Non Destructive tastings

Introduction
Non-destructive testing, as the name implies, does not damage or reduce the service life of
the component. Usually these tests do not directly measure the mechanical properties such
as tensile strength or hardness, but they are used to locate the defects or flaws in the
component. These flaws may reduce the useful life of the component resulting in the
premature failure even with a sound design and proper selection of materials. To obtain a
high level of reliability, the defects should be absent or should be at a minimum level. Also,
the component should be periodically tested for the defects during the service. As soon as
the defect size exceeds the one that is used in the design, the component should be replaced
before its premature failure to avoid dangerous results.
Various methods are used to detect defects in components. The most common types of non
destructive tests are magnetic particle (Magnaflux) inspection, dye penetrant and
fluorescent-penetrant inspection, sonic and ultrasonic inspection, radiography (X-ray and
gamma ray), eddy current inspection and visual inspection.
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE (MAGNAFLUX) INSPECTION

Fig. (a) Principle of a magnaflux Fig.(b) Longitudinal method of magnetization.

method.
There are several methods of magnetic particle testing
(ASTM E 709 or IS 10543 and IS 12147). All these methods
are used to detect various kinds of flaws in ferromagnetic
components such as welding, castings and forgings of iron
and steel. The component to be inspected for flaws is
magnetized (Fig. a) and the inspection medium is applied to
the component, or magnetization of the component and
application of inspection medium can be done
Fig. (c) Circular method of magnetization.
simultaneously.
Magnetization of the component is done either by using an external magnetic Yoke coil or by passing an
electric current through it. A magnetic pole is formed at the crack or flaw, which causes the magnetic powder
to concentrate on this area and the flaw gets easily detected. When the part is magnetized lengthwise (Fig. b),
transverse cracks are easily detected. This is done by energizing a coil around the bar. When part is magnetized
cross- wise by a circular magnetic field (Fig. c), lengthwise cracks are easily detected. This is done by passing
an electric current, either alternating or direct, through the component. The use of alternating currents limits
the test for detection of only those flaws which are open at the surface. This is due to the fact that alternating
currents try to flow from near the surface i.e. skin effect. However direct current magnetization makes it
possible to detect surface as well as subsurface discontinuities.
The detection of subsurface defects will depend upon the strength of the magnetic field, the distance from the
surface at which defect is located, the ratio of the height of the defect to the thickness of the component, and
the width of the discontinuity. This is because the leakage fields caused by discontinuities diffuse and decrease
in intensity with increase in distance from the discontinuities. Under favourable conditions of testing, defects
as much as 2" deep from the surface may be detected.
In both the methods, the ferromagnetic particles effectively concentrate and outline the boundaries of the
defects. However, dry method is more sensitive for revealing deep-seated discontinuities to that of wet method
and also is easy to carry out.
For better contrast, powders or liquids of different colours can be used. Dry powders are available in gray,
black and red colours whereas liquids are available in black and red colours.
In a Magnaglo method of testing, special fluorescent ferromagnetic powders are applied by wet method similar
to Magnaflux method. The component is inspected in a dark room with ultraviolet light of wave length between
3500 to 4000 A°. Such a powder emits greenish-yellow light under the influence of ultraviolet light and gives a
better contrast to detect a flaw.
The parts should be demagnetized before putting to the service. This can be accomplished as below:
(i) By subjecting the component to a continuously reversing and steadily decreasing magnetic field or
(ii) By slowly withdrawing the component through, an open solenoid while the alternating current is flowing.

DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION

Invisible cracks, porosity and other defects on the surface of components can be easily detected by this
technique. Component may be of any material like ferrous, nonferrous, plastic, glass or ceramic. The steps for
inspection are as below (ASTM E 165 or IS 3658):
(i) Cleaning of surface. (Grease, oil or any other extraneous material such as scale must be removed by a suitable
solution.)
(ii) Drying of surface.
(iii) Applying dye-penetrant on clean and dry surface by dipping, swabbing, brushing or any other suitable
technique.
The dye penetrant is allowed to penetrate in the surface flaws. Depending upon the type of defect, the time may
be anywhere between few seconds to several hours. (iv) Removing excess penetrant by a soft and clean cotton.
(v) Applying developer on the surface. This pulls out the dye from the flaws and the flaws are revealed by the
colour of the dye.
Instead of a developer, a special fine developing powder or talc powder can be sprinkled on the surface so
that the powder absorbs the dye from flaws and the flaws are immediately revealed.
Fluorescent-penetrant inspection:
This method is almost similar to dye-penetrant test. This can also be used for testing any type of material for
detecting surface flaws. A dye Zyglo, containing particles which emit light with ultraviolet radiations is used
(Zyglo is the registered trade name of this dye). Once applied on surface, Zyglo penetrant is drawn into the
surface defects. The excess Zyglo is removed by washing the component in water. Developer is then applied
on the surface so that the Zyglo from flaws is drawn out on the surface. The part is then inspected under
ultraviolet light. The cracks and other flaws are revealed by fluorescence at these sites.
SONIC INSPECTION
In this method, sound is created in the component by some suitable method and from the quality of sound,
presence of defects is judged. e.g. cast iron piece gives a dull sound as compared to steel piece if dropped
from a certain height on the floor. When we go to market for buying cups, saucers, earthen pots or coconuts,
we check the soundness of these objects by gently striking with the nails of fingers. Knowingly or
unknowingly we are accustomed for such a type of testing before purchasing the article from the market.
Even though the test is simple, it does not give reliable results for complicated shaped components. Also this
requires some experience of judging the quality of sound for reasonable evaluation of the components. Even
though ultrasonic testing is more accurate, sonic testing can not be neglected because of its simplicity,
quickness and usefulness for certain objects as cited above.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
The principle of ultrasonic testing involves a measure of the time required by ultrasonic vibrations to penetrate
the material of interest, reflect from the opposite side or from an internal discontinuity and return to the point
where the waves were first introduced. The behaviour of waves through such a cycle of travel with regard to
time is appropriately recorded on a cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) screen. By visual observation of this wave
pattern on CRO screen, presence of defects and their location can be detected.
Ultrasonic testing is a very fast method of testing for defects because the time of travel of ultrasonic waves is of
the order of microseconds for the usual size of the component. It is also a very sensitive method and reveals
very fine flaws and discontinuities.
There are two types of ultrasonic inspection methods. These are (i) Pulse-echo method (IS 9664) and (ii)
Transmission method (IS 4225).
In the pulse echo method, a pulse generator produces ultrasonic waves and these waves are passed into the
component through a quartz transducer crystal (Fig. a). For a better contact of the transducer with the metal
surface, couplent like thin oil or glycerine is used. As soon as the wave comes across a discontinuity, it gets
reflected back. This is indicated as a pattern or "pip" on the oscilloscope screen. The wave reflected by the
surface of the test piece and the wave reflected by the opposite side of the test piece are also indicated as "pips"
on oscilloscope screen, defining the time of initial pulse and the reflected pulse from the opposite side. If there
is a flaw in the specimen, a smaller pip will be seen between the two i.e. one from top and the other from
bottom (Fig. b). Since the distance between the pips on the oscilloscope screen represent elapsed time of the
reflected pulse, the distance to a flaw can be accurately measured.
 Fig. (a) Detection of defects by ultrasonic waves. (a) No defect shown (b) Defect indicated at distance shown
Fig. b Oscilloscope screen of ultrasonic tester.
The through-transmission method uses a transducer on each side or ends of the test piece (Fig. c). The signal
pulse enters the material from one transducer, travels through the material and is received by the other
transducer. This is translated into another signal and is shown on an oscilloscope. If no flaws are present, a
clear strong signal will be seen on the oscilloscope; but if the material contains flaws, a weaker or distorted
signal will be seen.
Ultrasonic inspection method can be used as a quality
control test for detecting internal defects such as
cracks, porosity, and laminations in metallic and non-
metallic components during or after the production.

