Stresses and Strains in
Flexible Pavements
1
Flexible Pavement Response
2
Stress Distribution
3
Boussinesq (1885) Theory
Point Load P perpendicular to the surface
Homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic material
Semi-infinite plane
Elastic modulus E
Poisson’s ratio m
Stresses, strains, and deflections integrated to
obtain values due to a circular loaded area
Limitations: only used if modulus ratio between
the pavement and the subgrade is close to 1
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Burmister (1943) Layered Theory
Determine stresses and displacements in a two-layered system
Acum and Fox (1951) presented elastic solutions for the boundary
stresses in the centerline of a circular uniformly distributed load
acting on the surface of a three-layered system
Since then a large number of computer programs have been
developed for calculating stresses, strains, and deflections of
layered elastic systems
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Available Computer Programs
Chevron (Michelow, 1963): CHEV5L / ELSYM5
Shell (Peutz et al, 1968): BISTRO / BISAR
Laboratoire central des ponts et chaussées (LCPC): ALIZE
US Army Waterway Engineering Station (WES): WESLEA
Australia: CIRCLY 7.0
FAA: JULEA/LEAF
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Finite Element Programs
A number of computer programs based on FE analysis can be used
for pavement analysis
SAP
ABAQUS
ANSYS
ILLI-PAVE
CAPA-3D
EverFE
ISLAB200
Advantages: non-linear materials, inertial effects, discontinuities…
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Boussinesq Solution for a Point Load
s1
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Boussinesq Solution for a Point Load
Normal and Shear Stresses
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t3tarwrAnZA 9
Boussinesq Solution for a Point Load
Strains
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Boussinesq Solution for a Point Load
Displacements
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Boussinesq Solution for a
Uniform Circular Load
Boussinesq equations for a uniformly distributed load
a = radius of the loaded area
s0 = normal stress on the surface
Centerline: closed form equations through integration
No closed form equations for stresses away from centerline
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Boussinesq Solution for a
Uniform Circular Load
Stresses
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Boussinesq Solution for a
Uniform Circular Load
Strains
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Boussinesq Solution for a
Uniform Circular Load
Displacements
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Example #1
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Example #1
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Example #2
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Example #2
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Example #3
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Example #3
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Response Variation with Depth
Recall Schmertmann’s method (1970)?
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Method of Equivalent
Thickness
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Layered System
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Method of Equivalent Thickness (MET)
Odemark’s Method: Transforms the layered system to a
semi-infinite half-space
Boussinesq’s equations used for stresses, strains, and
deflections for the transformed section
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Odemark’s Method
Aim is to maintain the same flexural rigidity (stiffness)
between the original section and the transformed section
𝑏ℎ3
Flexural rigidity of a beam is 𝐸 ×
12
𝑏ℎ3
𝐸× 12
Flexural rigidity of a plate is
1−𝜇2
ℎ13 𝐸1 ℎ𝑒3 𝐸2 3 𝐸1 1 − 𝜇22
2 = ℎ𝑒 = ℎ1 ×
1 − 𝜇1 1 − 𝜇22 𝐸2 1 − 𝜇12
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Odemark’s Method
Adjustment Factor
If Poisson’s ratios are equal for all layers, then the general
equation form is:
For better agreement between the Odemark-Boussinesq
Method and Elastic Theory
f = 0.9 for a two-layered system
for a multi-layered system
f= 1.0 for the 1st interface
f=0.8 for all other interfaces
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Odemark’s Method
Calculation of responses
For calculation of stresses and strains, must have same E and m
below and above the interface
Example: to calculate the stress on top of subgrade layer, do
transformation and use z=he2
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Odemark’s Method
Calculation of responses
For calculation of deflections, must have same E and m above
the layer of interface and calculate the compression of every
layer using its properties
Example: to calculate the deflection at surface, must calculate
compression of Layer 1 and Layer 2, and add the two numbers
C1=dz=0 – dz=h1
use properties of Layer 1
C2=dz=he2
use properties of subgrade
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Example #1
Tire pressure = 100 psi (0.7 MPa) and a = 5.91” (150mm)
Calculate the following:
Horizontal strain at the bottom of the AC Layer
Vertical stress on subgrade
Note: Modulus of subgrade is very high (Stabilized Subgrade)
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Example #1
Horizontal strain at bottom of AC layer
Vertical stress on subgrade
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Example #1
Comparison with elastic theory using MnLayer software
Response Odemark- MnLayer
Boussinesq
Horizontal strain at -133.4 microns 132.8 microns
bottom of AC layer
Vertical stress on 18.4 psi -20.2 psi
subgrade
Pay attention to the sign convention!
