®

ZView

IMPEDANCE / GAIN PHASE

GRAPHING AND ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

OPERATING MANUAL

Version 3.5

Scribner Associates, Inc.

150 East Connecticut Avenue
Southern Pines, NC USA 28387
Tel: +1-910-695-8884
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.scribner.com rev. D, 11/2016

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ZView Manual
 ®
ZView Manual
 ZView®

Impedance / Gain Phase

Graphing and Analysis Software

© Copyright 1996-2016
Scribner Associates, Inc.
Southern Pines, NC

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed,
stored on a retrieval system or translated into any language, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, manual or otherwise, without the prior written consent of Scribner
Associates, Inc.

Scribner Associates, Inc. makes no representations or warranties with respect to the contents
hereof and specifically disclaims any implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a
particular purpose. Furthermore, Scribner Associates reserves the right to revise this publication
and to make changes from time to time to the content hereof without obligation to notify any
person of such revision or changes.

PROGRAM LICENSE AGREEMENT

Do not install this software package until you have read the license agreement. If you install
the program, Scribner Associates will assume that you have agreed to be bound by this
standard agreement. If you do not accept the terms of this license, you must return the
package unused to the party from whom you received it.

The program contained in this package is provided to the end user as a single program for use on
a single machine and not for distribution to other machines or parties.

ZView, ZPlot, MultiStat and FuelCell and program icons are registered trademarks of Scribner Associates, Inc. Z60,
ZPlot·Lab and FlowCell and program icons are trademarks of Scribner Associates, Inc. MS-DOS and Windows are
registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation.

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ZView Manual
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ZView Manual
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1.1
1.1. Overview ................................................................................................................................ 1.1
1.2. System Requirements............................................................................................................. 1.1
1.3. Software Support.................................................................................................................... 1.2
1.4. Using This Manual ................................................................................................................. 1.3
Chapter 2. SOFTWARE INSTALLATION ............................................................................ 2.1
2.1. Software Protection and License Restriction ......................................................................... 2.1
2.2. Running ZView on Multiple Computers ................................................................................ 2.1
2.3. Installation from a CD............................................................................................................ 2.2
Chapter 3. TUTOR #1 ............................................................................................................... 3.1
3.1. Toolbar ................................................................................................................................... 3.2
3.2. Getting Started ....................................................................................................................... 3.2
3.3. Creating a New Graph............................................................................................................ 3.4
3.4. Modifying a Graph ................................................................................................................. 3.5
3.5. Creating a Second Graph ....................................................................................................... 3.6
3.6. Saving Graphs ........................................................................................................................ 3.7
3.7. Adding Text ........................................................................................................................... 3.7
3.8. Printing Graphs ...................................................................................................................... 3.8
3.9. Other Graph Types ................................................................................................................. 3.8
3.10. Rearranging the Display......................................................................................................... 3.9
Chapter 4. TUTOR #2 ............................................................................................................... 4.1
4.1. Selecting a Data Set to Analyze ............................................................................................. 4.1
4.2. Selecting a Subset of Data ..................................................................................................... 4.2
4.3. Autoscaling Methods ............................................................................................................. 4.2
4.4. Circle Fit ................................................................................................................................ 4.3
4.5. Linear Fit ................................................................................................................................ 4.4
Chapter 5. TUTOR #3 ............................................................................................................... 5.1
5.1. Circuit Modeling .................................................................................................................... 5.1
5.2. Simulating Data...................................................................................................................... 5.2
5.3. Fitting Data ............................................................................................................................ 5.4
5.4. Instant Fit ............................................................................................................................... 5.5
5.5. Other Simulation/Fitting Techniques ................................................................................... 5.10
Chapter 6. ZVIEW MENUS ..................................................................................................... 6.1
6.1. File Menu ............................................................................................................................... 6.1
6.2. Graph Menu ........................................................................................................................... 6.6
6.3. Options Menu......................................................................................................................... 6.7
6.4. Tools Menu ............................................................................................................................ 6.8
6.5. Window Menu ....................................................................................................................... 6.9
6.6. Help Menu ........................................................................................................................... 6.10
Chapter 7. ACTIVE DATA SET AND POP-UP MENUS ..................................................... 7.1
7.1. Active Data Set ...................................................................................................................... 7.1
7.2. Selecting a Subset of Data ..................................................................................................... 7.1
7.3. Graph Pop-Up Menus ............................................................................................................ 7.2
7.4. Nyquist or Complex Plane Graph Setup ................................................................................ 7.4
7.5. Bode Graph Pop-Up Menu .................................................................................................... 7.8
7.6. 3-D Graph Pop-Up Menu ..................................................................................................... 7.12

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 7.7. Multigraph Pop-Up Menu .................................................................................................... 7.15
Chapter 8. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODELING ............................................................. 8.1
8.1. Instant Fit ............................................................................................................................... 8.2
8.2. Equivalent Circuits................................................................................................................. 8.3
8.3. Fitting Parameters .................................................................................................................. 8.5
8.4. Modifying a Circuit Model .................................................................................................... 8.7
8.5. Fitting Results ........................................................................................................................ 8.9
8.6. Freedom Settings.................................................................................................................. 8.10
8.7. Initial Estimates.................................................................................................................... 8.10
8.8. Fitting Results ...................................................................................................................... 8.11
8.9. Circuit Elements................................................................................................................... 8.12
8.9.1. R - Resistor ...................................................................................................................... 8.12
8.9.2. C - Capacitor .................................................................................................................... 8.12
8.9.3. L - Inductor ...................................................................................................................... 8.12
8.9.4. CPE - Constant Phase Element #1 ................................................................................... 8.13
8.9.5. QPE - Constant Phase Element #2 ................................................................................... 8.13
8.9.6. Ws - Finite Length Warburg - Short Circuit Terminus .................................................... 8.14
8.9.7. Wo - Finite Length Warburg - Open Circuit Terminus ................................................... 8.15
8.9.8. Ls - de Levie Pore – Finite Length .................................................................................. 8.16
8.9.9. Lo - de Levie Pore – Semi-infinite Length ...................................................................... 8.17
8.9.10. GE - Gerischer Element ................................................................................................... 8.18
8.10. Distributed Elements ............................................................................................................ 8.19
8.11. Extended Distributed Elements ............................................................................................ 8.20
8.12. Batch Fitting......................................................................................................................... 8.21
Chapter 9. STANDARD CIRCUIT MODELS ....................................................................... 9.1
9.1. Example Model 1 - Lithium-Titanium Disulfide Battery ...................................................... 9.2
9.2. Example Model 2 - Corrosion of a Coated Metal .................................................................. 9.3
9.3. Example Model 3 - Localized Corrosion ............................................................................... 9.4
Chapter 10. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DISTRIBUTED ELEMENTS ............................. 10.1
10.1. DE-Type = 0 (Short Circuit) ................................................................................................ 10.2
10.2. DE-Type = 1 (R - C Parallel Combination) ......................................................................... 10.3
10.3. DE-Type = 2, 3 (Constant Phase Element (CPE) and/or Series RC) ................................... 10.4
10.4. DE-Type = 4, 5 (ZARC - Cole Element) ............................................................................. 10.5
10.5. DE-Type = 6, 7, 8 (Havriliak - Negami Element)................................................................ 10.6
10.6. DE-Type = 9 (Generalized Finite Warburg Element) .......................................................... 10.7
10.7. DE-Type = 10 (Williams-Watts Fractional Exponential) .................................................... 10.8
10.8. DE-Type = 11 (Jonscher Response)..................................................................................... 10.9
10.9. DE-Type = 13 (Exponential Distribution of Activation Energies) .................................... 10.11
10.10. DE-Type = 14 (Gaussian Distribution of Activation Energies) ......................................... 10.12
10.11. DE-Type = 15, 16 (General Diffusion DCE) ..................................................................... 10.13
10.12. DE-Type = 17 (Ideal Elements: RX, RY, C, and LL)........................................................ 10.15
10.13. DX-Type = 1 (Electrochemistry in Macrohomogeneous Porous Electrodes).................... 10.20
10.14. DX-Type = 2 (Electrochemistry in Macrohomogeneous Porous Electrodes).................... 10.21
10.15. DX-Type = 3 (Electrochemistry in Macrohomogeneous Porous Electrodes).................... 10.22
10.16. DX-Type = 4 (Axial Diffusion Through a Thin Film) ....................................................... 10.23
10.17. DX-Type = 5 (Impedance of Three-Phase Electrodes on Solid Electrolytes) ................... 10.24
10.18. DX-Type = 6 (Transmission Line - Open Circuit Terminus) ............................................ 10.25
10.19. DX-Type = 7 (Transmission Line - Short Circuit Terminus) ............................................ 10.26
10.20. DX-Type = 8 (Electrochemical Capacitor) ........................................................................ 10.27
10.21. DX-Type = 9 (Electrochemical Capacitor) ........................................................................ 10.29
10.22. DX-Type = 10 (Bisquert #1) .............................................................................................. 10.31
10.23. DX-Type = 11 (Bisquert #2) .............................................................................................. 10.32

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 10.24. DX-Type = 12 (Bisquert #3) .............................................................................................. 10.34
10.25. DX-Type = 13 (Wang / Spherical Diffusion) .................................................................... 10.36
10.26. DX-Type = 14 (Young)...................................................................................................... 10.37
10.27. DX-Type = 15 (Jamnik-Mailer) ......................................................................................... 10.38
10.28. DX-Type = 16 (Maxwell-Wagner) .................................................................................... 10.39
10.29. DX-Type = 17 (Lai #1) ...................................................................................................... 10.40
10.30. DX-Type = 18 (Lai #2) ...................................................................................................... 10.41
10.31. DX-Type = 19 (Jamnik-Maier-Lai-Lee or JMLL) ............................................................. 10.42
Chapter 11. DEFINITION OF SYMBOLS USED IN ZView.............................................. 11.1
11.1. Relationship between the Four Basic Immittance Functions ............................................... 11.1
11.2. Impedance Format................................................................................................................ 11.1
11.3. Admittance Format .............................................................................................................. 11.2
11.4. Modulus Format ................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.5. Dielectric or Capacitance Format......................................................................................... 11.2
11.6. Parallel RCL Circuit............................................................................................................. 11.3
11.7. Series RCL Circuit ............................................................................................................... 11.3
Chapter 12. KRAMERS-KRONIG TRANSFORMS IN ZVIEW....................................... 12.1
12.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 12.1
12.2. Theory .................................................................................................................................. 12.1
12.3. Performing a K-K Transformation ....................................................................................... 12.2
12.4. K-K Transform Examples .................................................................................................... 12.2
12.4.1. K-K Transform of Bad (Distorted) Data .......................................................................... 12.2
12.4.2. K-K Transform of Good (Non-distorted) Data ................................................................ 12.4
12.5. Limitations of the K-K Method ........................................................................................... 12.4
12.6. Other Methods to Test for Invalid Data ............................................................................... 12.5
12.7. References ............................................................................................................................ 12.6

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Chapter 1 Introduction

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Overview
ZView is an easy-to-learn and use software package for graphing and analysis of impedance, gain
phase, and group delay data. Individual data files can be analyzed using a variety of techniques
including line, arc, and equivalent circuit fitting. In addition, ZView can be used to display and
analyze live data as it is being acquired by the ZPlot, MultiStat, ZPlot·Lab, FuelCell and
FlowCell programs.