Fig. (c ) Through ultrasonic transmission.

It can also be used for testing of structures such as pipelines and bridges. Tests can be conducted on thick as
well as thin components but as far as possible the reflecting surface should be parallel to the testing surface.
However for thin components, the reliability of the test result greatly depends on the sensitivity of the
instrument and expertise of the operator.
EDDY CURRENT TESTING
When a coil carrying alternating current is brought near a metallic specimen, eddy currents are developed in the
specimen due to electromagnetic induction. The magnitude of the induced eddy current depends on the following
factors.
(i) The magnitude and frequency of alternating current flowing in the coil.
(ii) The electrical conductivity of the specimen.
(iii) The magnetic permeability of the specimen.
(iv) The shape of the specimen.
(v) The relative positions of the coil and specimen
(vi) The microstructure and hardness of the specimen.
(vii) The amount and type of defects in the specimen.
Fig. Eddy current testing machine.
Variation in any one or more of the above factors will result in the variation of induced current. Therefore,
any one factor can be correlated with the induced current by keeping all other factors constant. Hence, it is
possible to sort out the defective components from the rest by keeping factors (i) to (vi) constant on the basis
of induced current.
The change in the eddy currents will change the magnetic impedance of the specimen or component which is
converted into voltage and observed on a voltmeter or oscilloscope. This presents certain difficulties because the
impedance value changes due to the change of spacing between the coil and the specimen. These effects are
likely to mislead the observer in to thinking that they are defects. However, by utilizing the phase or time
relation or the amplitude of the eddy currents, this problem can be overcome.
The test coils are of two types:
(i) Absolute coils: They directly measure inductance.
(ii) Differential coils: Here pairs of coils are used. They are connected in series and opposing each other. A
standard specimen is surrounded by one coil and the specimen under test is surrounded by another coil. When
the output from the two coils is zero, the specimen under test is similar to the standard specimen; otherwise they
are different. Defect free component can be chosen as standard specimen and the other components can be tested
for defects. However, other factors like size, shape, microstructure, hardness, etc. should remain constant. A
typical model of an eddy current tester is shown Fig.
The coils can be flat or cylindrical. A proper coil should be used for better sensitivity of the instrument to
defects. For flat samples, flat coils and for cylindrical samples, cylindrical coils should be used.
The sensitivity of the instrument to the defects also depend on the size of the coil. As the coil size increases, the
sensitivity decreases and hence a proper size of coil should be used.
The induced eddy currents are concentrated near the surface of the component due to skin effect. Higher the
testing frequency, more is the concentration of current at the surface and thinner is the surface region through
which the induced currents flow. Therefore, higher frequencies are suitable for detecting surface and
subsurface defects and lower frequencies for deeper defects. The frequency of the alternating current used in
eddy-current inspection ranges from 200 Hz (Hertz) to 6 x 106 Hz.
This method is suitable for testing non-ferrous as well as ferrous components. However, ferrous or magnetic
materials should be magnetically saturated before testing for defects.
Eddy-current method can be used for the following purposes:
(i) To measure or identify such conditions and properties as electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability,
grain size, heat treatment condition, hardness and physical dimensions.
(ii) To sort out dissimilar metals and detect differences in their composition, microstructure and other
properties.
(iii) To measure coating thickness.
Eddy current testing has the following advantages:
(i) It is very fast.
(ii) It does not require direct electrical contact with the part being inspected.
(iii) It can be made automatic for high speed inspection and can be used to inspect the entire production
output, if desired.
The limitation of this method is that the defects at or near the centre of the components will not be detected
because the eddy currents flow only through the surface.