Spacecraft Structures

Space System Design, MAE 342, Princeton University

Robert Stengel

• Discrete (lumped-mass)
structures
• Distributed structures
• Buckling
• Fracture and fatigue
• Structural dynamics
• Finite-element analysis

Copyright 2016 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only. 1
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE342.html

Spacecraft Mounting
for Launch
• Spacecraft protected from
atmospheric heating and
loads by fairing
• Fairing jettisoned when
atmospheric effects become
negligible
• Spacecraft attached to
rocket by adapter, which
transfers loads between the
two
• Spacecraft (usually)
separated from rocket at
completion of thrusting
• Clamps and springs for
attachment and separation
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 Communications Satellite and
Delta II Launcher

Satellite Systems
• Power and • Structure • Electronics
Propulsion –Skin, frames, ribs, –Payload
–Solar cells stringers, bulkheads –Control computers
–“Kick” motor/ –Propellant tanks –Control sensors
payload assist –Heat/solar/ and actuators
module (PAM) micrometeoroid –Control flywheels
–Attitude- shields, insulation –Radio transmitters
control/orbit- –Articulation/ and receivers
adjustment/station- deployment
keeping thrusters –Radar
mechanisms
transponders
–Batteries, fuel cells –Gravity-gradient
–Antennas
–Pressurizing bottles tether
–De-orbit/ –Re-entry system (e.g.,
“graveyard” systems sample return)

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 Landsat-3

Typical Satellite Mass

Breakdown

Pisacane, 2005
Satellite without on-orbit propulsion
“Kick” motor/ PAM can add significant mass
5
Total mass: from a few kg to > 30,000 kg

Fairing Constraints for

Various Launch Vehicles

• Static envelope
• Dynamic envelope accounts
for launch vibrations, with
sufficient margin for error
• Various appendages stowed
for launch
• Large variation in
spacecraft inertial
properties when
appendages are deployed

Pisacane, 2005
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 STEREO Spacecraft
Primary Structure
Configuration
Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory

• Spacecraft structure
typically consists of
– Beams
– Flat and cylindrical panels
– Cylinders and boxes
• Primary structure is the
“rigid” skeleton of the
spacecraft
• Secondary structure may
bridge the primary structure
to hold components
Pisacane, 2005 7

Upper-Atmosphere Research
Satellite (UARS) Primary and
Secondary Structure
• Primary Structure provides
– Support for 10 scientific
instruments
– Maintains instrument
alignment boresights
– Interfaces to launch vehicle
(SSV)
• Secondary Structure
supports
– 6 equipment benches
– 1 optical bench
– Instrument mounting links
– Solar array truss
– Several instruments have
kinematic mounts
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 Expanded Views of
Spacecraft Structures

Structural Material Properties

σ=Eε
• Stress, σ: Force per unit area
• Strain, ε: Elongation per unit length

• Proportionality factor, E: Modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus

• Strain deformation is reversible below the elastic limit
• Elastic limit = yield strength
• Proportional limit ill-defined for many materials
• Ultimate stress: Material breaks
Poisson’s ratio, ν:
ε lateral
ν=
ε axial
typically 0.1 to 0.35
Thickening under compression
Thinning under tension
Nice explanation at
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/Poisson
Intro.html
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 Uniform Stress Conditions
Average axial stress, σ
σ = P A = Load Cross Sectional Area
Average axial strain, ε P : Load, N
A : Cross-sectional area, m 2

ε = ΔL L L : Length, m

Effective spring constant, ks

ΔL
σ = P A = Eε = E
L
AE
P= ΔL = ks ΔL
L
Pisacane, 2005
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Stresses in Pressurized, Thin-Walled

Cylindrical Tanks

• For the cylinder σ hoop = pR / T R : radius

σ axial = pR / 2T T : wall thickness
σ radial ≈ negligible p : pressure
σ : stress
• For the spherical end cap
σ hoop = σ axial = pR / 2T
σ radial ≈ negligible

Hoop stress is limiting factor 12

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 Weight Comparison of Thin-Walled
Spherical and Cylindrical Tanks

