Atomic Structure

Sub Atomic particles :

The particles found within an atom from which it is made up
of are called sub-atomic particles. There are about more than
40 different sub-atomic particles.
Eg, electron, proton, neutron, positron, meson etc.
Fundamental particles:
Those sub atomic particles which are responsible for general
properties and overall behavior of an atom are called
fundamental particles. They are electron, proton and neutron.
Electron:
An electron is negatively charged particle revolving around
nucleus. It was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1879.
The charge on electron = -1.602 × 10-19 coulomb and mass
of electron = 9.1 × 10 – 31 Kg.
Proton:
Proton is positively charged particle found in the nucleus of
atom with neutron. It was discovered by E. Goldstein in
1886. the charge on proton = + 1.6× 10-19 coulomb and
mass of proton = 1.672 ×10-27Kg.
Neutron:
Neutron is sub-atomic particle present in nucleus of an atom
along with proton. It is electrically neutral. It was
discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. Mass of neutron =
1.675×10 -27 Kg.
Nucleus:
Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons . As the mass of
electron is negligible as compared to proton and neutron, so
the whole mass of an atom is considered to be the mass of
nucleus.
Atomic number (Z):
It is defined as the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom. It is represented by Z. Since atom is electrically neutral,
so it is also equal to number of electrons.
Atomic number (Z)=No. of protons =no. of electrons.
Mass number(A):
The total number of protons and neutrons (together called as
nucleons) is called mass number. It is represented by A.
Mass number (A)= no. of protons + no. of neutron.
A=Z + N;
N=A-Z
Isotopes:
The atoms of the same element having same atomic no. but
different mass no. are called isotopes. eg. Hydrogen has 3
isotopes which are as follows,
Name Symbol Atomic Mass No. of
number number neutron
Protium H 1 1 0
Deuterium D 1 2 1
Tritium T 1 3 2

Isotopes have same chemical properties but different physical

properties.
Isobars :
Atoms of different elements having same mass number but
different atomic no. are called isobars. it means they have
same no. of nucleons. They possess entirely different physical
and chemical properties.
Eg, 20Ca40, 18Ar40 and 82Pb214, 83Bi214.
Atomic Model of Atom
Rutherford’s -rays scattering experiment and Atomic
Model :
Rutherford and his co workers performed an experiment in
1911 to explain the arrangement of the sub atomic particles in
an atom. This experiment is known as Rutherford’s alpha
rays scattering experiment. On the basis of scattering
experiment, he proposed a nuclear model of an atom in 1912
known as Rutherford’s nuclear model of an atom.
In this experiment a radioactive substance like radium was
placed in a lead cavity. This cavity was constructed in such a
way that only a narrow beam of alpha particles could escape
through the slit. This beam was passed through a thin gold foil
provided with a circular movable zinc sulphide coated screen
around it.
Fig: Rutherford’s experiment. Fig,scattering of apha rays
Whenever an alpha particles strike the screen, a tiny flashes
of light was produced at that point. The path of the alpha
particles and the flashes were observed by movable
microscope.
The following observation were made from the scattering
experiment.
1. Most alpha () rays passed right through gold foil
without any deflection.
2. A few ray were deflected through small angles
3. Very few ray (about 0.005%) deflected through large
angles and even return back at 180º.
Based upon above observations Rutherford made following
conclusions.
1. Since most of the  rays passed through gold foil without
being deflected, it can be concluded that there is large
empty space inside the atom around the nucleus.
2. Since the  particles are positively charged particles, there
should be some positive particles to deflect these rays.
Because few rays were deflected so the positive charge
occupies a very small region in the atom.
3. Since very few of the alpha particles having considerable
mass are deflected back, it can be concluded that the entire
mass of an atom is concentrated at centre called as
nucleus.
Ruther ford Atomic Model
From alpha rays scattering experiment , Rutherford gave the
following postulates for the model of an atom:
1.The size of an atom is very small which is 10-8 cm.
2.There is large empty space inside the atom around the
nucleus.
3. The electron moves around the nucleus in a circular known
as orbit.
4. The electron is acceleration around the nucleus.