ZView uses Microsoft Windows to provide an easy-to-use interface. ZView can be run in the
background, allowing the computer to be used for other purposes.

Features of ZView include:

• Load and display 1 or many data files.
• Graph and fit data files with up to 1,500 points/file.
• Displays live data as it is measured by ZPlot, MultiStat, ZPlot·Lab, FuelCell and
FlowCell.
• Supports many file formats including:
o Scribner software packages: ZPlot, Z60 for Windows, ZPlot and Z60 for DOS,
MultiStat, ZPlot·Lab, FuelCell and FlowCell.
o Impedance data files generated by PARC M388 and M398, Agilent, Autolab
Metrohm AG, Bio-Logic, Boukamp, CH Instruments, Gamry Instruments, Gill
AC, HP, Ivium, Maccor, Newtons4th, Palmsense, Radiometer, Zahner and others.
• Choose from hundreds of axis combinations in Complex Plane (Nyquist), Bode, and 3-D
formats.
• Analyze impedance data using curve fitting, linear regression, and polarization resistance
functions.
• Simulate and fit data using equivalent circuit models.
• Batch mode for equivalent circuit modelling and fitting of multiple data files.
• Print graphs singly or with multiple graphs on a page.

1.2. System Requirements

• ZView Electrochemical Impedance Software
• Computer with
o Microsoft Windows XP Pro/Vista/Windows 7/8 recommended
o 1 GHz or greater Pentium or equivalent processor
o 512 Meg RAM
o CD Drive
o 2 USB Ports
o Or greater specifications as required by the operating system used.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.3. Software Support

Program updates are available through the Internet from http://www.scribner.com.
Before calling for support, please review the Tutor portions of the manual. Registered users of
ZView can receive telephone support through the following sources:

U.S.A. and Canada:

Scribner Associates, Inc.

150 East Connecticut Avenue
Southern Pines, NC 28387
+1-925-862-2416 (Support: Derek Johnson, Pacific Standard Time)
+1-910-695-8884 (Sales + Support, Eastern Standard Time)
Fax: (910) 695-8886

Solartron Analytical,
a member of Advanced Measurement Technology Inc.
Division of AMETEK Inc.
801 South Illinois Avenue
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831-0895
United States
Phone: +1-865-482-4411, Toll Free: +1-800-366-2741, Fax: +1-865-425-1334

Other Areas:

Contact your Solartron Representative

or
Solartron Analytical
a member of Advanced Measurement Technology Inc.
Division of AMETEK Inc.
Unit B1, Armstrong Mall, Southwood Business Park
Farnborough, Hampshire GU14 ONR
Phone: +44 1252 556 800, Fax: +44 1252 556 899

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.4. Using This Manual

This ZView user’s manual includes all of the information you need to run ZView on your
computer. It is assumed that the user is familiar with Microsoft Windows and knows how to use
the mouse and keyboard to access the pull-down menus.

Throughout this tutor, you will be asked to select various commands from the ZView menu. The
menu commands will be printed as BOLD. For example, if we say select File, click on the word
‘File’ in the menu. Notice that the letter F is underlined. This indicates that the item can also be
selected by holding down the Alt key and pressing the F key. Selecting an item from the menu
usually drops down a submenu. For example, selecting File drops down a submenu with items
such as New Setup and Open Setup....

We will indicate that you should select File and then Open Setup... by asking you to select File |
Open Setup....
Some menu items have the suffix ‘...’. This indicates that after selecting this item, you will be
prompted for more information. For example, Open Setup... will ask which setup to open. If
there is no ‘...’ suffix, then the function is performed immediately.
ZView also has a toolbar of icons directly below the menu. Each of the icons performs the same
function as an item in the menu. They are used as shortcuts for various commonly used
functions. If the mouse is positioned over any icon, a box will appear describing the icons
function.
Note: All information in this manual is also contained in the ZView online Help files.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter.

CHAPTER 2. SOFTWARE INSTALLATION

Describes the installation of ZView software and menu system.

CHAPTER 3. ZVIEW TUTOR #1

Step-by-step guide through the first use of ZView. Basic functions of creating graphs,
selecting data files and printing are covered.

CHAPTER 4. ZVIEW TUTOR #2

Step-by-step instructions for more advanced features of ZView. This includes scaling
graphs and simple data analysis.

CHAPTER 5. ZVIEW TUTOR #3

Examples of advanced data analysis techniques including Equivalent Circuit Modeling
and Simulation.

CHAPTER 6. ZVIEW MENUS

Defines the functions performed by each menu item, display and parameter available
through the main ZView menu.

CHAPTER 7. DATA INFO WINDOW, GRAPH POP-UP MENUS

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Chapter 1 Introduction

Describes how to use the Data Info window to select data for analysis and how to use the
Pop-Up menus to change a graph.

CHAPTER 8. CIRCUIT MODELING

Describes the use of Instant Fit and Equivalent Circuit modeling to simulate or fit
impedance data. Introduces equivalent circuit elements.

CHAPTER 9. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODELS

List of Equivalent Circuit models provided with ZView.

CHAPTER 10. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DISTRIBUTED ELEMENTS

List of Distributed Elements which can be used in Equivalent Circuit models.

CHAPTER 11. DEFINITION OF SYMBOLS USING IN ZVIEW AND ZVIEW GRAPHS

Defines the symbols and equations used in ZView and graphs.

CHAPTER 12. KRAMERS-KRONIG TRANSFORMS IN ZVIEW

Tutorial and examples of the K-K Transform function in ZView.

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Chapter 2 Software Installation

CHAPTER 2. SOFTWARE INSTALLATION

2.1. Software Protection and License Restriction

The ZView program uses a Hardware License Key (called a dongle) attached to the USB port.
The Hardware License Key includes an authorization code to enable the program to operate
without restriction.

IMPORTANT LICENSE RESTRICTIONS

1. ZView can be installed on multiple computers for data analysis purposes only.

2. If you receive the message “Product Key Not Found”, check the rear of the PC at the
USB or parallel port to see that the dongle is attached.

3. ZView checks for the presence of the License Key every six (6) months. If you receive the
message “Operating in Demonstration Mode” close the software, install the license key and
re-start ZView. ZView will then operate without the presence of the License Key for six (6)
months.

2.2. Running ZView on Multiple Computers

ZView only requires the dongle to be present every 6 months.
To use ZView on multiple computers, install ZView, and run it once with the dongle present.
ZView can now be used for 6 months without the dongle. After 6 months, you will receive the
message “Product Key Not Found”. Once again, ZView must be run with the dongle present to
authorize it to operate for another 6 months.

WARNING
The dongle is required for operation of the software. This is your
license to use the software package. DO NOT LOSE IT. Protect this
hardware item from damage or loss! It will not be replaced without
charge.

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Chapter 2 Software Installation

2.3. Installation from a CD

To properly install software on a PC with Windows XP Pro/Vista/7/8, you MUST log on
using an account with Administrator rights. If you do not have administrator rights for the
computer, the setup programs will display an error message and will not install. Consult your
computer system administrator for more information on user account types.
1. You must log onto Windows XP Pro/Vista/7/8 as the ADMINISTRATOR account, or
have Administrator Rights to this computer before completing the following steps.
2. Close all other applications, and insert the Scribner Associates Install Disk into your CD-
ROM drive.
Setup will begin automatically. If you have your autorun feature turned off, choose Start

1. | Run.... In the command line text box, type d:\setup (where d: is the letter of the CD-
ROM drive). Click OK.
2. Select ZView from the list of available programs.
3. Follow the screen directions to complete the installation. You will be asked for the drive
and directory in which to install ZView. The default is C:\SAI.
4. Repeat steps 3 and 4 to install other programs from the CD. Note that ZPot and ZView are
installed separately.
During installation, a Program Group named Electrochemistry was created in the Windows Start
menu. A ZView icon will appear in this program group. ZView is normally started by using this
icon.

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Chapter 3 Tutor #1

CHAPTER 3. TUTOR #1

This tutor is designed to guide you through your first use of ZView. We will create several types
of graphs using several data files.

Note: If you have already used the Tutors described in the ZPlot manuals you have already seen
ZView - it was used to display the data acquired by ZPlot.

We assume that you already have some experience with Microsoft Windows. If you are new to
the Windows environment, please review the Windows Getting Started manual. This tutor also
assumes that you have a printer, and that it has been correctly installed. To verify that the printer
is properly working, try printing something from the Notepad or Write accessories that come
with Windows.

Throughout this tutor, you will be asked to select various commands from the ZView menu. The
menu commands will be printed as BOLD. For example, if we say select File, click on the word
‘File’ in the menu. Notice that the letter F is underlined. This indicates that the item can also be
selected by holding down the Alt key and pressing the F key. Selecting an item from the menu
usually drops down a submenu. For example, selecting File drops down a submenu with items
such as New Setup and Open Setup....

We will indicate that you should select File and then Open Setup... by asking you to select File |
Open Setup....

Some menu items have the suffix ‘...’. This indicates that after selecting this item, you will be
prompted for more information. For example, Open Setup... will ask which setup to open. If
there is no ‘...’ suffix, then the function is performed immediately.

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3.1. Toolbar
The toolbar buttons are shortcuts to many of the common menu items. If the mouse is positioned
over any icon, a box will appear describing the icons function. All icon functions are also
available through the menus. The toolbar contains several groups of functions as described
below. Each button will be noted in the tutorials as its function is described.

Load+Save Setup: ZView Setup files contain the specifications for the graphs, axes, data files,
and screen arrangement.
Print Graph: Prints the currently highlighted graph.
Rescale Axes: Provides several methods to auto-scale the graph axes.
Data Display: Controls how the loaded data is displayed and provides data cursor
control.
Data Point Values: Displays the values of the data point at the data cursors.
Load Data: Adds impedance data files to the Graphs.
Data Analysis: Provides various data analysis techniques.

3.2. Getting Started

Start the ZView program, if you have not done so.
ZView should display two graphs titled Complex #1 and Bode #1, placed side by side. The large
window, titled ZView, encompasses the entire program. The smaller graph Windows can be
moved, resized, or displayed side-by-side, but always remain inside the ZView window. Some
special Windows, such as Equivalent Circuits modeling are displayed outside of the main ZView
window. These functions are described in Tutor #2.
Notice that the title bar for one of the graph Windows (Complex #1 or Bode #1) is highlighted
and the other one is gray. The highlighted graph is the active graph. This means that it can be
modified, have text added, printed, etc. It is also displayed on top of all other graphs.
There are two types of menus in ZView. The first is a drop-down main menu displayed at the top
of the program (the File, Graph, Options, etc. menu). This menu is used to change parameters
which affect all graphs, such as selecting data files or changing the printer configuration.
Each graph also has its own pop-up menu. These are used for things like adding text to a graph,
changing the graph axes, or printing the graph. These menus only affect one graph - the one that
is active or highlighted as described above.
The pop-up graph menus are accessed using the right mouse button. After a little practice, it will
become very natural to select an active graph using the left button, and then modify it using the
right button. We will use this technique extensively in the tutors. The pop-up menu functions are
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also duplicated in the Options | Active Graph menu.