Sechler, Space
Technology, 1959
Pressure vessels have same volume and maximum shell stresses
due to internal pressure; hydraulic head* is neglected
Rc = cylindrical radius
Rs = spherical radius
* Hydraulic head = Liquid pressure per unit of weight x load factor 13

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Staged Spherical vs. Cylindrical Tanks

Sechler, Space
Technology, 1959

Pressure vessels have same volume and same maximum shell

stresses due to internal pressure with and without hydraulic head
(with full tanks)
Numerical example for load factor of 2.5
Cylindrical tanks lighter than comparable spherical tanks
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 Critical Axial Stress in
Thin-Walled Cylinders
σc
1.6 1.3
⎛t⎞ ⎛t⎞
E
= 9⎜ ⎟
⎝ R⎠
+ 0.16 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L⎠
[ no internal pressure ]

• Compressive axial stress can

lead to buckling failure
• Critical stress, σc, can be
increased by
– Increasing E
– Increasing wall thickness, t
• solid material
• honeycomb
– Adding rings to decrease Sechler, Space
Technology, 1959
effective length
– Adding longitudinal stringers
– Fixing axial boundary
conditions
– Pressurizing the cylinder
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SM-65/Mercury Atlas
• Launch vehicle originally designed with
balloon propellant tanks to save weight
– Monocoque design (no internal bracing or
stiffening)
– Stainless steel skin 0.1- to 0.4-in thick
– Vehicle would collapse without internal
pressurization
– Filled with nitrogen at 5 psi when not fuelled
to avoid collapse
With internal pressure
Pressure stiffening effect
No internal pressure (
σ c = Ko + K p ) ERt
σc
1.6 1.3
⎛t⎞ ⎛t⎞
where
= 9⎜ ⎟ + 0.16 ⎜ ⎟ ⎛t⎞
0.6 1.3
⎛ R⎞ ⎛ t ⎞
0.3

E ⎝ R⎠ ⎝ L⎠ Ko = 9 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R⎠
+ 0.16 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ R⎠
2
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ R⎞
Sechler, Space K p = 0.191⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Technology, 1959
⎝ E⎠⎝ t ⎠
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 Quasi-Static Loads

Fortescue, 2003
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Oscillatory Components
Newton’s second law leads to
a 2nd-order dynamic system for
each discrete mass

x = fx m = ( −kd Δ!x − ks Δx + forcing function ) m

Δ!!

kd k forcing function
Δ!!
x+ Δ!x + s Δx =
m m m
ω n = natural frequency, rad/s
ζ = damping ratio
Δx˙˙ + 2ζω n Δx˙ + ω n Δx = ω n Δu
2 2
Δx = displacement, m
Δu = disturbance or control
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 Examples of Oscillatory
Discrete Components

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Springs and Dampers

Force due to linear spring

fx = −ks Δx = −ks ( x − xo ) ; k = spring constant

Force due to linear damper

fx = −kd Δ!x = −kd Δv = −kd ( v − vo ) ; k = damping constant

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 Response to Initial Condition
• Lightly damped
system has a
decaying,
oscillatory
transient response
• Forcing by step or
impulse produces
a similar transient
response

ω n = 6.28 rad/sec
ζ = 0.05

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Oscillations

Δx = Asin(ωt )
Δ!x = Aω cos (ω t )
= Aω sin (ω t + π 2 )

x = −Aω 2 sin (ω t )
Δ!!
= Aω 2 sin (ω t + π )

• Phase angle of velocity (wrt displacement) is π/2 rad (or

90°)
• Phase angle of acceleration is π rad (or 180°)
• As oscillatory input frequency, ω varies
– Velocity amplitude is proportional to ω
22
– Acceleration amplitude is proportional to ω2

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 Response to
Oscillatory Input
Compute Laplace transform to find transfer function
∞

