Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
cisplatin and taxol, which are effective in cancer therapy.
The drug AZT (Azidothymidine) is used for helping AIDS patients.
1.2 Nature of Matter
Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter
1.2.1 States of Matter
Matter can exist in three physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas.
Particles are held very close to each other in solids in an orderly
fashion and there is not much freedom of movement.
In liquids, the particles are close to each other but they can move
around.
However, in gases, the particles are far apart as compared to those
present in solid or liquid states and their movement is easy and fast.
Because of such arrangement of particles, different states of matter
exhibit the following characteristics:
(i) Solids have definite volume and definite shape.
(ii) Liquids have definite volume but do not have definite shape.
(iii) They take the shape of the container in which they are
placed.
(iv) Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape. They
completely occupy the space in the container in which they are placed.
These three states of matter are interconvertible by changing the
conditions of temperature and pressure.
1.2.2. Classification of Matter
At the macroscopic or bulk level, matter can be classified as mixture
or pure substance. These can be further sub-divided as shown
When all constituent particles of a substance are same in chemical
nature, it is said to be a pure substance.
A mixture contains many types of particles. A mixture contains
particles of two or more pure substances which may be present in it in
any ratio. Hence, their composition is variable.
Pure substances forming mixture are called its components.
In a homogeneous mixture, the components completely mix with each
other. This means particles of components of the mixture are
uniformly distributed throughout the bulk of the mixture and its
composition is uniform throughout. Sugar solution and air are the
examples of homogeneous mixtures.
In a heterogeneous mixture, the composition is not uniform
throughout and sometimes different components are visible. For
example, mixtures of salt and sugar, grains and pulses along with some
dirt (often stone pieces), are heterogeneous mixtures.
Pure substances have characteristics different from mixtures.
Constituent particles of pure substances have fixed composition.
Copper, silver, gold, water and glucose are some examples of pure
substances. Glucose contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a fixed
ratio and its particles are of same composition. Hence, like all other
pure substances, glucose has a fixed composition. Also, its
constituents—carbon, hydrogen and oxygen—cannot be separated by
simple physical methods.
Pure substances can further be classified into elements and
compounds. Particles of an element consist of only one type of atoms.
These particles may exist as atoms or molecules. Sodium, copper,
silver, hydrogen, oxygen, etc., are some examples of elements. Their
all atoms are of one type. However, the atoms of different elements
are different in nature. Some elements, such as sodium or copper,
contain atoms as their constituent particles.
Whereas, in some others, the constituent particles are molecules
which are formed by two or more atoms. For example, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen gases consist of molecules, in which two atoms
combine to give their respective molecules.
When two or more atoms of different elements combine together in a
definite ratio, the molecule of a compound is obtained. Moreover, the
constituents of a compound cannot be separated into simpler
substances by physical methods. They can be separated by chemical
methods. Examples of some compounds are water, ammonia, carbon
dioxide, sugar, etc. Note that a water molecule comprises two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Similarly, a molecule of carbon
dioxide contains two oxygen atoms combined with one carbon atom.
Thus, the atoms of different elements are present in a compound in a
fixed and definite ratio and this ratio is characteristic of a particular
compound.
The properties of a compound are different from those of its
constituent elements. For example, hydrogen and oxygen are gases,
whereas, the compound formed by their combination i.e., water is a
liquid. It is interesting to note that hydrogen burns with a pop sound
and oxygen is a supporter of combustion, but water is used as a fire
extinguisher.
1.3 Properties of Matter and their Measurement
1.3.1 Physical and chemical properties
Every substance has unique or characteristic properties. These
properties can be classified into two categories — physical
properties, such as colour, odour, melting point, boiling point, density,
etc., and chemical properties, like composition, combustibility,
ractivity with acids and bases, etc.
Physical properties can be measured or observed without changing the
identity or the composition of the substance.
The measurement or observation of chemical properties requires a
chemical change to occur.
Measurement of physical properties does not require occurance of a
chemical change.
The examples of chemical properties are characteristic reactions of
different substances; these include acidity or basicity, combustibility,
etc.
1.3.2 Measurement of physical properties
Many properties of matter, such as length, area, volume, etc., are
quantitative in nature. Any quantitative observation or measurement
is represented by a number followed by units in which it is measured.
Earlier, two different systems of measurement, i.e., the English
System and the Metric System were being used in different parts of
the world.
The metric system, which originated in France in late eighteenth
century, was more convenient as it was based on the decimal system.
Later, need of a common standard system was felt by the scientific
community. Such a system was established in 1960.