Active Graph: To switch active graphs, click with the mouse on the title bar of the
inactive graph.
Move Graph: The graphs can be moved around on screen by clicking on the title bar.
Hold down the mouse button and drag the graph window.
Maximize ZView: Maximize ZView to cover the whole screen by clicking the maximize
icon on the ZView title bar.
Maximize Graph: If the maximize icon of a graph window is used, that graph will expand to
fill the entire ZView window.
Toolbar: The toolbar contains icons for many of the common graph manipulation
techniques and displays data point values.
Close Graph: Click on close box in the upper right corner of a graph window to close a
graph. This is useful, if you want to close a single graph but retain any
other graphs you have displayed.

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3.3. Creating a New Graph

In order to practice making new graphs, we will start by closing the existing graphs. Select File |
New Setup. This closes all Windows and closes all data files.
We can now create a new graph. Select Graph | New Complex Plane. A new complex plane
graph will appear. It is not unusual to have more than one Complex Plane graph displayed, each
with a different scaling.

3
4

We need some data to display on this graph. Select File | Data Files....
Now, look at the sample Select Data Files screen above. The numbered areas correspond to the
following:
1. From the directory c:\sai\zdata, click on the file named demo1.z and click on the
Add button ( or double-click on the file name). This will add this file to the
‘Files to Plot’ list on the right-hand side of the window. This list contains all the
data files we wish to display. A maximum of 20 files can be added to this list. To
remove a file from the ‘Files to Plot’ list, select the file in this list and click
Remove ( ). Try removing and adding back the demo1.z file.
Let’s now add a second file to this list. Add the file demo2.z.
2. Select the demo1.z file in the ‘Files to Plot’ list. The Display, Scaling, and File
Comments only apply to the file highlighted in the Files to Plot list.

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3. Click on the down arrow in the Color list box and select ‘Red’.
Note: If Auto-Color is used, ZView will automatically assign a different color to
each file.
4. Type this is my first file for the Legend text. Select the demo2.z file and enter the
legend this is my second file.
Note: If Auto-Legend is used, a graph legend listing the file names will
automatically be created.
5. The File Comments box at the bottom of this menu show any comment text
attached to the data file.
We are now ready to close this menu and look at the data. Click the OK button.
After the graphs are redrawn, the legend text can be moved by dragging it. Move the cursor over
the text and Click the mouse button. While holding down the mouse button, move the mouse.
When the mouse button is released, the text will be redrawn in this new location. The axes text
(Z′ and Z″) can be moved the same way.

3.4. Modifying a Graph

We will now modify this graph. Place the cursor anywhere inside the Complex Plane graph and
click the right mouse button. A menu will pop-up with options such as Setup..., Text..., Print
etc. Notice that some of the menu items are grayed (displayed in gray text instead of black). We
will discuss what gray means later.

Select Setup... to display the following menu.

Now, look at the sample Setup Complex Axes screen above. The numbered areas correspond to
the following changes:

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1. Change the X-Axis Maximum to 12000.

2. Change the Y-Axis Maximum to -12000.
3. Add text for the Graph Title, for example: Complex Plane Graph of demo data.
4. Click the OK button to exit this menu and save the changes. Cancel will exit
without saving the changes.

3.5. Creating a Second Graph

We will now create a second graph by using Graph | New Bode. The two graphs can be
arranged so that they appear side-by-side by selecting Window | Tile.
Notice that the data is automatically applied to this new graph. This demonstrates an important
point that the order of operations does not affect the overall result. We can select a graph first
and then select the data files, or select the data files first and then the graphs. It also demonstrates
that operations from the main ZView menu (such as File | Data Files...) affect all of the graphs.
On the other hand, the Setup... pop-up menu we used to change the Complex Plane graph only
changed that one graph. Even if we had multiple Complex graphs on the screen, a pop-up menu
would only affect one of them.
Lets now look at the pop-up menu for the Bode graph we just created. Make sure the Bode #1
graph is active (using the left mouse button to highlight it if necessary), and use the right mouse
button to access the pop-up menu.
Most of the items in this menu are the same as the Complex graph’s pop-up menu. The fitting
options, however, are different, reflecting the techniques that are used on Bode graphs.
Rather than manually changing the axes, as we did with the complex graph, we will use one of
the autoscale features. From the Bode Graph pop-up menu, select AutoScale. The axes will be
rescaled, so that all of the data is visible.
There is also a Rescale Previous option which lets you undo an autoscaling operation. You can
undo up to 5 times.
The AutoScale Graph to Cursors option will be discussed in Tutor #2.
The autoscale options in a pop-up menu only effect one graph. It is also possible to perform the
autoscale operations on all graphs simultaneously. As we described earlier, operations which
affect all graphs are located in the main ZView menu. In this case, they are located under
Options.
Click on Options to see this menu. Note that the AutoScale All Graphs is accompanied by the
shortcut Ctrl+A. This indicates that all graphs can be autoscaled, at any time, by holding down
the Ctrl key and pressing the A key.
Zoom Feature: The Mouse can be used to zoom in on a particular area of the graph. Click and
drag the mouse on one of the graphs. Surround a small section of the data and then release the
mouse. The axes will be redisplayed to magnify the data inside of the drag box.

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3.6. Saving Graphs

Graphs currently on screen can be saved for later use. To demonstrate this, we will save the
setup, clear the screen, and then restore the graphs.
Use File | Save Setup As... (or click on the icon on the toolbar), and save the setup under the
name tutor1. Unless otherwise specified, the suffix ‘.ZV2’ will be appended automatically to the
file name. Thus, the file tutor1.zv2 will be used.
Select File | New Setup to clear all of the current settings.
With File | Open Setup... (or click on ), reload the tutor1.zv2 file.
Note: The data is not actually saved in the setup file. Instead, the list of data files is saved. If the
data files are moved, deleted, or renamed, they will not reappear when the setup is reloaded.
Often the setup file is saved with no data files specified. This creates graph templates to which
data can later be added.
When ZView is first started, it automatically reloads the most recently loaded setup file.

3.7. Adding Text

We are now ready to add some comment text to the Bode graph. Again, the order of operations
does not matter; we can add text at any time.
Click on the bode graph with the right mouse button where you would like the text to appear.
From the Bode graph’s pop-up menu, select Add Comment Text.... The following screen will
appear:

Enter your Comment text. Multiple lines can be entered.

a comment can have multiple lines <Enter>
as shown here
Click on OK to save these comments.
If you would like to reposition the comment text, use the mouse to click on and drag the
comment.
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To remove comments from the graph, click on the text with the right mouse button, the pop-up
menu will appear. Then select Delete Comment Text from the pop-up menu.

3.8. Printing Graphs

Before printing, let’s confirm that a printer has been selected. Use File | Printer Setup... to make
sure the correct printer is selected. If you need to add a new printer to the list, consult your
Windows manual.
Note: ZView saves its printer selection independent of the default printer selected by Windows.
For example, if you have a laser printer and a color inkjet printer available, ZView can be set to
use the inkjet while other Windows programs use the laser printer. This is also true for the
Portrait or Landscape printing direction listed in File | Page Setup....
With the Bode graph pop-up menu, select Print (or click on the Bode graph to highlight it, and
use the icon on the toolbar).

3.9. Other Graph Types

3D Graph: Another common graph type is a 3-dimensional graph used to display real and
imaginary impedance vs. frequency. Select Graph | New 3-D to create this graph.
Note that the complex plane graph is projected onto the back of this graph.
Multigraph: The last graph type is the multigraph. In fact, this is not a graph at all, but rather a
blank sheet onto which the other graphs may be placed. This allows you to print
out a single page with multiple graphs.
Create this graph by selecting Graph | MultiGraph. Use the pop-up menu for
this graph and choose Setup....
Double click on a graph name under Available Graphs to move them to the
Displayed Graphs list. Use ‘<’ to delete a graph from the list. ‘<->’ will
exchange the graph name highlighted in the Available Graphs list with the file
name highlighted in Displayed Graphs. The ‘^’ and ‘v’ buttons are used to
change the order of the graphs in the Displayed Graphs list. Highlight a graph
name in the Displayed Graphs list then use the up and down buttons to change
the order within the list.
When using Equivalent Circuits (described in Tutor #3), you can also display a
circuit model on the multigraph. Use OK to close this menu. The other graphs
will now be displayed on the multigraph. You may wish to change the page
orientation to Landscape by selecting File | Page Setup..., and then print it using
the multigraph’s pop-up window.

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3.10. Rearranging the Display

The graphs can be arranged on screen in a variety of ways. Select Window | Tile to display all
the graphs, side by side, on the screen. Window | Cascade displays the graphs in a stack, one
over top of another.
The graphs can be reduced into title bars by selecting the graph’s minimize button. Click on the
restore button of the title bar to restore the graph.
Maximizing the graph enlarges a single graph to fill all of ZView. Return to the original size
using the restore button.
There is a special arrangement option named Window | Arrange All Windows. This selection
performs the Tile function listed above, but also resizes the main ZView window, as well as any
Equivalent Circuit or Data Value Windows which may be open, to a standard format where they
are all visible.

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ZView Manual 3.10
Chapter 4 Tutor #2

CHAPTER 4. TUTOR #2

This tutor emphasizes data analysis using a variety of techniques. A circle fit on a complex plane
graph and a linear regression on a bode graph will be used to estimate resistance and capacitance.

As a starting point, we will use the setup file saved during Tutor #1. Select File | Open Setup...
and choose the file tutor1.zv2. You should now have the data files demo1.z and demo2.z
displayed on Complex and Bode graphs.

4.1. Selecting a Data Set to Analyze

Before performing any fitting operations, we must tell ZView which data file to use. The center
section of the toolbar shown below will be used to select one of the loaded data files and then to
select a subset of data from the file.
Click on the down arrow of the Active Data Set list, thus creating a list with the choices ‘No
Active Data’, ‘demo1.z’, and ‘demo2.z’. Select ‘demo1.z’.

ZView now displays just the ‘demo1.z’ file, so that it can be analyzed. Notice that two data
cursors are displayed on the data set. These can be used to select a subset of data to be analyzed.
Note: The other files are still loaded, and we can switch to another file or to ‘No Active Data’ at
any time.
When the Active Data Set is set to ‘No Active Data’, all of the loaded data files are displayed,
but the data cursors are hidden. This is the standard setting for printing a graph which contains
multiple data sets.
Normally when an Active data set has been selected, and the data cursors are displayed, the other
loaded files are hidden, simplifying the display when performing data analysis. The three
Display Selection boxes (All Files, Live, and Fit) select which types of data are visible. Click on
All Files and note how the graphs have changed. The cursors are still on the demo1.z data set,
but the other loaded file (demo2.z) is also displayed. Click on All Files to again hide the other
files.
The Live and Fit boxes are used to turn on and off the display of live data (data currently being
measured by ZPlot, MultiStat, ZPlot·Lab, FuelCell or FlowCell) and data sets produced as a
result of Equivalent Circuit fitting.

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4.2. Selecting a Subset of Data

The data cursors can be moved to select a subset of the demo1.z data file. Notice that one of the
data cursors is surrounded by a red frame. This cursor can be moved, while the other is frozen.
Click on the Swap Cursors button to alternate which cursor is moveable. Drag the Cursor
Movement slider box left and right to move the cursor.
There are several other methods which can be used to move the cursor. Click on the left or right
arrows of the scroll bar to move the cursor by a single point. Click on the gray area to the left or
right of the slider to move the cursor by larger increments. The keyboard cursor keys and Page
Up and Page Down keys will also move the cursor. If your computer’s mouse has a wheel
between the two mouse buttons, the wheel can also be used to move the cursor. If the Shift key is
held down while the wheel is rotated, the cursor moves in larger increments.
The toolbar also displays the value of the data point selected by the cursor.