In MnLayer, Compression is negative
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Example #2
Tire pressure = 100 psi and
a = 5.91”
Calculate the following:
Horizontal strain at the bottom
of the AC Layer
Vertical stress on base
Vertical stress on subgrade
Surface deflection
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Example #2
Horizontal strain at bottom of AC layer
Vertical stress on base
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Example #2
Vertical stress on subgrade
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Example #2
Surface deflection
Compression of Layer 1
BISAR: 0.0006”
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Example #2
Surface deflection
Compression of Layer 2
BISAR: 0.0045”
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Example #2
Surface deflection
Compression of Layer 3
BISAR: 0.0199”
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Example #2
Comparison with elastic theory using BISAR software
Response Odemark- BISAR
Boussinesq
Horizontal strain at -202 microns -230 microns
bottom of AC layer
Vertical stress on base 24.77 psi 27.2 psi
Vertical stress on 3.86 psi 4.09 psi
subgrade
Surface deflection 25.21 mils 25 mils
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Example #3
Tire pressure = 40 kN and a = 150 mm
Calculate the following:
Tangential (horizontal) strain er at the bottom of the AC Layer
Vertical strain ez at the top of the subgrade
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Example #3
Tensile strain at bottom of AC layer
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Example #3
Vertical strain at top of subgrade layer
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Example #3
Comparison with elastic theory using BISAR software
Response Odemark- BISAR
Boussinesq
Horizontal strain at -208 microns -231 microns
bottom of AC layer
Vertical strain on 611 microns 599 microns
subgrade layer
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AC Tensile Strain based on
Hooke’s Law
In linear elastic isotropic material, Hooke’s Law
equations always apply
sz and ez are obtained from Boussinesq equations
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Some Principles
Ullidtz, P. (1998). Modelling Flexible Pavement Response
and Performance.
“If a simple model could be shown to predict the pavement
response reasonably well, it would be preferable to a more
complex model.”
William of Ockham, known for Occam's razor in philosophy
Occam’s razor is the problem-solving principle that recommends
searching for explanations constructed with the smallest possible set
of elements
“Among competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest
assumptions should be selected”
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Some Principles
Linear Superposition
The net response caused by two or more stimuli is the sum
of the responses that would have been caused by each
stimulus individually
Use linear superposition to add the effect from all wheels
provided that deformations are small
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PCC Stress Calculation using
Odemark-Boussinesq Method
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PCC Stress Calculation
using OB Method
When calculating responses using the OB method at an
interface (for example, first interface), those responses
correspond to the second layer having a modulus E2 due
to the transformation that should be made.
The horizontal strain (needed for AC pavements) and the
vertical stress are the same for the first layer having a
modulus E1 due to continuity.
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PCC Stress Calculation
using OB Method
For rigid pavements, the horizontal stress in the first layer is
needed and that stress is not the same in the second layer.
Continuity does not exists in both the stresses and strains in
the same direction since the layers have different moduli.
Therefore, we have to calculate the responses that are
common between the two layers at the interface (horizontal
strain and vertical stress) and use the Hooke’s law equations
for the horizontal stress calculation.
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PCC Example
Fatigue cracking in PCC is typically controlled by the
horizontal stress at the center of the slab
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PCC Example
Using OB method, the calculated stress is in the subgrade layer and not PCC layer.
Very low value!
