LEVEL - 1

1. Classify various methods of Non-destructive tests?

 Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials,

components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without
destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other words, when the inspection or test
is completed the part can still be used.

 In contrast to NDT, other tests are destructive in nature and are therefore done on a limited
number of samples ("lot sampling"), rather than on the materials, components or assemblies
actually being put into service.

 These destructive tests are often used to determine the physical properties of materials such as
impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate tensile strength, fracture toughness and fatigue
strength, but discontinuities and differences in material characteristics are more effectively
found by NDT.

 Today modern nondestructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and in-service
inspections to ensure product integrity and reliability, to control manufacturing processes,
lower production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level. During construction, NDT is
used to ensure the quality of materials and joining processes during the fabrication and
erection phases, and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure that the products in use
continue to have the integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of the public.

 It should be noted that while the medical field uses many of the same processes, the term
"nondestructive testing" is generally not used to describe medical applications

NDT Test Methods

Test method names often refer to the type of penetrating medium or the equipment used to perform
that test. Current NDT methods are:
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT): Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or more magnetic fields to
locate surface and near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic field
can be applied with a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. When using an electromagnet,
the field is present only when the current is being applied. When the magnetic field
encounters a discontinuity transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines
produce a magnetic flux leakage field of their own as shown in Figure 1. Because magnetic
flux lines don't travel well in air, when very fine colored ferromagnetic particles ("magnetic
particles") are applied to the surface of the part the particles will be drawn into the
discontinuity, reducing the air gap and producing a visible indication on the surface of the
part. The magnetic particles may be a dry powder or suspended in a liquid solution, and they
may be colored with a visible dye or a fluorescent dye that fluoresces under an ultraviolet
("black") light.
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT) : The basic principle of liquid penetrant testing is that when a very
low viscosity (highly fluid) liquid (the penetrant) is applied to the surface of a part, it will
penetrate into fissures and voids open to the surface. Once the excess penetrant is removed,
the penetrant trapped in those voids will flow back out, creating an indication. Penetrant
testing can be performed on magnetic and non-magnetic materials, but does not work well on
porous materials. Penetrants may be "visible", meaning they can be seen in ambient light, or
fluorescent, requiring the use of a "black" light. The visible dye penetrant process is shown in
 Figure 7. When performing a PT inspection, it is imperative that the surface being tested is
clean and free of any foreign materials or liquids that might block the penetrant from entering
voids or fissures open to the surface of the part. After applying the penetrant, it is permitted to
sit on the surface for a specified period of time (the "penetrant dwell time"), then the part is
carefully cleaned to remove excess penetrant from the surface. When removing the penetrant,
the operator must be careful not to remove any penetrant that has flowed into voids. A light
coating of developer is then be applied to the surface and given time ("developer dwell time")
to allow the penetrant from any voids or fissures to seep up into the developer, creating a
visible indication. Following the prescribed developer dwell time, the part is inspected
visually, with the aid of a black light for fluorescent penetrants. Most developers are fine-
grained, white talcum-like powders that provide a color contrast to the penetrant being used.

Radiographic Testing (RT): Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating
radiation so that the radiation passes through the object being inspected and a recording
medium placed against the opposite side of that object. For thinner or less dense materials
such as aluminum, electrically generated x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used, and for
thicker or denser materials, gamma radiation is generally used.

Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive materials, with the two most commonly used
sources of gamma radiation being Iridium-192 (Ir-192) and Cobalt-60 (Co-60). IR-192 is
generally used for steel up to 2-1/2 - 3 inches, depending on the Curie strength of the source,
and Co-60 is usually used for thicker materials due to its greater penetrating ability.
The recording media can be industrial x-ray film or one of several types of digital radiation
detectors. With both, the radiation passing through the test object exposes the media, causing
an end effect of having darker areas where more radiation has passed through the part and
lighter areas where less radiation has penetrated. If there is a void or defect in the part, more
radiation passes through, causing a darker image on the film or detector, as shown in Figure 8
Ultrasonic Testing (UT): Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR
and fish finders. Ultra-high frequency sound is introduced into the part being inspected and if
the sound hits a material with a different acoustic impedance (density and acoustic velocity),
some of the sound will reflect back to the sending unit and can be presented on a visual
display. By knowing the speed of the sound through the part (the acoustic velocity) and the
time required for the sound to return to the sending unit, the distance to the reflector (the
indication with the different acoustic impedance) can be determined. The most common
sound frequencies used in UT are between 1.0 and 10.0 MHz, which are too high to be heard
and do not travel through air. The lower frequencies have greater penetrating power but less
sensitivity (the ability to "see" small indications), while the higher frequencies don't penetrate
as deeply but can detect smaller indications.
The two most commonly used types of sound waves used in industrial inspections are the
compression (longitudinal) wave and the shear (transverse) wave, as shown in Figure
10. Compression waves cause the atoms in a part to vibrate back and forth parallel to the
sound direction and shear waves cause the atoms to vibrate perpendicularly (from side to
side) to the direction of the sound. Shear waves travel at approximately half the speed of
longitudinal waves.

Electromagnetic Testing (ET): Electromagnetic testing is a general test category that includes
Eddy Current testing, Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) and Remote Field
testing. While magnetic particle testing is also an electromagnetic test, due to its widespread
use it is considered a stand-alone test method rather as than an electromagnetic testing
technique. All of these techniques use the induction of an electric current or magnetic field
into a conductive part, then the resulting effects are recorded and evaluated.

2. List out various safety aspects that are followed in industrial radiography?

Industrial radiography is a method of non-destructive testing where many types of

manufactured components can be examined to verify the internal structure and integrity of the
specimen. Industrial Radiography can be performed utilizing either X-rays or gamma rays.
Both are forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Industrial radiographers have an important responsibility for ensuring the safe conduct of
their work. Their safety and that of other workers in the immediate vicinity depends on their
observance of a high standard of radiation safety at all times. The public and other persons who
are in the immediate vicinity when radiography is in progress can be adversely affected if the
work is not carried out to the required level of competence.
The radiographer needs to achieve a level of competence by study and training which is
recognized and accepted by appropriate professional bodies, competent authorities, employers
and potential clients. Formal training is to be supplemented by appropriate experience and the
exchange of information, both theoretical and practical, with peers.
The radiographer is to undergo periodic refresher training in radiation safety. It is
important for radiographers to keep up to date with the technology used in the field and to fully
understand the correct use of the radiographic and ancillary equipment provided.
The radiographer has to maintain a professional attitude towards his or her work and the
essential safety requirements. He or she needs to be alert and fully fit during working hours.
Adequate supervision is to be exercised over less qualified workers who may be called upon to
assist.
Each radiographer has to receive any medical examinations as approved by the
Regulatory Authority to confirm fitness for work with ionizing radiation.
The radiographer is to wear suitable dosimeters, as directed by the RPO, during working
time, to measure the total exposure to radiation.
The radiographer should not expose him/herself or others to radiation unnecessarily to
ensure that the dose he/she receives is ALARA. No work is to be undertaken which would
place the radiographer at risk of receiving a dose greater than any relevant national dose limit
except in emergency situations.
In the often difficult and adverse conditions of industrial sites, the radiographer also has
to consider non-radiological hazards and to wear appropriate protective equipment. The
radiographer is not to take risks that might jeopardize the integrity, safety or security of
radiation equipment, particularly radioactive sources, or other radiation sensitive equipment.
All necessary care is to be taken to maintain radiographic and ancillary equipment in the
condition necessary to operate safely. Equipment is not to be modified, abused or used for
purposes for which it was not intended.
Equipment which is not in proper working condition is not to be used. The radiographer
has to be vigilant in identifying apparent problems and to report any defects for repair.
The radiographer is to perform all appropriate surveys to assess radiation hazards. In
particular, accidental exposures are prevented by using the radiation survey meter when
approaching the exposure device and by surveying the exposure device following every
radiographic exposure.
The radiographer has to be prepared to deal with reasonably foreseeable incidents with
the necessary equipment. Unusual events, accidents and incidents are to be reported to the
RPO.
The radiographer is to exercise appropriate care at all times and work in accordance with
instructions and defined operating and safety procedures.
3. Discuss the various parameters influencing the radiographic imaging.