4.3. Autoscaling Methods

In Tutor #1 the autoscale method was used to rescale
the graphs, so that all of the data was visible. We also
zoomed in on a small section of the data using mouse
drag method. There are many other types of scaling
available when a single set of data has been selected.
On the right is a depiction of the autoscale portion of the Tool Bar. The top row of autoscaling
tools affects all graphs. These top row autoscale functions can also be accessed from the Options
menu. The bottom row only changes to active (highlighted) graph. These bottom row autoscale
functions can also be accessed from a graphs pop-up menu, or from the Options | Active Graph
menu.
Below are the descriptions of all the autoscale functions.
AutoScale All Graphs: Rescales all graphs, so that all of their data is visible.
AutoScale All Graph to Cursors: Rescales all graphs, so that the data between the cursors is
displayed full-scale.
AutoLocate All Cursors: Moves the cursors, so that they are within the boundaries of
the graph. This is most often used after the Mouse Drag
method has been used to zoom in on a section of data. The
cursors are moved based on the active graph. All other
graphs are then rescaled to match the active graph.
AutoScale Single Graph: Rescales the active graph, so that all of the data is visible.
AutoScale Graph to Cursors: Rescales the active graph, so that the data between the
cursors is displayed in full-scale.
AutoLocate Cursors: Moves the cursors, so that they are within the boundaries of
the graph. This is most often used after the mouse drag
method has been used to zoom in on a section of data. After
zooming, autolocate can be used to move the cursors to the
section of data selected by the zooming.

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Chapter 4 Tutor #2

4.4. Circle Fit

We are now ready to perform some simple analysis.
Make the Complex graph the top graph. If the Complex graph is hidden by the Bode graph, click
on the Complex graph to bring it to the top.
Select demo1.z as the Active data set, and move the cursors so that they are at either end of the
large semicircle (about 100 Hz and 0.1 Hz).
Use the right mouse button to access the Complex graph pop-up menu. During Tutor #1, the Fit
Circle and Fit Linear selections were displayed as gray text indicating that they were
unavailable. Now that we have selected a data file for analysis we can perform these operations.
From the pop-up menu, select Fit Circle.... A semi-circle will be overlaid on the data and an Add
Comment Text box with the fit results will be displayed.

The Center of the semi-circle is described by the Real Center on the x axis and the Imaginary
Center on the y axis.
The Deviation represents the average distance between the data points and the line and can be
used as an error value for the diameter.
The Intercepts represent the intersection of the semi-circle with the x-axis.
The Depression Angle (in degrees) shows the angle between the x-axis and a line drawn
between the low intercept and the center of the semi-circle.
w_max is the frequency (in radians/second) of the peak of the semi-circle.
The Estimated values are based on the assumption that the data between the cursors reflects a
single parallel resistor-capacitor combination. ZView has no way to test this assumption and thus,
these values should be used with discretion. They are most often used as starting values for use
with Equivalent Circuit fitting.
The Estimated R is the difference between the High Intercept and Low Intercept of the
semi-circle.
Estimated C is calculated using the relationship: w_max=1/(RC) and depends on the
accuracy of w_max.

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Select OK to add this information as a graph comment. Select Cancel to close the window
without adding a comment.
The graph can be printed at this point to document the fit. (Use the graph’s pop-up window.)
Repeat the circle fit on the small semi-circle and record the estimated RC values. Also record the
Low Intercept. In this case, it represents the solution resistance or series resistance of the cell.
To clear the fitted curve from the graph, use the Active Data Set pull down menu to reselect the
same data file.

4.5. Linear Fit

Another common analysis technique is to perform a linear regression on the Bode magnitude
graph and then use the Y-intercept at w (frequency in radians) = 1 to calculate capacitance. This
method is only accurate, if the solution or series resistance is 0 (zero). Thus, before performing
the analysis, we must first subtract the solution resistance from the data.
Select Tools | Component Calculations.... In the Subtraction column, select Series R.
For the Component Value, enter the value you had recorded for the Low Intercept of
the small semi-circle (about 1800 Ω). Click OK to perform the calculation.
On the Complex graph, you will notice that the data has been shifted to the left, effectively
removing the solution resistance.
Switch to the Bode graph and autoscale, if necessary. There may be a few odd points at the
highest frequencies which can be ignored. Ideally, the real (Z′) values should be exactly zero at
the highest frequency. Because this is real data, errors in the data may make them slightly
negative causing odd results.
Using the cursors, select a range in the high frequency linear section on the Bode magnitude (|Z|)
graph.
Note: The range where the phase angle is closest to -90 usually gives the best results.
This is a good time to demonstrate a zooming or autoscaling technique we did not use in Tutor
#1. From the graphs pop-up menu, select AutoScale Graph to Cursors (or use ). The screen
will be rescaled to show just the data between the two cursors. This is particularly useful, if you
wish to closely examine a certain portion of the data. This technique was not available during
Tutor #1, because we had not selected an active data set, and thus, did not have the cursors
displayed. Now use Zoom Previous to return to our previous scaling.
From the Bode pop-up menu, select Fit Top Graph (Fit Bottom Graph would fit to the phase
angle graph).

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Ideally the Slope would be -1 but rarely is.

The X and Y Intercepts are the points where Log(|Z|) and Log(Freq) are 0 (|Z| and Freq = 1).
The R² represents the linear least squares ‘goodness of fit’.
Estimated C is calculated using |Z| = 1/ωC where |Z| is the Y-intercept at ω = 1 (Log(ω) = 0).
Because of the extrapolation process, small errors in the slope can cause larger errors in
the intercept causing large errors in the Estimated C. Always confirm the calculated
values using other techniques!
Note: Because we are graphing Frequency(Hz), ZView does an automatic conversion to
Frequency(w) (in radians/second) for the estimated C calculation.

Select OK to add this information as a graph comment. Select Cancel to close the window
without adding a comment.

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ZView Manual 4.6
Chapter 5 Tutor #3

CHAPTER 5. TUTOR #3

5.1. Circuit Modeling

Impedance spectrums are often modeled using an electrical circuit which produces a similar
spectrum. The electrical components (resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc) and some
‘components’ that have no electrical analogy (constant phase elements, Warburg impedances,
etc) are then matched to physical characteristics of the measured cell.
There are often several equivalent circuits that will produce identical impedance spectrums. This
means that there is no way to distinguish the ‘correct’ model from a single data spectrum.
You must rely on your own knowledge of the physical system you are measuring. It can also be
helpful to see if the model gives reasonable values. Obviously a 1 cm2 sample with a 10 μm thick
coating should not have a coating capacitance of 10 Farads. If, however, the data is modeled as a
diffusional impedance, the data may be reasonable. It is also useful to examine a variety of cell
conditions. Do the equivalent circuit values change correctly as the cell conditions are changed?
Does capacitance get larger or smaller, as you would expect, as the potential or pH changes? If
the changes do not make physical sense, you may be using an incorrect model.

Counter Reference Reference Working

Electrode Electrode 1 Electrode 2 Electrode

R1 R2 R3
1k 6.8k 1k 1.8k 1k

4.7uF 0.1uF
C1 C2

We know a lot about the data set we have been using. In fact we know that it came from the
elements between the two reference electrodes in the following circuit:
We could very easily rush in and fit the data to this model. Real world data is usually harder to
model, so we will take our time and work our way to finally fitting the data.

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5.2. Simulating Data

ZView has three discrete Circuit Modeling methods; Simulating Data, Fitting Data and Instant
Fit. When simulating, the user provides values for each component (R, C, etc.) in the model and
ZView calculates the impedance spectrum of that model. When fitting, ZView alters the values of
the components and attempts to find the values which best fit the data. Instant Fit is a special
technique where a small portion of data is fit to a simplified model. The results are then used as
starting values for the full circuit model.
Simulating is particularly useful when first using a new model. Often the relationship between
the component values and the spectrum is not intuitive. Changes in the component values may
change the spectrum in unexpected ways. By simulating the spectrum with a variety of
component values, you can get a feel for the model.
Select Tools | Equivalent Circuits... (or click on the icon). ZView starts with a blank model
to which elements are added. A number of predefined models are available. We will initially use
these and later build one ourselves. Examples of predefined models are described in Chapter 9.

You may wish to use Window | Arrange All Windows to rearrange the display.
From the Equivalent Circuits menu, select File | Open Model... (or ) and select the file Tutor3
R-C.mdl from the C:\SAI\ZModels\ directory.

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Notice that one of the buttons on the toolbar reads, “Run Simulation / Freq. Range.” This
indicates that this model is currently configured to simulate data over a specified frequency range
(these settings will be changed later in this tutor).

Click on the Run button. After a few seconds, the computer will beep, signifying that the
calculations have been completed. In the ZView toolbar, make sure that the Fit box is checked,
indicating that the fit/simulated data should be displayed (if it is not, click on it). You may wish
to turn off the All Files box to hide any other data files displayed.
From the Equivalent Circuits menu select Model | Save Data As... (or ) and enter the name
Tutor3 R-C, sim1.z. The calculated spectrum has now been saved in a data file.
Change the Value for the second parameter (R1) to 10000, repeat the simulation, and save the
data in Tutor3 R-C, sim2.z. Now change the C1 Value to 1e-5, simulate and save in Tutor3 R-C,
sim3.z.
From ZView, select File | Data Files... and select the three data files which were just created.
While you are in the Data File Menu you may wish to select Auto-Color and Auto-Legend, so
that the data sets are easily distinguished on the graphs.
Note that sim2.z and sim3.z appear identical on the Complex Plane graph. On the Bode graph,
they appear very similar, but are shifted on the Frequency axis. Because the Complex Plane does
not show frequency, some changes may be difficult to see by examining only a single graph.
Several other predefined circuit models for practice simulations. In particular:
Tutor3 R-Q.mdl: This model is very similar to the Tutor3 R-C.mdl model, but the capacitor has
been replaced by a constant phase element (CPE1-T). The constant phase element (CPE1-T)
multiplied by the CPE1-P value gives a modified result. If the CPE1-P parameter is 1.0, CPE1-
T multiplied by CPE1-P=1.0 does not change the CPE1-T, and is therefore identical to an RC.
If the CPE1-P value is changed to be a number between 0 and 1, it produces a depressed semi-
circle. Simulate the circuit with CPE1-P values between 0.5 and 1.0.
Tutor3 Warburg-Open.mdl, Tutor3 Warburg-Short.mdl: A Warburg (diffusional) impedance
has two basic shapes. At higher frequencies, all Warburg impedances produce a 45 degree angle
on the Complex Plane graph. Their low frequency behavior depends on whether they have an
open or shorted terminus. The open terminus behaves as a simple capacitor at low frequencies.
The shorted terminus behaves as a resistance.
Note that these models are very simple, containing only 2 or 3 elements. It is very important to
understand the behavior of the simple combinations, as more complicated systems are often
made of several of the simple combinations.