Drawback or limitation of Rutherford atomic model:

1. It could not explain the stability of an atom.
2. Rutherford’s atomic model failed to explain the origin of line
spectra in hydrogen like atoms.
Bohr’s Atomic Model
Postulates of Bohrs atomic model.
1. The electrons revolve around the nucleus only in certain
selected circular path called orbits. These orbits are
associated with definite energies and are called shells or
energy levels. These are denoted by K, L, M… or 1,2,3…..
2. As long as the electron remains in a particular orbit, it does
not loose or gain energy. This means that the energy of the
electron in a particular energy level remains constant.
Therefore these orbits are also called stationary states.
3. Only those circular orbits are allowed for the electrons to
revolve round the nucleus in which the angular momentum
of an electron(mvr) is an integral multiple of h/2ᴫ .
mvr = nh/2ᴫ
m=mass of an electron V=velocity of an electron
r =radius of an allowed orbit n =integer 1,2, 3, …
h =Planck’s constant (6.62×10 -34 Js)
This postulates introduces the concept of quantisation of angular
momentum.
4. Energy of an electron increases with the increase in the
distance of an orbit from the centre of an atom i.e.E1<
E2……..<En
5. Electrons loose or gain energy only when they jump from one
orbit to another. If it jump to higher orbits from lower orbits, it
absorbs energy and if it is jumped to lower orbits from higher
orbits, it emits energy. This absorption and emission of energy is
in the form of quantum. The energy of quantum is given by the
relation
∆E = E2 – E1
Limitations of Bohrs atomic model
1. Bohr’s theory fails to explain the hyperfine line
obtained in hydrogen spectra.
2. This theory cannot explain the spectral series of atoms
containing multiple no. of electrons.
3. This theory cannot explain about Zeeman effect and
Stark effect.
4. It cannot explain for the dual nature of electron.
When electric discharge is passed through hydrogen
gas in discharge tube at a very low pressure , it emits
bluish light . When it is analysed by spectroscope , it
produced discontinuous line spectrum (atomic
spectrum) . Bohr’s explained this spectrum as
follows-
When electric discharge is passed through hydrogen
gas , it breaks into atoms . Hydrogen molecules
produce large number of hydrogen atoms and these
atoms containing single electron absorbs energy and
get excited to higher energy level from ground state
i.e. n=1 .
The electrons in higher energy level becomes
unstable and jump to the lower state by
releasing excess energy in the form of radiation
. The excited electron come back to the 1st
energy level or it to n=2,n=3 n=4……etc.
These transitions emit radiation of different
frequency or wave length . It is that radiation
which is responsible for spectrum of hydrogen
which contain different spectral lines . So
hydrogen atom containing a single electron
produced different spectral lines.
Spectral series of hydrogen
Wave length in electromagnetic spectrum are individually
called spectral lines and their group is called spectral
series. There are 5 spectral series of hydrogen They
are-
1. Lyman series- The spectral lines of this series are
produced when electrons jump from 2nd,3rd ,4th and
higher energy level to the 1st energy level . This series
lies in the UV region having wavelength ranges from
920-1200 A0.
2. Balmer series-The spectral lines of this series are
produced when the excited electrons jump from 3rd ,4th
or higher energy level to 2nd energy level . This series
lies in the visible region having wavelength ranges
from 4000-6500 A0 . The colored spectral lines can be
observed through naked eyes.
3. Paschen series- When the excited electrons jump
from the higher energy levels ie (4,5,6…) to 3rd
energy level , Paschen series is obtained . It lies in
the infrared region having wavelength ranges from
9500-187500 A.
4. Bracket series- Here the excited electrons jump
from the higher energy levels ie (5,6…) to 4th.
energy level . It lies in the infrared region having
wavelength ranges from 19450-405000A .
5. P-fund series- It lies in far infrared region having
wavelength above 405000 A. This series is obtained
when the excited electrons jump from the higher
energy levels i.e. 6,7…to 5th energy level.
In 1924, de Broglie, a French physicist suggested that
matter particles in motion also show the wave
character. Accordingly , the electron which is also
sub atomic particle can behave sometimes as
particle and sometimes as wave like light wave.
The idea of wave particle duality of electron led him
to derive the equation known as de Broglie’s
equation.
The energy of photon , if it is assumed to have wave character
is given by
E= hν (according to planks quantum theory of
radiation…………1
The energy of photon showing particle is given by
E = mc2 (Einstein mass energy relationship)……………2
From equation 1 and 2
hν = mc2
hc/λ = mc2 (ν=c/λ)
h/λ=mc (mc= momentum)
λ= h/mc ………………….3
For the matter particles i.e. electron having mass ‘m’ and
velocity ‘v’ , the de- Broglie’s wave length is
λ= h/mv
This equation is known as de - Broglie’s equation.
 Heseigenberg uncertainty principle
It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the
position and momentum of a microscopic moving
particle like electron , proton , neutron etc with
absolute accuracy.
Mathematically,
∆x × ∆p > h/4ᴫ
Where,
∆x = uncertainty in finding the position
∆p = uncertainty in finding the momentum
h = Planck’s constant
If position of the electron is measured with more
accuracy i.e. ∆x=0. then there will be large uncertainty
in finding the momentum i.e. ∆p= ∞ and vice versa.
Momentum = mass ×velocity
= mv
Then the equation 1 can also be written as
∆x × ∆v ≥ h/4ᴫm
Heisenberg principle is applicable only for microscopic
particles but has no significance for large particles.
Orbitals are 2-3 dimensional space around the
nucleus where the probability of finding
electron is maximum. There are various
orbitals such as s-orbitals, Px,Py,Pz orbitals etc.
according to their magnetic quantum no.
The shape of orbital is given by Azimuthal quantum
number.