Image quality is affected by:

 Components in an imaging system and technique used: Depending up on the components

with which the image is being captured the care must be taken that the equipment is
having some problems or not to ensure proper quality of image as an output from it.
 Manipulation of components/controls by the operator : While manipulating controls of
the equipment the controls and components must be clearly distinguished and care must be
properly taken.
 Viewing conditions: Viewing conditions vary the image quality. To generate the proper
views gives us the proper viewing pattern of image.
 Visual perception
 LEVEL – 2

1. Explain about sources of X and Gamma Rays and their interaction with matter in
detail.
X RAYS:
Human tissue can be severely damaged if exposed to the X-rays used in X-ray diffraction. Long-
term, chronic exposures at moderate levels can directly cause a variety of skin disorders, and
chronic relatively low-level exposures may be a factor in increased cancer risk in exposed
workers. Many early workers with X-rays developed serious ailments (from skin lesions to
various forms of cancer) as a consequence of their work. Although there are safeguards
associated with modern XRD equipment designed to minimize or eliminate radiation in the work
environment, an awareness of the dangers of radiation exposure and associated safety issues is
required for anyone desiring to use the laboratory.
INTERACTION OF X-RAYS WITH MATTER: X-rays possess intrinsic energy that may be
imparted to the matter they interact with. That interaction takes place as either absorption
(transfer of energy from the X-ray photon to the absorbing material) or scattering (in which the
X-ray photon is “redirected” by interaction with the scattering material). The process of
scattering is the primary process responsible for diffraction, but both processes (that are, in many
ways, interdependent) result in the production of potentially damaging secondary radiation. That
radiation is capable of producing significant short- and long-term health effects in the event of
exposure to human tissue. The X-rays produced for diffraction analysis by an X-ray source
consist of the characteristic radiation (dependent on the anode target) plus the continuous
spectrum.
The energy of X-rays and their wavelength are inversely proportional (higher energy = lower
wavelength), and the continuous spectrum minimum wavelength decreases as the accelerating
voltage (kV) of the X-ray source increases. It is important to understand that an increase in
filament current (ma) and kV (beyond the minimum value required to produce characteristic
radiation for the target) will result in an increase in the intensity of the generated X-rays, but will
not change their energy.
Energy Transfer:
There are two basic types of energy transfer that may occur when X-rays interact with matter:
• Ionization, in which the incoming radiation causes the removal of an electron from an atom or
molecule leaving the material with a net positive charge.
• Excitation, in which some of the X-ray’s energy is transferred to the target material leaving it
in an excited (or more energetic) state.
Theoretically there are twelve processes that can occur when X-rays interact with matter, but
only three of these processes are important. These processes are:
• The photoelectric effect
• The Compton effect and
• Pair Production