1.3.3 The International System of Units (SI)
The International System of Units (in French Le Systeme
International d’Unités — abbreviated as SI) was established by the
11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM from
Conference Generale des Poids et Measures).
The CGPM is an intergovernmental treaty organisation created by a
diplomatic treaty known as Metre Convention, which was signed in
Paris in 1875. The SI system has seven base units.
These units pertain to the seven fundamental scientific quantities.
The other physical quantities, such as speed, volume, density
1.3.4 Mass and Weight
Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it, while
weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
The mass of a substance is constant, whereas, its weight may vary
from one place to another due to change in gravity.
The mass of a substance can be determined accurately in the
laboratory by using an analytical balance.
1.3.5 Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by a substance. It has the
units of (length)3. So in SI system, volume has units of m3.
A common unit, litre (L) which is not an SI unit, is used for
measurement of volume of liquids.
1 L = 1000 mL, 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
In the laboratory, the volume of liquids or solutions can be measured
by graduated cylinder, burette, pipette, etc. A volumetric flask is
used to prepare a known volume of a solution.
1.3.6 Density
Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit volume.
SI unit of density = kg/ m3 or kg m–3
Density of a substance tells us about how closely its particles are
packed. If density is more, it means particles are more closely packed.
1.3.7 Temperature
There are three common scales to measure temperature — °C (degree
celsius), °F (degree fahrenheit) and K (kelvin).
The thermometer with celsius scale are calibrated from 0° to 100°,
where these two temperatures are the freezing point and the boiling
point of water, respectively.
The fahrenheit scale is represented between 32° to 212°.
It is interesting to note that temperature below 0 °C (i.e., negative
values) are possible in Celsius scale but in Kelvin scale, negative
temperature is not possible.
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement
Many a time in the study of chemistry, one has to deal with
experimental data as well as theoretical calculations.
1.4.1 Scientific Notation
The problem is solved by using scientific notation for such numbers,
i.e., exponential notation in which any number can be represented in
the form N ×10n, where n is an exponent having positive or negative
values and N is a number (called digit term) which varies between
1.000... and 9.999.... Thus, we can write 232.508 as 2.32508 ×102 in
scientific notation.
Multiplication and
Division
Addition and Subtraction
For these two operations, first the numbers are written in
such a way that they have the same exponent. After that, the
coefficients (digit terms) are added or subtracted as specified.
1.4.2 Significant Figures
Every experimental measurement has some amount of uncertainty
associated with it because of limitation of measuring instrument and
the skill of the person making the measurement.
Significant figures are meaningful digits which are known with
certainty plus one which is estimated or uncertain. The uncertainty is
indicated by writing the certain digits and the last uncertain digit.
There are certain rules for determining the number of significant
figures. These are stated below:
i. All non-zero digits are significant. For example in 285 cm,
there are three significant figures and in 0.25 mL, there are
two significant figures.
ii. Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are not significant.
Such zero indicates the position of decimal point. Thus, 0.03
has one significant figure and 0.0052 has two significant
figures.
iii. Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus,
2.005 has four significant figures.
iv. Zeros at the end or right of a number are significant,
provided they are on the right side of the decimal point. For
example, 0.200 g has three significant figures. But, if
otherwise, the terminal zeros are not significant if there is no
decimal point. For example, 100 has only one significant figure,
but 100 has three significant figures and 100.0 has four
significant figures.
v. Counting the numbers of object, for example, 2 balls or 20
eggs, have infinite significant figures as these are exact
numbers and can be represented by writing infinite number of
zeros after placing a decimal i.e., 2 = 2.000000 or 20 =
20.000000.
In numbers written in scientific notation, all digits are significant e.g.,
4.01×102 has three significant figures, and 8.256×10–3 has four
significant figures.
Precision refers to the closeness of various measurements for the
same quantity.
Accuracy is the agreement of a particular value to the true value of
the result.
Addition and Subtraction of Significant Figures
The result cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than either of the original numbers.
Multiplication and Division of Significant Figures
In these operations, the result must be reported with no more
significant figures as in the measurement with the few
significant figures. 2.5×1.25 = 3.125 Since 2.5 has two
significant figures, the result should not have more than two
significant figures, thus, it is 3.1.
While limiting the result to the required number of
significant figures as done in the above mathematical
operation, one has to keep in mind the following points for
rounding off the numbers 1. If the rightmost digit to be
removed is more than 5, the preceding number is increased by
one. For example, 1.386. If we have to remove 6, we have to
round it to 1.39. 2.