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5.3. Fitting Data

Equivalent Circuit modeling is only useful when an appropriate model is selected. ZView cannot
select a model for you. It can however determine the values which best fit your data based on a
model you design.
In this case, we will construct a model describing the elements between RE1 and RE2 in shown
at the beginning of this tutor.
A model is constructed by inserting a sequence of parallel and series elements. From the
Equivalent Circuits menu, select File | New Model to clear any existing model.
Click with the right mouse button inside to Model Display Area and from the pop-up menu,
select New | Series (after). The following window will be displayed:

Change the Element Name to Rs and click OK. In this case, Rs stands for Series Resistance, in a
real cell it might mean Solution Resistance.
We now need to add a parallel RC combination to the right of the Rs element.
Click on the Rs element with the right mouse button and again select New | Series (after). Click
on OK to add the element. Now right click on the new R1 element, select New | Parallel (after),
change then element type to Capacitor, and click OK.
A Series (after) element is added to the right of the existing element. Parallel (after) adds an
element below the existing element. Likewise, a ‘before’ element is inserted to the left or above
the existing element.

To add a second RC pair, click on the dot before the existing RC pair and select New | Series
(after).

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Why is it necessary to insert after the dot? If the new element was inserted directly after the R1
element, the new element would also be parallel with the existing C1. The dot represents the
entire parallel RC, so if we insert after the dot, we insert a new element after the parallel RC. The
various methods for inserting new elements are further described in Chapter 8 - Circuit
Modeling.
Make the new element a Capacitor, and then complete the model by adding a resistor in parallel
to the new Capacitor.
If you accidentally insert an element in an incorrect position, simply delete the new element by
clicking on it and selecting Delete. The Element Type (or Name) can be changed by clicking on
the element and selecting Edit.
We now have the model, but the elements have no values. Equivalent Circuit fitting is based on a
successive approximation method and must always be started with initial estimates of the values.
The modeling program alters these initial values slightly and checks the match between the
model and the data. It alters the values in the direction which produces a better fit, repeating this
process until it finds a best fit.
5.4. Instant Fit
One method of producing initial values is to use the results of the Fit Circle and Fit Linear
methods described in Tutor 2. This works well for simple RC elements, but becomes difficult for
more complex elements such as Constant Phase or Warburg elements. Instead, we will use the
Instant Fit method.

We will use a slightly different data file for this part of the tutor. On the main ZView window use
File | Data Files... to remove demo1.z and demo2.z and select the file demo3.z.
This data set is similar to the demo1.z file used earlier, but is missing some of the low frequency
data. This is analogous to a case where you were not able to measure a full spectrum because the
low frequencies took too long to measure or had too much noise. Some random noise has also
been added to the data to make the data a little more difficult to fit.
Select demo3.z as the active data set, and position the cursors at each end of the high frequency
semi-circle (about 65000 and 600 Hz).

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From the ZView Menu, select Tools | Instant Fit... (or click on the icon) and then click on the
Rs (C-Rp) button. After a few seconds, the values for Rs, C, and Rp will be displayed. Click on
the Rs value, hold down the mouse button, drag to the Rs value in the Equivalent Circuits
window and release the mouse button.

Repeat this operation, dragging the C value to C1 and Rp to R1.

Now reposition the cursors to both ends of the large (low frequency) semi-circle and repeat the
Instant Fit. The new Rs value will not be used. Drag the C value to C2 and Rp to R2. Close the
Instant Fit window, so that it does not obscure the graphs.
Click on Run Simulation in the Equivalent Circuits window to see a simulation of the model; it
should appear very similar to the data (it may be simulated of a wider frequency range than the
original data).

There are a few more steps before fitting the data. First, select Model | Edit Fit Parameters (or
click on ) to display the fit/simulation parameters.

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Set the Mode to Fitting. The third mode, Subtraction, is used to subtract the circuit model’s
spectrum from a measured spectrum. Residual calculates the relative error between the each data
point and the calculated values.
Set the Data Range to All Points. With this selection, all of the data points in the analyzed data
file are used while simulating or fitting. The spectrum created will have data points at exactly the
same frequencies as the original file.
Selected Points uses only the data between the two cursors on the graphs. This is useful,
if you wish to fit a simplified model to a subset of the data.
When fitting, Frequency Range lets the user specify a subset of data by specifying the
minimum and maximum frequency. When simulating, the spectrum created covers the
entire frequency range, independent of the frequencies in the original data file. This can
be used to simulate data over a wider frequency than what was actually measured.
The Optional Parameters usually do not need to be changed. They are documented in Chapter
8 - Equivalent Circuits of this manual.
Click on OK to save the changes we have made.
Now we are back at the Equivalent Circuits Menu.
Each of the elements has a Freedom setting. Click on each of these to change them to ‘Free (+)’.
This indicates that the best fit value for this element should be calculated, but the values must be
positive. If they are set to ‘±, Free’, the value may be either positive or negative. It is best to
eliminate unrealistic solutions, so only use ‘±, Free’ if you think a value will be negative. ‘X,
Fixed’ indicates that the elements value will not be changed when fitting.

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In this case we have a fairly simple model, with good initial estimates. If you have a more
complicated model, where 6 or more values need to calculated simultaneously, or the initial
estimates are poor, it may be necessary to Fix several of the elements for the initial fitting, so that
it is not trying to find a solution for all of them. Generally, the most trusted initial estimates
would be set to fixed and the other values fitted. Afterwards, all of the parameters can be set to
Free and the data refitted.

Click on Run Fit / All Data Points to perform the fit. During the fit, a window will open
showing the progress of the fit. The information in this window is only of use if a problem is
encountered during the fit. After the fit is completed, the fitted curve will be overlaid on the
graphs. If it is not visible, make sure that the Fit check box in the toolbar is on.
The impedance spectrum of the fitted results can be saved in a ZPLOT format data file by

selecting Model | Save Data As... (or by clicking on ).

To save the actual model, select File | Save Model As... (or ) from the Equivalent Circuits
menu.
The model can be printed or copied to the clipboard and pasted into a word processing
document. It can also be combined with multiple graphs and displayed or printed using a
multigraph. The display on the following page was produced by copying a multigraph,
containing Complex-Plane, Bode and 3-D graphs as well as the Equivalent Circuit model, to the
clipboard.

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5.5. Other Simulation/Fitting Techniques

Technique 1: After fitting data, use Mode | Edit Fit Parameters and change the settings to
Simulate over a wide frequency range. By simulating the data this way, you can
see what should have happened, if the measurements had been made over an
extended frequency range.

Technique 2: Save the fitting parameters often. If the fit works poorly after you add another
component, you can quickly go back to the previous settings.

Technique 3: Try fitting the data set we have been using (demo1.z) to a simple ladder network
(hint: Open the circuit model file Tutor3 ladder.mdl in the \sai\zmodels\
directory). Notice that the values for components are different, but they fit the
data just as well as the ‘proper’ model. This demonstrates the point that you must
know something about the physical system you are measuring. Do not pick a
model simply because it fits the data!

Technique 4: If a Circle Fit on the Complex graph fits well, but the center of the semi-circle is
significantly depressed below the x-axis, a parallel RC combination will not fit
well. Instead, use a Constant Phase Element in place of the Capacitor. Try
simulating the circuit model Tutor3 R-CPE.mdl in the \sai\zmodels\ directory.
This model is preconfigured to produce a depressed semi-circle using a Constant
Phase element. When in parallel with resistor, it is commonly called a Cole
element.

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CHAPTER 6. ZVIEW MENUS

Under each of the items in the main menu, there are a series of sub-menus organized by function.

File: File options are used to load data files, load and save the setup files, and
configure the printer.
Graph: Graph is used to create new graphs.
Options: Options controls the autoscaling level of all graphs.
Tools: Tools is used to alter data by merging data files, deleting data, adding or
subtracting electrical components. It also accesses the Circuit Modeling
methods.
Window: Window changes how graphs are displayed on the screen.
Help: Help can be used to access the ZView online help files. All the information
in this section of the manual is available through the help system.
Each of the sub-menus is described separately below. For example, the Open Setup... item in the
File menu is described under File | Open Setup...
The toolbar buttons are shortcuts to many of the common menu items. If the mouse is positioned
over any icon, a box will appear describing the icons function. All icon functions are also
available through the menus. The toolbar contains several groups of functions as described
below. Each button will be noted as it function is described.

6.1. File Menu

File | Data Files...
This menu is used to load data files from disk. ZView can load many different formats of
impedance data. All formats from the DOS and Windows versions of ZPLOT can be used as
well as binary and ASCII formats from many different instrument manufacturers (Gamy,
Bioligic, Ivium, AutoLab, Maccor, Agilent, etc.).

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Use the file type selection to change the type of data files displayed. ZPLOT Files (*.z, *.z60)
will display only the files with the standard file name extension ‘.z’ and ‘.z60’. All Files displays
all of the files in a directory. Note: ZView automatically determines the format of the file
independent of these selections.
A file name can be typed directly into the Filename box. Click ‘>’ to add the file to the Files to
Plot list.
Alternately, the Files and Directories lists can be used to select a file. Double-click on a file to
add it.
Files to Plot lists all the data files that will be graphed. Use ‘<’ to delete a file from the list. ‘<->’
will exchange the file name highlighted in the Files list with the file name highlighted in Files to
Plot. This is useful if you have a ‘standard’ graph that you use, but you would like to change the
data files displayed. Using ‘<->’ preserves the Display options described below.
The ‘^’ and ‘v’ buttons are used to change the order of the files in the Files to Plot list. Select a
file and use the up and down buttons to move it within the list.
The Display options are used to change how a file is displayed. They apply only to the file
currently highlighted in the Files to Plot list. If a Legend is entered, a sample of the data line is
displayed along with the text on the graph. This can be used to describe each displayed file.
When Auto-Legend is checked, a legend is automatically generated. The text for the auto-legend
can be defined two ways. If ‘Extract legend from file name’ is selected, the legend text is the
name of the data file. If ‘Extract legend from file comments’ is selected, the legend text is the
first line of user defined comments (the file comments entered when specifying the data file

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name in ZPLOT). If ‘file comments’ is selected, but the data file contains no user defined
comments, the legend will default to the file name. If the Auto-Color, Auto-Line, or Auto-
Marker boxes are selected, ZView will automatically select different values for each file so that
they may be easily differentiated.

Scaling parameters are used to change the scaling of a data file. The real and imaginary values
are multiplied by the Multiplier. This could, for example, be used to change data from ohms to
milliohms (Multiplier = 1000). C-zero (C0) is the vacuum capacitance used for scaling the
dielectric axes E and M. See section 11.1 for the definition of C-zero. A different Multiplier
and/or C-zero value can be entered for each data file. The default value for both the Multiplier
and C-zero factors is 1. If the value of C-zero is 1, then the complex modulus reduces to M = j ω
Z, and the Complex Dielectric E becomes the “Complex Capacitance”.

The File Comments displays any text that may be attached to a data file.

File | New Setup

Resets ZView to its default conditions. All data files and graphs are closed.

File | Open Setup...

Used to reload a ZView setup file. A setup file contains information for recreating graphs. The
setup file does not change Equivalent Circuit modeling parameters.
The setup file also contains a list of data files to be displayed. It does not contain the actual data.
If, when opening a setup file, one of the data files is unavailable because it has been deleted,
renamed, or moved, it will not be displayed.
When ZView is started, it automatically loads the most recently loaded setup file.

File | Save Setup

Resaves the current setup in the setup file most recently opened. If no setup file has been opened
since starting ZView, you are automatically transferred to Save Setup As... (below).

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File | Save Setup As...

Prompts the user for a file name to be used for saving the current configuration of ZView. The
suffix ‘.ZV2’ will automatically be appended to the setup file name unless you specify one.
When ZView is started, it automatically loads the most recently loaded setup file.