L [ Δx(t)] = Δx(s) = ∫ Δx(t)e− st dt ,

0

s = σ + jω , ( j = i = −1)
Neglecting initial conditions
L [ Δ!x(t)] = sΔx(s)
L [ Δ!!
x(t)] = s 2 Δx(s)
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Transfer Function

L ( Δ!!
x + 2ζω n Δ!x + ω n 2 Δx ) = L (ω n 2 Δu )
or

(s 2 2
)
+ 2ζω n s + ω n Δx(s) = ω n Δu(s)
2

Transfer function from input to displacement

Δx(s) ωn 2
=
(
Δu(s) s2 + 2ζω n s + ω n 2 )
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 Transfer Functions of Displacement,
Velocity, and Acceleration
• Transfer function Δx(s) ωn 2
from input to =
displacement
(
Δu(s) s2 + 2ζω n s + ω n 2 )
• Input to
Δx˙ (s) ωn s 2
velocity: = 2
multiply by s
(
Δu(s) s + 2ζω n s + ω n 2 )
• Input to
Δx˙˙(s) ω n 2 s2
acceleration: =
multiply by s2
(
Δu(s) s2 + 2ζω n s + ω n 2 )
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From Transfer Function to

Frequency Response
Displacement transfer function

Δx(s) ωn 2
=
(
Δu(s) s2 + 2ζω n s + ω n 2 )
Displacement frequency response (s = jω)

Δx( jω ) ωn 2
=
Δu( jω ) ( jω ) 2 + 2ζω n ( jω ) + ω n 2
Real and imaginary components

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 Frequency Response
ωn: natural frequency of the system
ω: frequency of a sinusoidal input to the system

Δx( jω ) ω n2
=
Δu( jω ) ( jω ) + 2ζω n ( jω ) + ω n 2
2

ω n2 ω n2
= ≡
(ω n 2 − ω 2 ) + 2ζω n ( jω ) c (ω ) + jd (ω )
⎡ ω n2 ⎤ ⎡ c (ω ) − jd (ω ) ⎤ ω n 2 ⎡⎣ c (ω ) − jd (ω ) ⎤⎦
=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=
⎣ c (ω ) + jd (ω ) ⎦ ⎣ c (ω ) − jd (ω ) ⎦ c 2 (ω ) + d 2 (ω )
≡ a(ω ) + jb(ω ) ≡ A(ω )e jϕ (ω )
Frequency response is a complex function
Real and imaginary components, or
Amplitude and phase angle
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Frequency
Response of the
2nd-Order System
• Convenient to plot response on
logarithmic scale

ln[ A(ω )e jϕ (ω ) ] = ln A(ω ) + jϕ (ω )

• Bode plot
– 20 log(Amplitude Ratio) [dB] vs. log ω
– Phase angle (deg) vs. log ω
• Natural frequency characterized by
– Peak (resonance) in amplitude
response
– Sharp drop in phase angle
• Acceleration frequency response
has the same peak
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 Acceleration
Response of the
2nd-Order System
• Important points:
– Low-frequency acceleration
response is attenuated
– Sinusoidal inputs at natural
frequency resonate, I.e.,
they are amplified
– Component natural
frequencies should be high
enough to minimize
likelihood of resonant
response

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Spacecraft Stiffness* Requirements

for Primary Structure

* Natural frequency
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 Typical Spacecraft Layout
• Atlas IIAS launch vehicle
• Spacecraft structure meets
primary stiffness
requirements
• What are axial stiffness
requirements for Units A
and B?
– Support deck natural
frequency = 50 Hz
Octave Rule: Component
natural frequency ≥ 2 x
natural frequency of
Pisacane, 2005
supporting structure

Unit A: 2 x 15 Hz = 30 Hz, supported by primary structure

Unit B: 2 x 50 Hz = 100 Hz, supported by secondary structure
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Factors and Margins of Safety

Factor of Safety
Typical values: 1.25 to 1.4
Load (stress) that causes yield or failure
Expected service load
Margin of Safety
“the amount of margin that exists above the
material allowables for the applied loading
condition (with the factor of safety included)”
Skullney, Ch. 8, Pisacane, 2005