Shape of S- orbital
For S- orbital the value of azimuthal quantum
number is zero. so its orbital angular momentum is
also zero. It means s-orbital is symmetrical about
all axis. That‟s why s-orbital is spherical in shape.
The size of s-orbital increases with increase in
principal quantum.
orbit orbital
1.An orbit is the definite path 1.An orbital is three
of an electron around nucleus. dimensional space around the
nucleus in which the
probability of finding the
electrons is maximum.
2.An orbit is circular in shape. 2.An orbital can have different
shapes.
3.Orbits donot have any 3.All orbitals except s-orbital
directional characteristics. possess directional
characteristics.
4.The maximum number of 4.The maximum number of
electrons in an orbit is electrons in an orbital is two.
calculated by 2n2 rule.
Shape of P-orbitals
For P-orbitals, the value of azimuthal quantum
number is 1. So its orbital angular momentum has
net value. Hence p-orbital is dumb-bell shaped
.The probability of finding electron is equal in
both lobes. The l value for p orbital is 1 and
therefore there are three possible orientation
ie.+1,0,-1.These three dumb bell shaped or 3
orbitals of P subshell are oriented along x-axis, y-
axis and z-axis and are called as Px,Py and Pz
orbital respectively.
Arrangement of electron (Bohr - Bury Scheme)
To explain the arrangement of the electrons in atoms having more
than one electrons, Bohr and Bury (1921) proposed a scheme for the
distribution of the electrons in different orbits. The main points of
this scheme are:
1. 1.The maximum number of electrons that any shell can
accommodate is equal to 2n2 where n is the principal quantum
number. Thus the first orbit (n=1 or K shell) can have a
maximum of 2x12 or 2 electrons. The second orbit (n=2) or L
shell can have a maximum of 2x22 or 8 electrons; the third orbit
(n=3) or M shell can accommodate a maximum of 2x32 or 18
electrons and so on.
2. 2. The outermost orbit cannot have more than 8 electrons and
next to the outermost cannot have more than 18 electrons. The
electrons in the outermost orbit are called valance electrons.
3. 3.It is not necessary for an orbit to be completely filled before
the next orbit starts filling. In fact, a new orbit begins when the
outermost orbit gets 8 electrons.
 Quantum numbers are the identification numbers of
an electron in an atom which provide information
related to the position, energy, orientation ,shape
and spin of an electron. They are required for the
complete identification of an electron. Four
quantum numbers are required for complete
identification and they are
1. Principal Quantum number