If the rightmost digit to be removed is less than 5, the
preceding number is not changed. For example, 4.334 if 4 is to
be removed, then the result is rounded upto 4.33. 3. If the
rightmost digit to be removed is 5, then the preceding number
is not changed if it is an even number but it is increased by
one if it is an odd number. For example, if 6.35 is to be
rounded by removing 5, we have to increase 3 to 4 giving 6.4
as the result. However, if 6.25 is to be rounded off it is
rounded off to 6.2.
1.4.3 Dimensional Analysis
Often while calculating, there is a need to convert units from one
system to the other. The method used to accomplish this is called
factor label method or unit factor method or dimensional analysis.
1.5 Laws of Chemical Combinations
The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the
following five basic laws.
1.5.1 Law of Conservation of Mass
This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789.
He performed careful experimental studies for combustion reactions
and reached to the conclusion that in all physical and chemical
changes, there is no net change in mass duting the process. Hence, he
reached to the conclusion that matter can neither be created nor
destroyed. This is called ‘Law of Conservation of Mass’.
This law formed the basis for several later developments in
chemistry. Infact, this was the result of exact measurement of
masses of reactants and products, and carefully planned experiments
performed by Lavoisier.
1.5.2 Law of Definite Proportions
This law was given by, a French chemist, Joseph Proust.
He stated that a given compound always contains exactly the same
proportion of elements by weight. Proust worked with two samples of
cupric carbonate — one of which was of natural origin and the other
was synthetic. He found that the composition of elements present in
it was same for both the samples.
Thus, he concluded that irrespective of the source, a given compound
always contains same elements combined together in the same
proportion by mass. The validity of this law has been confirmed by
various experiments. It is sometimes also referred to as Law of
Definite Composition.
1.5.3 Law of Multiple Proportions
This law was proposed by Dalton in 1803.
According to this law, if two elements can combine to form more than
one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed
mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
For example, hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds,
namely, water and hydrogen peroxide. Here, the masses of oxygen
(i.e., 16 g and 32 g), which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen (2g)
bear a simple ratio, i.e., 16:32 or 1: 2.
1.5.4 Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
This law was given by Gay Lussac in 1808.
He observed that when gases combine or are produced in a chemical
reaction they do so in a simple ratio by volume, provided all gases are
at the same temperature and pressure.
Thus, 100 mL of hydrogen combine with 50 mL of oxygen to give 100
mL of water vapour.
Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen which combine (i.e., 100 mL
and 50 mL) bear a simple ratio of 2:1.
Gay Lussac’s discovery of integer ratio in volume relationship is
actually the law of definite proportions by volume. The law of definite
proportions, stated earlier, was with respect to mass.
The Gay Lussac’s law was explained properly by the work of Avogadro
in 1811.
1.5.5 Avogadro’s Law In 1811
Avogadro proposed that equal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.
Avogadro made a distinction between atoms and molecules which is
quite understandable in present times.
Avogadro’s proposal was published in the French Journal de Physique.
In spite of being correct, it did not gain much support.
After about 50 years, in 1860, the first international conference on
chemistry was held in Karlsruhe, Germany, to resolve various ideas. At
the meeting, Stanislao Cannizaro presented a sketch of a course of
chemical philosophy, which emphasised on the importance of
Avogadro’s work.
1.6 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
In 1808, Dalton published ‘A New System of Chemical Philosophy’, in
which he proposed the following :
i. Matter consists of indivisible atoms.
ii. All atoms of a given element have identical properties,
including identical mass. Atoms of different elements differ in
mass.
iii. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements
combine in a fixed ratio.
iv. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. These are
neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction
Dalton’s theory could explain the laws of chemical combination.
However, it could not explain the laws of gaseous volumes. It could
not provide the reason for combining of atoms, which was answered
later by other scientists.
b
Mass number and Atomic number
Element Atomic number Atomic Mass
Hydrogen (H) 1 1
Helium(He) 2 4
Lithium(Li) 3 7
Beryllium(Be) 4 9
Boron(B) 5 11
Carbon(C) 6 12
Nitrogen(N) 7 14
Oxygen(O) 8 16
Fluorine(F) 9 19
Neon(Ne) 10 20
Sodium(Na) 11 23
Magnesium(Mg) 12 24
Aluminium(Al) 13 27
Silicon(Si) 14 28
Phosphorous(P) 15 31
Sulfur(S) 16 32
Chlorine(Cl) 17 35.5
Argon(Ar) 18 40
Potassium(K) 19 39
Calcium(Ca) 20 40