Allowable load (yield stress)

−1
Expected limit load (stress) × Design factor of safety
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 Worst-Case Axial Stress on a
Simple Beam

Pisacane, 2005

Axial stress due to bending Maximum stress

M ( h /2)
σ = My I σ=
I
Worst-case axial stress due to bending and axial force

⎛P⎞ M ( h /2)
σ wc = ±⎜ ⎟ ±
⎝ A ⎠ max I
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Stress on Spacecraft Adapter

• Spacecraft weight = 500 lb

• Atlas IIAS launch vehicle
• Factor of safety = 1.25
• Maximum stress on
spacecraft adapter?
Pisacane, 2005
Atlas IIAS Limit Loads (g)

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 Example, con’t.
Worst-case stress
⎛P⎞ Mc A = 2π rt = 7.1 in 2
σ wc = ±⎜ ⎟ ±
⎝ A ⎠ max I I = π r 3t = 286 in 4

Worst-case axial load at BECO (5±0.5 g)

⎡ 500 × 5.5 500 × 0.5 × 42 × 9 ⎤

σ wc = ⎢ + ⎥⎦ × 1.25 = 897.1 psi
⎣ 7.1 286

Worst-case lateral load at BECO (2.5 ± 1 g)

or Maximum Flight Winds (2.7 ± 0.8 g)
⎡ 500 × 3.5 500 × 2 × 42 × 9 ⎤
σ wc = ⎢ + ⎥⎦ × 1.25 = 1960 psi
⎣ 7.1 286 35

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Force and Moments on a Slender

Cantilever (Fixed-Free) Beam
• Idealization of
– Launch vehicle tied-down to a
launch pad
– Structural member of a
payload
• For a point force
– Force and moment must be
opposed at the base
– Shear distribution is constant
– Bending moment increases as
moment arm increases
– Torsional moment and moment
arm are fixed
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 Structural Stiffness
• Geometric stiffening property of a structure is
portrayed by the area moment of inertia
• For bending about a y axis (producing distortion along
an x axis)
zmax

Ix = ∫ x (z) z
2
dz
zmin

• Area moment of inertia for simple cross-

sectional shapes

• Solid rectangle of height, h, and Iy = wh 3 /12

width, w:
• Solid circle of radius, r: Iy = πr 4 /4
• Circular cylindrical tube with inner
radius, ri: and outer radius, ro: (
Iy = π ro − ri /4
4 4
)
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Bending Stiffness
• Neutral axis neither shrinks nor stretches in bending
• For small deflections, the bending radius of
curvature of the neutral axis is
EI
r=
M
• Deflection at a point characterized
by displacement and angle:

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 Bending Deflection

Second derivative of z and first derivative of ϕ are inversely

proportional to the bending radius:

d 2 z dφ M y
= =
dx 2 dx EIy
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Maximum Deflection and Bending

Moment of Beams
(see Fundamentals of Space Systems for additional cases)

Fixed-Free Beam Fixed-Fixed Beam Pinned-Pinned Beam

Ymax = maximum deflection Mmax = maximum bending moment

Pisacane, 2005 40

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 Maximum Deflection and Bending
Moment of Plates
(see Fundamentals of Space Systems for additional cases)

Circular Plate

m = 1/ν
Rectangular Plate

Pisacane, 2005
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Typical Cross-Sectional Shear Stress

Distribution for a Uniform Beam
Shear stress due to bending moment is highest
at the neutral axis

Maximum values for various cross sectons

(see Fundamentals of Space Systems)
Pisacane, 2005

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 Buckling

• Predominant steady stress

during launch is compression
• Thin columns, plates, and
shells are subject to elastic
instability in compression
• Buckling can occur below the
material’s elastic limit
C = function of end "fixity"
Critical buckling stress of a column E = modulus of elasticity
(Euler equation) L = column length
Cπ 2 E P ρ = I A = radius of gyration
σ cr = 2 =
( L / ρ) A Pcr = critical buckling load
A = cross sectional area 43

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Effect of “Fixity” on Critical