File | Print
Prints the active (highlighted) graph.

File | Printer Setup...

Selects the Printer to be used. ZView keeps its default printer selection separate from Windows.
Changing the default printer within ZView will not change the printer used by other Windows
programs.

File | Page Setup...

Changes the size of various components of a graph.

The text Fonts can be independently set for the various types of text displayed on a graph. Use to
Modify... buttons to change the text appearance.
The graphs can be printed in either Portrait or Landscape orientations. Portrait has the long
side of the paper in the vertical direction. Landscape rotates the graphs so that the long side is
horizontal. This parameter is saved separately from the orientation specified by the Windows
printer driver. Thus, ZView can print in Landscape mode while other Windows programs (such
as a word processor) use the Portrait direction.

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If Display is set to Full Page, the windows containing the graphs appear in the same format as
the printer paper. The Graph Only setting saves space on the screen by only showing the part of
the page that contains the graph.
Major Tics are the axis marks placed at each axis number. These are usually larger than the
Minor Tics placed in between the axis numbers. The size of the data markers is set by the
Markers value.
The Active Data Display settings control how live data (the active data set) is displayed. The
data can be shown as a line, with small markers at each data point, or both.
The Fitted Data Display settings control how calculated circuit models data is displayed. The
data can be shown as a line, with small markers at each data point, or both.

File | Toggle to ZPlot Ctrl + Z

Starts the ZPLOT data acquisition program. If ZPLOT is already running, its window is brought
to the front of the screen. From ZPLOT, File |Toggle to ZView (Ctrl+Z) can be used to switch
back to ZView.

File | Exit
Closes all graphs and exits ZView.

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6.2. Graph Menu

Graph | New Complex
Creates a new Complex Plane graph. Complex Plane graphs are typically used to display
imaginary vs. real values (for example: Z″ vs. Z′). See Chapter 7 - Pop-Up Menus for
information on how to alter a graph.

Graph | New Bode

Creates a new Bode graph. Bode graphs typically display data vs. the measurement variable (for
example: magnitude and phase angle vs. frequency). See Chapter 7 - Pop-Up Menus for
information on how to alter a graph.

Graph | New 3-D

Creates a new 3D graph. 3D graphs are similar to Complex graphs with an additional axis. For
example, while a Complex graph might display vs. Z′, the 3D graph adds a third dimension of
frequency. See Chapter 7 - Pop-Up Menus for information on how to alter a graph.

Graph | New MultiGraph

A multigraph is actually not a graph at all. Instead, it is a blank page on which other graphs can
be combined. See Chapter 7 - Pop-Up Menus for information on how to alter a graph.

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6.3. Options Menu

Options | Active Graph
This menu item is an alternate method of accessing a graphs pop-up menu. All items in this
submenu are identical to the items listed in Chapter 7 - Pop-Up Menus.

Options | AutoScale All Graphs (Ctrl + A)

Rescales all graphs, so that all of their data is visible.

Options | AutoScale All Graphs to Cursors

Rescales all graphs, so that the data between the cursors is displayed in full-scale.

Options | AutoLocate All Cursors

Moves the cursors, so that they are within the boundaries of the graph. This is most often used
after the Mouse Drag method has been used to zoom in on a section of data. The cursors are
moved based on the active graph. All other graphs are then rescaled to match the active graph.

Options | Rescale to Original

ZView saves the previous 5 scaling operations. This function resets the scaling to the original
values - before autoscaling operations were performed.
Note: Scaling operations can also be performed on individual graphs as described in Chapter 7 -
Pop-Up Menus. Additionally, a graph can be rescaled by holding down the Ctrl key and clicking
and dragging the mouse across a portion of the data on a graph.

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6.4. Tools Menu

Tools | Data Values (Ctrl + T)
Displays the complete data set of the active data set in tabular format.

Tools | Equivalent Circuits... (Ctrl + E)

Used to simulate or fit data to an equivalent circuit. Before using equivalent circuits, you must
select an active data set. Equivalent Circuits are described in Chapter 8 - Circuit Modeling.

Tools | Instant Fit... (Ctrl + F)

Used to simulate or fit data to simple, predefined equivalent circuit models. Before using
equivalent circuits, you must select an active data set. Equivalent Circuits are described in
Chapter 8 - Circuit Modeling.

Tools | Component Calculations...

Used to change data by adding or subtracting resistive, capacitive, or inductive components.
Before using component calculations, you must select an active data set.\

The calculations do not normally change the data saved in a file. If, after performing component
calculations, you wish to save the modified data, use Tools | Save Data File.
The Subtraction and Addition selections choose the type of operation to be performed.
Subtracting a series resistance (solution resistance) from the data is the most common operation.

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The Surface Area Normalization function is similar to the Scaling Factor in File | Data Files...

but can be used to permanently alter data. To avoid confusion, use only one method on any
particular file.
Enter the value to be added or subtracted (or the surface area value) as the Component Value.
Select OK to perform the calculations. Use Cancel to exit this menu without changing the data.

Tools | Delete Data Point

Deletes the data point marked by the highlighted data cursor. The deletions do not normally
change the data saved in a file. If, after performing deletions, you switch to another file (using
Data Info), you will be given the opportunity to save the modified data in a new data file.

Tools | Delete Range

Deletes all data points between the two data cursors. The deletions do not normally change the
data saved in a file. If, after performing deletions, you switch to another file (using Data Info),
you will be given the opportunity to save the modified data in a new data file.

Tools | Merge Data...

Merges together all of the currently loaded data files and saves the merged data in a new file.
Before merging, more than one file must be loaded using File | Data Files.... This menu option is
only available when no active data set is selected. When an active data set is selected, this menu
item is replace by Save Data File... which allows the data active data file to be resaved to disk.

Tools | Save Data File...

Saves the Active data set into a new or existing data file. This menu option is only available
when an active data set is selected. When no active data set is selected, this menu item is replace
by Merge Data... which combines several data sets into one.

6.5. Window Menu

Window | Cascade
Arranges graphs into a stack of graphs with the active graph on top.

Window | Tile
Arranges the graphs side by side, so that they are all visible.

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Window | Close All

Closes all graphs. Note that this is not the same as File | New Setup. Data files remain loaded
and will appear on any new graphs created.
Window | Arrange Icons
Any graphs which have been minimized appear as title bars at the bottom of the ZView window.
Arrange Icons rearranges the title bars into straight rows.

Window | Minimize All

Displays all graphs as title bars which appear at the bottom of the ZView window.

Window | Arrange All Windows

This selection performs the Tile function listed above, but also resizes the main ZView window
as well as any Equivalent Circuit or Data Value Windows which may be open to a standard
format where they are all visible.

6.6. Help Menu

Help | Contents
Displays the table of contents of the help system. Topics are organized into categories.

Help | Topic Search...

Displays the index of the help system. The user may choose from an alphabetical list of topics.

Help | Tutors
Accesses on-line copies of the tutorials from this manual.

Help | How to Use Help

Provides general information on how to navigate the help system.

Help | About ZView...

Displays the ZView version number, serial number, and copyright information.

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CHAPTER 7. ACTIVE DATA SET AND POP-UP MENUS

7.1. Active Data Set

ZView displays data in two distinct modes. In the first mode, No Active Data is selected, all of
the loaded data files are displayed, but the data cannot be analyzed. When an Active data set is
selected, cursors are placed on the selected data. In this mode, the selected data set can be
analyzed.

The Active Data Set box contains a list of all data sets which are available for analysis. It lists
all files which have been loaded using Files | Data Files... as well as other data sources. If
ZPLOT is running, there will be an item named ~ZPLOT which represents the live data as it
being measured from ZPLOT. If Equivalent Circuits modeling has been performed, an item
named ‘~FitResult’ will also be available, which is a calculated data set from the circuit
modeling. The Active Data Set box also contains the item No Active Data.

When the active data set is set to No Active Data, all of the loaded data files are displayed and
the data cursors are hidden. This is the standard setting for printing a graph which contains
multiple data sets.

Normally when an active data set has been selected (and the data cursors are displayed), the
other loaded files are hidden, simplifying the display when performing data analysis. The three
Display Selection boxes (All Files, Live, and Fit) select which types of data are visible. All Files
determines if all of the loaded files (from disk) are displayed. The Live and Fit boxes are used to
turn on and off the display of live data (data currently being measured by ZPLOT) and data sets
produced as a result of Equivalent Circuit fitting.

Note: ZView keeps two sets of settings for the All Files, Live, and Fit selections. One
configuration is used when No Active Data is selected, and the other used when an active data
set has been selected.

7.2. Selecting a Subset of Data

When an active data set is selected, two cursors are placed on the data set. The data cursors can
be moved to select a subset of the data. One of the data cursors is surrounded by a red frame.
This cursor can be moved, while the other is frozen. Click on the Swap Cursors button alternate
which cursor is moveable. Drag the Cursor Movement slider to move the cursor.

There are several other methods which can be used to move the cursor. Click on the left or right
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arrows of the scroll bar to move the cursor by a single point. Click on the gray area to the left or
right of the slider to move the cursor by larger increments. The keyboard cursor keys and Page
Up and Page Down keys will also move the cursor. If you computers mouse has a wheel between
the two mouse buttons, the wheel can also be used to move the cursor. If the Shift key is held
down while the wheel is rotated, the cursor moves in larger increments.

The space bar can also be used to perform the Swap Cursors operation. In addition, double-
clicking the mouse button will swap the highlighted cursor.

The toolbar displays the value of data point selected by the cursor. In addition each of the graphs
displays the data point values in the format of the graph.

7.3. Graph Pop-Up Menus

Each graph has its own menu, separate from the ZView main menu. They are referred to as pop-
up menus because they do not drop-down from a menu bar, but rather pop-up as a floating menu
inside of a graph.

The pop-up menu items can also be accessed through the main menu by selecting Options |
Active Graph.

A pop-up menu is created by clicking the right mouse button inside of a graph’s window. The
pop-up menu applies to the active (highlighted) graph. If you wish to us the pop-up menu for a
graph which is not active, first select the graph by clicking inside its window using the left
button.

Each graphs pop-up menu appears slightly different, but they all have many items that are
similar. For example, each has a Setup selection for altering the axes, Text for adding text to a
graph, and Print for producing hard copy.

On the other hand, each graph also has selections that are meaningful for its type of graph. For
example, fitting a semi-circle is useful on a Complex graph, but is meaningless on a Bode graph.

Certain pop-up menu selections may be grayed (displayed with gray text). This indicates that
they are not applicable under the current conditions. For example, the fitting functions are only
available when a file has been selected as the Active data set. If No Active Data has not been
selected, the fitting functions are grayed and are not available.

Adding text, printing, and zooming (autoscaling) are identical in all of the graph pop-up menus,
so they will be discussed first, followed by the choices unique to each graph type.

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Add Comment Text

This menu item is used to add text to a graph using the following window:

When entering text, use <Enter> to create a new line.

Click on OK to apply the text to the graph.
The comment text can be moved to other locations on the graph by dragging it with the mouse.
The font used for the comment text can be modified through the File | Page Setup... menu.
A Title can also be added to the graph using the graph’s Setup... selection from the pop-up
menu.

Edit Comment Text...

To modify an existing comment text, click on the text with the right mouse button and select
Edit Comment Text.... Note: The graph title may be edited from the graph’s Setup... menu.

Delete Comment Text...