GAMMA RAYS:
Gamma radiation also known as gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of high frequency
and therefore high energy with very short wavelength (≈10-3 A.U. to 1 A.U.) and therefore they
have no electric charge and cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic fields. Gamma rays are
ionizing radiation and are thus biologically hazardous. Gamma rays are produced from the decay
 from high energy states of (highly unstable) of atomic nuclei. They can also be created in other
process. Gamma rays are produced from naturally occurring radioactive isotopes and secondary
radiations from atmospheric interactions with cosmic rays particles. Gamma rays are produced
by number of astronomical process in which very high energy of electron are produced that in
turns cause secondary gamma rays by the mechanism of Brehmsstrahlung, inverse Compton
scattering and Synchrotron radiation. Gamma rays typically have frequencies above 10 exahertz
(or >1019 Hz) and therefore have energies above 100 KeV and wavelengths less than 10 pico-
meters (less than the diameter of an atom). Gamma rays from radioactive decay are defined as
gamma rays no matter what their energy. Gamma decay commonly produces energies of a few
hundred KeV and almost less than 10 MeV.
SOURCES OF GAMMA RADIATION: Natural sources of gamma rays on earth include
gamma decay from naturally occurring radioisotopes such as potassium- 40. The high energy
gamma ray produces secondary gamma rays by different process. A large fraction such
astronomical gamma rays are screened by earth atmosphere and must be detected by space craft.
A notable artificial source of gamma rays includes fission which occurs in nuclear reactors and
high energy physics experiments such as nuclear pion decay and nuclear fusion. Originally, the
electromagnetic radiations emitted by X-ray tubes almost invariably have a longer wavelength
than the gamma rays emitted by radioactive nuclei. X-ray and gamma rays can be distinguish on
the basis of wavelength. With radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength such as 10-11 m
defined as gamma rays. The classification of X-rays and gamma rays can be done on their origin.
X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus. While gamma rays emitted by nucleus.
INTERACTION OF GAMMA RAYS WITH MATTER: When a beam of gamma ray
photon is incident on any material it removed individually in a single event. The event may be an
actual absorption process in which case photon disappears or the photon may be scattered out of
the beam. When a gamma rays passes through matter, probability for absorption is proportional
to thickness of the layer, the density of the material, and absorption, cross section of the material.
The total absorption shows an exponential decrease of intensity with distance from the decrease
of intensity with distance from the incident surface.
2. Explain the method of X-ray generation with neat sketch
 A current is passed through the tungsten filament and heats it up.
 As it is heated up the increased energy enables electrons to be released from the filament
through thermionic emission.
 The electrons are attracted towards the positively charged anode and hit the tungsten target with
a maximum energy determined by the tube potential (voltage).
 As the electrons bombard the target they interact via Bremsstrahlung and characteristic
interactions which result in the conversion of energy into heat (99%) and x-ray photons (1%).
 The x-ray photons are released in a beam with a range of energies (x-ray spectrum) out of the
window of the tube and form the basis for x-ray image formation.
 LEVEL - 3
1. List out the methods of producing gamma rays.

There are several physical processes that generate gamma rays:

1. A high-energy particle can collide with another particle

2. A particle can collide and annihilate with its anti-particle
3. An element can undergo radioactive decay
4. A charged particle can be accelerated

Particle-Particle Collisions: Particle-Particle collisions In gamma-ray astronomy, "particle-

particle collision" usually means a high-energy proton, or cosmic ray, strikes another proton or
atomic nucleus. This collision produces, among other things, one or more neutral pi mesons (or
pions). These are unstable particles that decay into a pair of gamma rays. Since the pion is
usually moving at a high velocity as a result of its violent birth, the gamma rays are projected
forward in a slight "V" formation. This process gives rise to gamma rays with a broad spectrum
of energies (all greater than 72 mega-electron-volts, which is a measurement of the kinetic
energy in the incident particles)

Matter-antimatter annihilation: A particle and its anti-particle, such as an electron and a

positron, will undergo something called an annihilation process. In physics, this process
produces neutral ions that quickly decay into gamma rays.

Radioactive Decay: Radioactive decay results when an element changes to another element by
virtue of changes within the atom's nucleus. These changes leave the nucleus in an excited state.
The atom emits a gamma ray as it decays into the ground state. We not only observe these
gamma rays, but their fluxes and spectra identify the specific nuclei and the rate of their
excitation. Extreme physical conditions are required to produce excited nuclei, thus allowing us
to probe unique physical environments with these observations. Radioactive gamma-ray sources
in space are associated with events of nucleo synthesis, such as supernovae.
 Acceleration of Charged Particles: A magnetic field exerts a force on a charged particle that is
moving in it. This causes the particle to radiate, with the emitted power being proportional to the
square of the force divided by the square of the mass of the particle. For electrons, this radiation
is often in the gamma-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The character of the radiation
(and the name given to it) depends on the nature of the accelerating force. If the electron is
accelerated in the electrostatic field around a nucleus, the resulting radiation is called
bremsstrahlung; it is synchrotron radiation (sometimes also called cyclotron radiation) when the
acceleration takes place in a static magnetic field; and the process is called or Compton
scattering (sometimes also called Thomson scattering) when the acceleration occurs in the
electromagnetic field of a photon.