This sR represents the stress at the interface between
the PCC and SG in the SG layer
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PCC Example
Step 1 – Hooke’s Law
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PCC Example
Step 2 – Vertical Stress
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PCC Example
Step 3 – Radial Strain
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PCC Example
Step 4 – Radial Stress using Hooke’s Law
This sR represents the stress at the interface between the PCC
and SG in the PCC layer
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PCC Example
Surface Deflection
Compression of PCC Layer
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PCC Example
Surface Deflection
Compression of Subgrade Layer
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PCC Example
Surface Deflection
Total Surface Deflection
Surface Deflection = 0.002500+0.000144
Surface Deflection = 0.002644” = 26.44 mils
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Solutions by Charts
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One Layer System
Foster & Ahlvin (1954)
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One Layer System
Foster & Ahlvin (1954)
Figures 2.2. through 2.6 in Huang (2004) Textbook provide the
charts that can be used to determine:
Vertical stress sz
Radial stress sr
Tangential stress st
Shear stress trz
Vertical deflection w
Since Poisson’s ratio has little effect in stresses and deflections,
they assumed an incompressible half-space (m = 0.5)
After the stresses are obtained from the charts, the strains can be
obtained from the Hooke’s Law equations
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One Layer System
Foster & Ahlvin (1954)
Vertical stress sz
Refer to textbook for additional charts 62
Example
Using the principle of linear superposition, calculate the all the
stresses and strains, as well as the vertical deflection at A based on
the Foster & Ahlvin charts
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Two Layered System
Burmister (1943)
Applicable to full depth construction (AC over SG)
Stresses and deflections depend on
Modulus ratio (E1/E2)
Thickness-radius ratio (h1/a)
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Two Layered System
Burmister (1943)
Vertical interface stress sc
Refer to textbook for additional charts
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Example
Determine the thickness of the AC layer h1 knowing that the
subgrade can support a maximum compressive stress of 8 psi
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Layered Elastic Theory (LET)
Used in structural analysis of flexible pavements for
more than 50 years
Introduced by Burmister in 1943 for a 2-layer system
Burmister extended his solutions to a 3-layer system in
1945
LET has now extended for an arbitrary number of layers
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MnLayer
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MnLayer Example
Khazanovich & Wang (2007)
Design traffic loading = 18,000-lb, [80kN]
single axle dual wheel
On each side of the axle, load is 9,000-lb [40kN]
=> Load per wheel = 4,500-lb
Tire contact pressure of 100 psi [0.69 MPa]
Dual wheel spacing = 13” [330mm]
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MnLayer Example
Khazanovich & Wang (2007)
Calculate the following responses:
Response Control Magnitude
Horizontal tensile strain Fatigue cracking in AC layer
at bottom of AC layer
Vertical compressive Permanent deformation in AB layer
stress on top of AB
Vertical compressive Permanent deformation in SG layer
stress on top of SG
https://software.pavements.pitt.edu/MnLayer
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MnLayer
Khazanovich & Wang (2007)
Cartesian Coordinate System
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MnLayer
Khazanovich & Wang (2007)
Location of maximum responses
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MnLayer
Khazanovich & Wang (2007)
A comparison of computation time between MnLayer
and BISAR as well as MnLayer and JULEA was made:
For a large number of evaluation points, MnLayer’s execution
time was found to be as little as 1/20 BISAR’s execution time
MnLayer’s execution time is approximately four times as fast as
JULEA’s for the larger number of evaluation points
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MnLayer
input_m.txt
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MnLayer
Delete the existing files from previous runs:
output_m.csv
Output-MnLayer.dat
Run the following files:
aaa.bat
Output
output_m.csv
Output-MnLayer.dat
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MnLayer
Output
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MnLayer
Output
AC Fatigue cracking:
maximum value of the strains in xx or yy at points of interest
AB permanent deformation:
maximum value of the absolute value of the stress in zz at points of
interest
SG permanent deformation:
maximum value of the absolute value of the stress in zz at points of
interest
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