To remove comment text from a graph, click on the text with the right mouse button and select
Delete Comment Text.... Note: The graph title may be deleted from the graph’s Setup... menu.

Print
Prints the graph. Use File | Printer Setup... to select the printer and File | Page Setup... to
modify the graph dimensions. The active graph can also be printed by selecting File | Print.

AutoScale
Rescales the graph, so that all of the data is visible.

AutoScale Graph to Cursors

Rescales the graph, so that the data between the cursors is displayed in full-scale.

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AutoLocate Cursors
Moves the cursors, so that they are within the boundaries of the graph. This is most often used
after the mouse drag method has been used to zoom in on a section of data. After zooming,
autolocate can be used to move the cursors to the section of data selected by the zooming.

Scale Previous
Switches to the previous type of scaling. You can undo up to 5 scaling operations.

Scale Next
Switches to a previously autoscaled setting. You can redo up to 5 scaling operations.

Note: Scaling operations can also be performed on all graphs simultaneously as described in
Chapter 7 - ZView Menus. Additionally, a graph can be rescaled by clicking and dragging the
mouse across a portion of the data on a graph.

7.4. Nyquist or Complex Plane Graph Setup

Setup... (Complex Graph)
Displays the following axes configuration menu:

The Mode selects from several groups of axes. Once a Mode is chosen, the X, Y: list reflects the
axes choices in that group. Note: The Gain Phase and Group Delay are only applicable to data
measured using the ‘Gain Phase’ or ‘Group Delay’ measuring methods in the 1260 standalone

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mode. The following axes are available:

Mode Axes
Gain Phase, Group Delay (a, b) (real, imaginary)
Impedance, Parallel RCL, Series RCL (Z′, Z″) (impedance)
(w × Z″, Z′) (impedance)
(Y′, Y″) (admittance)
(Y′ / w, Y″ / w) (admittance)
(M′, M″) (complex modulus)
(E′, E″) (complex dielectric)

Display determines whether the graph is Isotropic (X and Y units have the same scale, insuring
that semi-circles appear correctly) or Free (X and Y scaling is not linked).
Each axis can be independently configured as Linear or Logarithmic.
The Min and Max values determine the left and right extent of the X-Axis and the bottom and
top of the Y-Axis.
Note: The Min can actually be larger than the Max, producing an inverted axis. For example,
impedance data is often plotted with the Y axis inverted.
The Label specifies the increment between numbers on the axis. Tic determines the distance
between the small tic marks between numbers.
The Label, Tic, and Origin are not applicable to Log axes.
The Graph Title is normally placed at the upper-left corner of the graph, but can be moved by
clicking and dragging the text on the graph.
The font used for the Graph Title can be modified through the File | Page Setup... menu.

Add Comment Text... (Complex Graph)

Edit Comment Text...
Delete Comment Text
Applies text to the graph. See their descriptions at the beginning of this chapter.

AutoScale Graph (Complex Graph)

AutoScale Graph to Cursors
AutoLocate Cursors
Scale Previous
Scale Next
Changes the scaling of the graph. The different scaling modes are described at the beginning of
this chapter.

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Print (Complex Graph)

Prints the graph. See its description at the beginning of this chapter.

Fit Circle (Complex Graph)

Fits a semi-circle to the data between the two data cursors. The results are displayed in an Add
Comment Text box. The new Instant Fit technique described in Chapter 8 - Circuit Modeling is
a much more powerful technique which can be used in place of Fit Circle in most cases.

The Center of the semi-circle is marked on the graph with a diamond. The Deviation represents
the average distance between the data points and the line and can be used as an error value for
the semi-circles Diameter.
The Intercepts represent the intersection of the semi-circle with the x-axis. The Depression
Angle (in degrees) shows the angle between the x-axis and a line drawn between the low
intercept and the center of the semi-circle. w_max is the frequency (in radians/second) of the
peak of the semi-circle. It is not interpolated between data points but is simply the frequency of
the data point with the largest imaginary value.
The Estimated values are based on the assumption that the data between the cursors reflects a
single parallel resistor-capacitor combination. ZView has no way to test this assumption and thus,
should be used with discretion. They most often are used as starting values for use with
Equivalent Circuit fitting. The Estimated R is the same as the Diameter of the semi-circle.
Estimated C is calculated using the relationship: w_max = 1 / (RC) and depends on the accuracy
of w_max.
Click OK to add the results as a comment on the graph. Use Cancel to close the window without
creating a comment.
During the fit, the fitted circle is drawn as a black line. The center of the semi-circle is drawn as
diamond. To remove these lines, reselect the data file as the Active data set.

Note: The semi-circle fit is a geometric fit not an RC or Equivalent Circuit fit. It fits the
displayed data to the equation for a circle and calculates values such as the diameter and
location of the circle’s center. The frequency component is not used in these calculations.
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Although estimated R and C values are displayed, they are based on the assumption that the data
really reflects a single parallel RC. This assumption is in no way tested.

Fit Linear (Complex Graph)

Uses linear least squares fit on the data between the two data cursors. The new Instant Fit
technique described in Chapter 8 - Circuit Modeling is a much more powerful technique which
can be used in place of Fit Linear in most cases.
This type of fit is most often used to analyze a Warburg impedance. The Slope, X and Y-axis
intercepts are displayed as well as the R2 least squares ‘goodness of fit’ parameter.
Click OK to add the results as a comment on the graph. Use Cancel to close the window without
creating a comment.

Export Data (Complex Graph)

Creates an ASCII text file containing the data displayed on this graph. This data is different from
raw data files in that it reflects any scaling factors used as well as the axes used. For example, if
the E″ vs. E′ (complex dielectric) axes are being displayed, the E′ and E″ values will be saved.
The Export files are not readable by ZView. They are primarily used to export formatted data for
use with other programs such as spreadsheet or graphing packages.

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7.5. Bode Graph Pop-Up Menu

Setup... (Bode Graph)
Displays the following axes configuration menu:

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The Mode selects from several groups of axes. Once a Mode is chosen, the Y1, Y2: list reflects
the axes choices in that group. Note: the Gain Phase and Group Delay are only applicable to
data measured using the ‘Gain Phase’ or ‘Group Delay’ measuring methods in the 1260
standalone mode.

The following axes are available:

Mode Axes
Gain Phase (a, b) (real, imaginary)
(r, theta) (magnitude, phase angle)

Group Delay (a, b) (real, imaginary)

(r, theta) (magnitude, phase angle)
(r, t) (magnitude, delay time)

Impedance (Z′, Z″) (impedance)

(|Z|, theta) (magnitude, phase angle)
(Z′ × w, Z″ × w) (impedance)
(|Z × w|, theta) (impedance)
(Y′, Y″) (admittance)
(|Y|, theta) (admittance)
(Y′ / w, Y″ / w) (admittance)
(|Y × w|, theta) (admittance)
(M′, M″) (complex modulus)
(|M|, theta) (complex modulus)
(E′, E″) (complex dielectric)
(|E|, theta) (complex dielectric)
(|E|, tan d) (complex dielectric)
(Z″, M″) (complex dielectric)

Parallel RCL and

Series RCL (C, R) (capacitance, resistance)
(C, Q) (capacitance, quality)
(C, D) (capacitance, dissipation)
(L, R) (inductance, resistance)
(L, Q) (inductance, quality)
(L, D) (inductance, dissipation)
(1 / C2, R) (Mott-Schottky)

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The X axis choices are Frequency (Hz), Frequency (ω), Polarization, Amplitude, 1/ω², or Time
(seconds). The Bias and Amplitude selections will be in units of Volts or Amps depending on
how the measurement was performed.

Display determines whether the graph is Separate (two separate plots) or Overlaid (both graphs
have a common X-axis; the two Y-axes are displayed on the left and right sides of the graph).
Selecting Y1 only or Y2 only will result in only one of the pair of axes being displayed.
Each axis can be independently configured as Linear, Abs (absolute value), Logarithmic or dB
(decibels).

The Min and Max values determine the left and right extent of the X-Axis and the bottom and
top of the Y-Axes.
Note: The Min can actually be larger than the Max, producing an inverted axis. For example,
phase angle data is often plotted with the Y axis inverted.
The Label specifies the increment between numbers on the axis. Tic determines the distance
between the small tic marks between numbers.
The Label, Tic, and Origin are not applicable to Log axes.
The Graph Title is normally placed at the upper-left corner of the graph, but can be moved by
clicking and dragging the text on the graph.
The font used for the Graph Title can be modified through the File | Page Setup... menu.

Add Comment Text... (Bode Graph)

Edit Comment Text...
Delete Comment Text
Applies text to the graph. See their descriptions at the beginning of this chapter.

AutoScale Graph (Bode Graph)

AutoScale Graph to Cursors
AutoLocate Cursors

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Scale Previous
Scale Next
Changes the scaling of the graph. The different scaling modes are described at the beginning of
this chapter.

Print (Bode Graph)

Prints the graph. See its description at the beginning of this chapter.

Fit Top Graph (Bode Graph)

Fit Bottom Graph
Uses linear least squares fit on the data between the two data cursors. The new Instant Fit
technique described in Chapter 8 - Circuit Modeling is a much more powerful technique which
can be used in place of Fit Linear in most cases.

This type of fit is most often used to analyze linear portions of a magnitude. The Slope, and X
and Y-axis intercepts are displayed as well as the R2 least squares ‘goodness of fit’ parameter.
The Estimated C value is only displayed when fitting |Z| vs. frequency. Estimated C is
calculated using |Z| = 1 / ωC where |Z| is the Y-intercept at ω = 1 (or Log(ω) = 0).
Because of the extrapolation process, small errors in the slope can cause larger errors in the
intercept causing large errors in the Estimated C. Always confirm the calculated values using
other techniques!
Note: When graphing vs. Frequency (Hz), ZView does an automatic conversion to Frequency (w)
(in radians/second) for the estimated C calculation.

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Export Data (Bode Graph)

Creates an ASCII text file containing the data displayed on this graph. This data is different from
raw data files in that it reflects any scaling factors used as well as the axes used. For example, if
the C and R vs. Bias axes are being displayed, the Bias, C, and R values will be saved. The
Export files are not readable by ZView. They are primarily used to export formatted data for use
with other programs such as spreadsheet or graphing packages.

7.6. 3-D Graph Pop-Up Menu

Setup... (3-D Graph)
Displays the following axes configuration menu:

The Mode selects from several groups of axes. Once a Mode is chosen, the X, Y: list reflects the
axes choices in that group. Note: the Gain Phase and Group Delay are only applicable to data
measured using the ‘Gain Phase’ or ‘Group Delay’ measuring methods in the 1260 standalone
mode.