2. Write about the applications, limitations of X and Gamma Rays?

Applications of Gamma rays:
1. Gamma radiation is often used to kill living organisms, in a process called irradiation.
Applications of this include the sterilization of medical equipment (as an alternative
to autoclaves or chemical means), the removal of decay-causing bacteria from many foods
and the prevention of the sprouting of fruit and vegetables to maintain freshness and flavor.
2. Despite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat some types
of cancer, since the rays also kill cancer cells. In the procedure called gamma-knife surgery,
multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are directed to the growth in order to kill the
cancerous cells. The beams are aimed from different angles to concentrate the radiation on
the growth while minimizing damage to surrounding tissues.
3. Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in nuclear medicine in imaging
techniques. A number of different gamma-emitting radioisotopes are used. For example, in
a PET scan a radiolabeled sugar called fludeoxyglucose emits positrons that are annihilated
by electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays that highlight cancer as the cancer often has a
higher metabolic rate than the surrounding tissues. The most common gamma emitter used
in medical applications is the nuclear isomer technetium-99m which emits gamma rays in
the same energy range as diagnostic X-rays. When this radionuclide tracer is administered to
a patient, a gamma camera can be used to form an image of the radioisotope's distribution
by detecting the gamma radiation emitted (see also SPECT). Depending on which molecule
has been labeled with the tracer, such techniques can be employed to diagnose a wide range
of conditions (for example, the spread of cancer to the bones via bone scan).
Applications of X Rays:
Most applications of X rays are based on their ability to pass through matter. This ability varies
with different substances; e.g., wood and flesh are easily penetrated, but denser substances such
as lead and bone are more opaque. The penetrating power of X rays also depends on their
energy. The more penetrating X rays, known as hard X rays, are of higher frequency and are thus
more energetic, while the less penetrating X rays, called soft X rays, have lower energies. X rays
that have passed through a body provide a visual image of its interior structure when they strike
a photographic plate or a fluorescent screen; the darkness of the shadows produced on the plate
or screen depends on the relative opacity of different parts of the body.
Photographs made with X rays are known as radiographs or skiagraphs. Radiography has
applications in both medicine and industry, where it is valuable for diagnosis and nondestructive
testing of products for defects. Fluoroscopy is based on the same techniques, with the
photographic plate replaced by a fluorescent screen (see fluorescence ; fluoroscope ); its
advantages over radiography in time and cost are balanced by some loss in sharpness of the
image. X rays are also used with computers in CAT (computerized axial tomography) scans to
produce cross-sectional images of the inside of the body.
Another use of radiography is in the examination and analysis of paintings, where studies can
reveal such details as the age of a painting and underlying brushstroke techniques that help to
identify or verify the artist. X rays are used in several techniques that can provide enlarged
images of the structure of opaque objects. These techniques, collectively referred to as X-ray
microscopy or microradiography, can also be used in the quantitative analysis of many materials.
One of the dangers in the use of X rays is that they can destroy living tissue and can cause severe
skin burns on human flesh exposed for too long a time. This destructive power is used in X-ray
therapy to destroy diseased cells.

Limitations of Gamma rays:

When high levels of gamma rays bombard a body, a resulting dangerous ionization of
tissue can cause skin cancer.

Ionization Dangers: Ionization from gamma rays can cause three different reactions
in living cell tissues. A cell can either perfectly repair itself and continue unharmed,
it can die in the process of reproduction or it can repair itself imperfectly, causing it
to reproduce abnormally or become radioactive. When a cell repairs itself imperfectly
or becomes radioactive, it can develop into leukemia or a solid tumor.
Gamma Ray Bursts: If a gamma ray burst hit the Earth at high intensity, it would
negatively interact with the upper atmosphere, creating nitrogen oxides that would
lead to the destruction of the Earth's ozone layer. After a few centuries, the after -
effects would cause a storm of cosmic rays to destroy everything on the surface of the
Earth.

Limitations of X rays:
One disadvantage of X-rays is that they do not give detailed image of the body. MRI or CT
scans are excellent tools if the doctor is trying to find a medical issue with organs, bone, the
brain, and tissues.
They do not use same form of energy in all types of scanning.
Large exposure to the rays may cause Skin cancer.
Sometimes the DNA of the body is also notes to be changed.