2. Azimuthal Quantum number

3. Magnetic Quantum number

4. Spin Quantum number

This quantum number is also known Bohrs quantum
number. This quantum number tells about orbit or
shell to which electron belongs. It also tells about
the energy of electrons and their distance from the
nucleus. It is denoted by „n‟ and have values
1,2,3,……. but not zero. The maximum no. of
electrons in an orbit is given by 2n2 where n is the
principal quantum number or no. of orbits.
It tells about the sub shells to which electron belongs.
It also tells about the angular momentum of
electrons and hence shape of electrons path
around the nucleus. It is denoted by ‟l‟ and can
have values 0 to (n-1) for a given value of „n‟. The
maximum no. of electrons in a given subshell is
given by 2(2l+1). For different values of l ,the
symbols s,p,d and f are used.
It tells about the no. of orbitals in a given
sub shell to which electron belongs. It
also tells about the orientation of
electron path around the nucleus in
three dimensional space. It is denoted
by „m‟ and have values –l to +l for
given values of „l‟. There are (2l+1)
orbital for a given sub shell and there
are n2 number of orbitals for a given
values of „n‟.
It tells about the direction of rotation of electrons
about its own axis.It is denoted by „S‟ and can
have values +1/2 (for clockwise rotation) and -
1/2 (for anti clockwise rotation).
The distribution of electrons among various orbitals of an
atom in the increasing order of energy as guided by
certain rules is called Electronic configuration. It is
represented by nlx

where , n=principal quantum number

l=azimuthal quantum
number
x= No. of electrons
Sometimes electronic configuration is also
described by putting an arrow for electron and
a pair of arrow for a pair of electron .
It states that “no two electrons in an atom can have
same set of all four quantum numbers”.
Or
No two electrons in an orbital can have same
direction of spin. This principle leads to the very
significant observation that each orbitals can
accommodate maximum two electrons with
opposite spin..
Eg. In 1s orbital of He-atom there are two electrons.
so
n= 1,l=0,m=0 and s=+1/2 or -1/2
When more than one orbitals of equal energies are
available, then the electrons will first occupy these
orbitals separately with parallel spin. Then the
pairing of electrons will start only after all the
orbitals of a given sub-shell are singly occupied.
Eg.------------(NITROGEN )
 According to the Aufbau principle “the orbitals are
filled up in the increasing order of their energy.”
i.e. The lowest energy orbital is filled up first and
then next higher energy orbital and so on.
The order of filling orbital is
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p …..
 This order of filling of the orbital is built up on the
basis of following two rules called (n+l) rule.
1. The orbitals having lowest value of (n+l) are
occupied first by electrons.eg 4s orbital is filled
before 3d.It is because 4s orbital has lowest value
of (n+l) than 3d.
For 4s For 3d
n= 4 and l=0 n=3 and l=2
(n+l)=4+0=4 (n+l)=3+2=5
2. When two orbitals having the same value of
(n+l),the orbitals having lower value of „n‟ is filled
first .eg. In case of 2p and 3s orbitals ,the (n+l)
value are same ie. 3 in both. But 2p orbital is filled
before 3s because 2p has lower value of „n‟ than 3s.
 Half filled and completely filled orbitals are more
stable than partially filled d-orbitals due to
following reasons-
1. 1.Half filled and completely filled orbitals are more
stable because of symmetrical distribution of
electrons.eg In Chromium
According to Aufbau principle [Ar]4s2 3d4
But if one electron is shifted from 4s to 3d orbitals, the
ditribution of electrons become more symmetrical
and more stable.
The actual configuration become [Ar]4s1 3d5
Cu [Ar]4s2 3d9 expected
[Ar]4s1 3d10 actual
2.The half filled and completely filled orbitals are
more stable due to large exchange of
energy.Exchange of electrons means shifting of
electrons from one orbitals to another in the same
subshell.