The angle Ө of the deviation of an α- particle from its original direction is called scattering
angle Ө. The whole apparatus was arranged inside a vacuum chamber to prevent scattering of α-
particle.
Observations:
1) Most of the alpha particles were found to pass through the gold foil without any appreciable
deflection.
2) The different alpha particles suffered different deflections. A large number of alpha particles
suffered fairly large deflection.
3) About one in 8000 got deflected by more than 900
4) The graph between the total number of 𝛼 particles N(Ө) scattered through an angle Ө was
shown below

Explanation:
Rutherford assumed that the scattering of alpha particles from the gold atoms was due to coulomb’s
interaction between the positive charge of the alpha particle and the positive charge in the gold atom.
Conclusions:

1. Since most of the alpha particles passed undeviated, the atom has a lot of empty space in it.
2. According to Rutherford, the scattering of α- particle is due to the repulsive force of the positive
nucleus on the positively charged α- particles.
3. The α- particles which pass through the atom at large distances from the nucleus experience a
small repulsive force due to nucleus and hence undergo very small deflections.
4. The α- particles which pass closer to the nucleus experience large repulsive forces and hence
scatter through large angles.
5. A very small number of α- particles travel head on collision towards nucleus.
6. These particles slow down, finally stops and then repels back and retraces its path or suffers
deflection of 1800.
7. The size of the nucleus is about 10-15 m to 10-14 m. The size of the atom is of 10-10m
8. The electrons are moving in the orbits about the nucleus just as the planets do around the sun.
1
9. The size of the nucleus is about 1000 𝑡ℎ the size of the atom.
Note: the magnitude of the interaction force between the alpha particle and the nucleus is
1 (2𝑒)(𝑧𝑒)
F = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2
0

r is the distance between α particles and the nucleus.

Alpha Particle Trajectory

The trajectory traced by an alpha particle depends on the impact parameter, b , of collision.
Impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of the α- particle from the
centre of the nucleus.
In case of head-on- collision, the impact parameter is minimum and the alpha particle rebounds back
(Ө ≈ П ) ( impact parameter ≈ 0)
For Large impact parameter, the alpha particle goes nearly undeviated and has a small deflection
( Ө ≈ Ө)
Electron Orbits:
In Rutherford's model, an atom is considered to be electrically neutral sphere consisting of very small,
massive and positively charged nucleus at the centre are surrounded by the revolving electrons in the
respective dynamically stable orbits. The electrostatic force of attraction (Fe) between the revolving
electrons and the nucleus provides the requisite centripetal force (Fc) to keep their in their orbits.
Energy of the electron
Thus for the dynamic stable Orbit in hydrogen atom,

Fc = F e
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

1 𝑒2
𝑚𝑣 2 = ------------(1)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

1 𝑒2
⟹𝑟= (orbital radius)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑣 2

1
Kinetic Energy ∴ K.E = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Substitute eq 1 in the above expression

1 1 𝑒2
K.E = 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

1 𝑒2
K.E = 8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

Potential Energy U = (charge on electron) X (electrostatic potential of nucleus)

 1 𝑒
= -e X 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

1 −𝑒 2
= 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

1 𝑒2 1 𝑒2 −1 𝑒 2
Thus the total energy E = K.E + U = 8𝜋𝜀 − =
𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

Total energy of the electron is –ve. This implies the fact that the electron is bound to the nucleus. If E
were +ve, an electron will not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.
Atomic spectra
When an atomic gas or vapour is excited at low pressure, bypassing electric current through it, emitted
radiation has a spectrum which contains Pacific wavelengths only. It is called emission line spectrum and
it consists of bright lines on dark, we find dark lines in the spectrum. These dark lines correspond
precisely to those wavelengths which are found in emission line spectrum off the gas. This is called the
absorption spectrum of material of the gas.
The study of emission line spectra of the material can serve as "fingerprint" for the identification of the
gas.
Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom:
It was Neil Bohr who made certain modifications in the model and gave his theory in the form of 3
postulates:
Bohr’s 1st Postulate:
An electron in an atom would revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy.
According to this postulate, each atom has certain definite stable states in which it can exist and each
possible state has definite total energy. These are called stationary states of atom.

Bohr’s 2nd Postulate:

The electron revolves around the nucleus, only in those orbits for which the angular momentum is some
ℎ
integral multiple of 2𝜋
, where h – Plank’s constant.
Thus angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantised i.e.
𝑛ℎ
L = 2𝜋 where n=1,2,3…… it is also called principal quantum number
And L=mvr

Bohr’s 3rd Postulate:

It states that an electron might make a transition from one of its specified non- radiating orbits to
another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having an energy equal to the energy
difference between the initial and final states.
The frequency of the emitted photon is given by:
hv = Ei – Ef where Ei & Ef are energies of initial and final states
& Ei > Ef.
Radius of electron Orbit
 In General,
r n = n 2a o

Total energy of electron

Total energy of electron in the stationary state of hydrogen atom can be found out as follows.
We have already found that
−1 𝑒 2
E= 8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝜀0
Put rn = in place of r.
𝜋 𝑚𝑒

−𝑚𝑒 4
∴ En = 8𝜀0 2 ℎ2 𝑛2

−2.18 𝑋 10−18
Substituting values, En = J
𝑛2

1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

−13.6
∴ En = 𝑛2
eV

The negative sign indicates that electron is bound to the nucleus. Energy will thus be required to remove
For the first Orbit, n=1
E1 = -13.6 eV
𝐸1
In general, En = 𝑛2

The above equations involve the assumption that the electronic are circular, through the orbits under
Inverse Square force are elliptical. It was shown by Somerfield that, where restrictions of circular orbits
is relaxed, these equations hold even for elliptic orbits.
Energy levels
The energy of an atom is least when its electron is revolving in the orbit closest to the nucleus. For n=1
the energy is progressively larger in the outer Orbits. The lowest state of the atom, into the lowest
energy is called its ground state.
The minimum energy required to read the electron from the ground state of the hydrogen atom is
+13.6eV. It is called ionization energy of the hydrogen atom.
In the excited States, such as n=1,n=2.......
E2= -3.40eV , E3 = -1.51eV and so on i.e the minimum energy required to free the electron from the
excited atom decreases.
Diagram given below be seen that the highest energy corresponds to n= ∞ and has energy= 0 eV.
This is the energy of the atom the electron is completely removed from the nucleus and is at rest.
The line spectra of the hydrogen atom.
Derivation of Rydberg’s formula
Limitations of Bohr's Model
1. It is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be even extended even to two electron atom as helium.
2. The reason is, in many electron atom the electron interacts not only with the nucleus but other
electrons as well. Bohr's model involved electrical force between positively charged nucleus and
electron but not between the electrons.
3. It cannot explain the relative intensities of different lines in the spectrum.