Loads for Beam Buckling
• Euler equation
– Slender columns
– Critical stress below the
elastic limit
– Relatively thick column
walls
• Local collapse due to thin
walls is called crippling

Pisacane, 2005

Crippling vs. Buckling

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 Critical Stress for Plate and Cylinder
Buckling

Pisacane, 2005 45

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Bending Moment and Linear Deflection

due to a Distributed Normal Force
N’y(xs
)

xmax

M y ( x) = ∫ N y (x) ( x − xcm ) dx
N '(x) = normal force variation with length
xmin
xmax xmax

= ∫ ∫ N ' y (x) dx ( x − xcm ) dx

xmin xmin

Deflection is found by four integrations

of the deflection equation
d2 ⎛ d 2z ⎞
⎜ EIy 2 ⎟ = N'y ( x s )
dx 2 ⎝ dx ⎠ x= x
s 46

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 Bending Vibrations of a Free-
Free Uniform Beam
d4z d 2z
EIy 4 = k = −m' 2
dx x= x s
dt x= x
s

EI y = constant
m' = mass variation with length (constant)
k = effective spring constant
Solution by separation of variables requires that left and
right sides equal a constant, k
An infinite number of separation constants, ki, exist
Therefore, there are an infinite number of vibrational
response modes
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Bending Vibrations of a Free-

Free Uniform Beam
d4z d 2z
EIy 4 = k i = −m' 2
dx dt
Mode shapes of bending vibrations

• In figure, (u = z, y = x)
• Left side determines
vibrational mode shape
• Right side describes
oscillation
• Natural frequency of
each mode proportional
to (ki)1/2

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 Fundamental Vibrational
Frequencies of Circular Plates
f = natural frequency
of first mode, Hz

Pisacane, 2005
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Vibrational Mode Shapes

for the X-30 (NASP)
Vehicle
Computational Grid for Finite- Shapes of the First Seven Modes
Element Model

Raney, J. Aircraft, 1995

Body elastic deflection distorts the shape of
scramjet inlet and exhaust ramps
Aeroelastic-propulsive interactions
Impact on flight dynamics 50

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 Pogo Oscillation
§ Longitudinal resonance of launch vehicle structure
§ Flexing of the propellant-feed pipes induces thrust
variation in liquid-propellant rocket
§ Gas-filled cavities added to the pipes, damping
oscillation
§ “Organ-pipe” oscillation in Space Shuttle Solid Rocket
Booster
§ 15-Hz resonance in 4-segment motor
§ 12-Hz resonance in 5-segment motor

51
Pogo oscillation http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4205/ch10-6.html

51

Fuel Slosh
§ Lateral motion of liquid propellant in partially empty
tank induces inertial forces
§ Resonance with flight motions
§ Problem reduced by baffling

Space Shuttle External Tank

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank 52

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 Thermal Stresses
• Direct weakening of
material by high
temperature, e.g., effect
of aerodynamic heating
• Embrittlement of metals
at low temperature
• Internal stress caused by
differential temperatures,
e.g., on common
bulkhead between
hydrogen and oxygen
tanks
Temperature of
Liquid Hydrogen: 20.3 K (–253°C)
Liquid Oxygen: 50.5 K (–223°C)
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Fracture and Fatigue Failure from

Repeated/Oscillatory Loading
§ Cyclic loading produces cracks
§ Fatigue life: # of loading cycles
before failure occurs

Miner’s rule, Paris’s law, Goodman relation, …

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 Finite-Element Structural Model
§ Grid of elements, each with
§ Mass, damping, and elastic properties
§ 6 degrees of freedom at each node
§ Static and dynamic analysis

see Pisacane (Skullney), Sec 8.15

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Types of Finite Element

Fortescue, 2011

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 Structural Modeling
Using PTC CREO

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Assemble Parts
Using PTC CREO

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 Analyze Loads Using PTC CREO

http://learningexchange.ptc.com/tutorial/799/creating-a-buckling-analysis
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Next Time:
Spacecraft Configurations

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