The following axes are available:

Mode Axes
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Gain Phase (a, b) (real, imaginary)

(r, theta) (magnitude, phase angle)

Group Delay (a, b) (real, imaginary)

(r, theta) (magnitude, phase angle)
(r, t) (magnitude, delay time)

Impedance (Z′, Z″) (impedance)

(|Z|, theta) (magnitude, phase angle)
(Z′ × w, Z″ × w) (impedance)
(|Z × w|, theta) (impedance)
(Y′, Y″) (admittance)
(|Y|, theta) (admittance)
(Y′ / w, Y″ / w) (admittance)
(|Y × w|, theta) (admittance)
(M′, M″) (complex modulus)
(|M|, theta) (complex modulus)
(E′, E″) (complex dielectric)
(|E|, theta) (complex dielectric)

Parallel RCL and

Series RCL (C, R) (capacitance, resistance)
(C, Q) (capacitance, quality)
(C, D) (capacitance, dissipation)
(L, R) (inductance, resistance)
(L, Q) (inductance, quality)
(L, D) (inductance, dissipation)

The Z axis choices are Frequency (Hz), Frequency (ω), Polarization, Amplitude, 1 / ω², or Time
(seconds). The Bias and Amplitude selections can be in units of Volts or Amps depending on
how the measurement was performed.
Display determines whether the graph is Isotropic (X and Y units have the same scale, insuring
that semi-circles appear correctly) or Free (X and Y scaling is not linked).
Each axis can be independently configured as Linear, Abs (absolute value), Logarithmic or dB
(decibels).
The Min and Max values determine the left and right extent of the X-Axis, the bottom and top of
the Y-Axis, and front and back of the Z-Axis.
Note: The Min can actually be larger than the Max, producing an inverted axis. For example, Z″
data is often plotted with the Y axis inverted.

The Label specifies the increment between numbers on the axis. Tic determines the distance
between the small tic marks between numbers. The Label, Tic, and Origin are not applicable to

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Log axes.
Rotation changes the direction from which the graph is viewed. The X Angle and Y Angle
control the rotation about the X-Axis and Y-Axis respectively. The Distance is a unitless
parameter controlling the viewing distance. Smaller viewing distances produce a stronger
perspective distortion.
The Visible parameters control how the data is displayed. If Curtain is used, a line will be
drawn from each data point down to the Y-Origin plane. Projection causes the data to be
displayed on the X-Y, X-Z, and Y-Z planes.

Add Comment Text... (3-D Graph)

Edit Comment Text...
Delete Comment Text
Applies text to the graph. See their descriptions at the beginning of this chapter.

AutoScale Graph (3-D Graph)

AutoScale Graph to Cursors
AutoLocate Cursors
Scale Previous
Scale Next
Changes the scaling of the graph. The different scaling modes are described at the beginning of
this chapter.

Print (3-D Graph)

Prints the graph. See its description at the beginning of this chapter.

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7.7. Multigraph Pop-Up Menu

Setup... (MultiGraph)
The multigraph setup menu is used to select which other graphs will be used in producing a
multigraph.

The Available Graphs list shows each of the Complex, Bode, and 3D graphs that ZView is
currently displaying. Displayed Graphs are the ones that will appear on the multigraph. A copy
of the Equivalent Circuit Model can also be added to the multigraph.
Select a graph in the Available Graphs List and use ‘>’ to add the graph to the Displayed
Graphs list. Double clicking on a graph name will also move it to the Displayed Graphs list.
‘<’can be used to remove graphs from the multigraph. Double clicking on a graph name in the
Displayed Graphs list will also remove the graph.
The up and down buttons can be used to change the order of the graphs. Highlight a graph name
in the Displayed Graphs list, and use these buttons to move the item within the list.

Add Comment Text... (MultiGraph)

Edit Comment Text...
Delete Comment Text
Applies text to the graph. See their descriptions at the beginning of this chapter.

Print (MultiGraph)
Prints the graph. See its description at the beginning of this chapter.

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Chapter 8 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

CHAPTER 8. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODELING

The Equivalent Circuits portion of ZView is used to simulate the impedance spectrum of an
electrical circuit. It can also be used to fit a measured impedance data set to an electrical circuit.
ZView Equivalent Circuits is based on the LEVM 6.0 program written by Dr. J. Ross Macdonald.
Note: Only frequency spectrums can be used. DC Polarization or AC Amplitude sweeps
measured using ZPLOT cannot be modeled. The Fit Circle and Fit Linear function described in
Chapter 7 - Graph Pop-Up Menus can be used on Polarization and Amplitude sweeps.
Chapter 5 - Tutor #3 describes the step-by-step use of the Instant Fit and Equivalent Circuits
techniques and is designed to simplify the first use of these methods.

Fitting Methods: There are two distinct methods of circuit modeling. Instant Fit
uses small, predefined models, while Equivalent Circuits allows
very complex user-defined models. Instant Fit is often used to
create initial estimates which are later used in Equivalent
Circuits. The Equivalent Circuits method can also be used to
simulate the impedance spectrum of a user-defined model.

Choosing a Data File: Before using Equivalent Circuit, one or more data files must be
loaded using File | Data Files.... Select one of the files as the
Active data set as described in Chapter 7 - Graph Pop-Up Menus.

Selecting a Subset of Data: Often, simplified circuit models are fit to a subset (a limited
frequency range) of data. The Data Cursors are used to select a
range of data as described in Chapter 7 - Graph Pop-Up Menus.

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8.1. Instant Fit

The Instant Fit method is used to quickly fit data to small, predefined circuit models. Normally,
the fit is performed on only a portion of the data set (selected using the data cursors). A full
circuit model for the entire data set may be very complicated, but often only a few of elements
are active over a particular frequency range.

Clicking on one of the 6 models fits the selected data to the model and displays the results.
The Error numbers are the estimated error in the same units as the Value. In the example above,
Rs has a value of 1799 ±1.86 Ω.
The Values can be copied to an Equivalent Circuits model using a drag-and-drop technique.
Click on a value and hold the mouse button down. Drag the mouse to one of the Values in an
Equivalent Circuit model and release the mouse.
The copy of the values can also be put directly on a graph as a comment. Drag-and-drop from the
gray area in the results portion of the window to one of the graphs.
The mathematical formula for each element type is given in section 8.9 and Chapter 10.

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8.2. Equivalent Circuits

To use the Equivalent Circuits, select Tools | Equivalent Circuits... from the main ZView menu.
The following window is used to perform all Equivalent Circuits operations:

To use Equivalent Circuits, you must:

• Select a data set
• Define the model
• Provide initial values for all elements
• Select which elements will be fitted
• Select the Fit/Simulation Mode
• Select the range of data to be used

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File | New Model

Clears the current circuit model.

File | Open Model...

Loads a circuit model file. The files usually have the extension ‘.mdl’. When ZView is
run, it initially loads the most recently loaded model. Several predefined models are provided in
the subdirectory C:\SAI\ZModels\. These example models are described in Chapter 9.

File | Save Model...

Resaves the current model in a file. To save a model under a new name, used File |
Save Model As.... The circuit model design, element values, as well as the fitting parameters are
saved in the file.

File | Save Model As...

Saves the current model in a file. The circuit model design, element values, as well as
the fitting parameters are saved in the file. The suffix ‘.mdl’ will automatically be appended
unless you specify one.

File | Print Model

Prints a copy of the Circuit Model and all of the element values.

File | Copy Model to Clipboard

Copies the Circuit Model to the Windows Clipboard. It can then be pasted to other programs
such as a word processor or presentation program.

File | Copy Results to Clipboard

Copies the results of a fit to the clipboard, including the data file name, the values for each
parameter and the estimated errors. The clipboard can be pasted to a spreadsheet such Excel.
Each time the Copy function is used, another set of results is added to the clipboard.

File | Clear Results Clipboard

Clears the clipboard of all fit results that have previously been added by using File | Copy
Results to Clipboard.

File | Exit

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Closes the Equivalent Circuits window. The Circuit Model configuration is not lost when the
window is closed. When Equivalent Circuits is restarted, the same model will be present.

8.3. Fitting Parameters

Model | Edit Fit Parameters...
There are a number of parameters which affect how simulation or fitting is performed.

Mode is used to select the type of calculations performed. When using Simulation, an
impedance spectrum from the circuit model is produced. Fitting allows the program to alter the
circuit element values to find the values which best fit the data. Subtraction is used to subtract
the circuit model’s spectrum from a measured spectrum (Zsubtract = Zmeasured - Zcalculated). If the data
truly fits the model, the only thing left after subtracting the model will be any noise in the
measured data. If the model is not correct, Subtraction will reflect the data of circuit elements
not included in the model. Residual calculates the relative difference between the measured
spectrum and the circuit models spectrum. The Residuals are calculated using:
Z′residual = (Z′measured – Z′calculated) / |Zmeasured|
Z″residual = ( Z″measured - Z″calculated) / |Zmeasured|
The Batch Fitting mode is used to automatically repeat the same circuit model fit on multiple
files. Its use is described in the Batch Fitting section of this chapter (below).

The Data Range is used to select the amount of data used during a simulation or fit. By using
All Points, all of the data points in the analyzed data file are used while simulating or fitting. The
spectrum created will have data points at exactly the same frequencies as the original file.
Selected Points uses only the data between the two cursors on the graphs. This is useful, if you
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wish to fit a simplified model to a subset of the data.

When fitting, Frequency Range lets the user specify a subset of data by specifying the
Minimum and Maximum frequency. When simulating, the spectrum created covers the entire
frequency range, independent of the frequencies in the original data file. This can be used to
simulate data over a wider frequency then what was actually measured.
The Optional Parameters often do not need to be changed. They control some of the specific
mathematical methods used when fitting.
Maximum Iterations determines how much time will be spent trying to fit the data before it is
decided that an accurate fit cannot be achieved and returns its latest attempt. Usually, if
acceptable values are not found after 100 iterations, additional iterations will not improve the
fitting. Large numbers of iterations usually indicate an incorrect model or poor initial values for
the circuit elements. Note: Not used during Simulation or Subtraction modes.
If Optimization Iterations is > 0, an additional optimization method will be used to further
improve the quality of the fit. Use up to 100 iterations, although 10 is usually sufficient.
Optimization will only improve the fit, if you have extremely clean (noise free) data and is not
normally used. Note: Not used during Simulation or Subtraction modes.
The Type of Fitting is almost always set to ‘Complex’, in which case both the real and
imaginary impedance values are fit. Alternately, use ‘Real Only’ or ‘Imag Only’ to fit only one
component of the data. Note: Not used during Simulation or Subtraction modes.
Type of Data Weighting effects how much emphasis is applied to different portions of the data.
‘Unit Weighting’ treats each data point equally. This tends to overemphasize data points with a
large magnitude (if the fitting produces, on average, a 1 Ω error for each data point, this is a very
good fit for a data point with a value of 10 kΩ but is a poor fit for a value of 5 Ω). If an
impedance spectrum covers a wide range of impedances, ‘Calc-Modulus’ may give a better fit
because each data points weight is normalized by its magnitude. ‘Calc-Proportional’ is similar to
modulus, but it normalizes each real and imaginary value separately. See Spinolo, Chiodellu,
Magistris, and Tamburini, J. Electrochem. Soc. 135 (1988) 1419 for a description of the
‘Special’ weighting choices. Note: Not used during Simulation or Subtraction modes.
GDAE Accuracy is only used by Distributed Elements 12 and 14 and the DAE element in
Model D. The GDAE circuit elements are calculated through an integration. Their accuracy is =
10-GDAE Accuracy. A value of 2 gives moderate accuracy, 4 gives very high accuracy. This value is
not used for other distributed elements or normal R, C or L elements.
Circuit Model H requires the Absolute Temperature to calculate the impedance of the BCD
component. Not used by other Circuit Models.

Model | Run Fit

Starts the fitting or simulation calculations. Note: The text on the Run button will change to
reflect the type of calculation to be performed. For example, Run Simulation / Selected Points
indicates the Mode and Data Range setting from the Model | Edit Fit Parameters window.
Model | Save Data As...
Saves the impedance spectrum calculated as a result of a fit or simulation. The data is
saved inthe standard ZPLOT format. An extension of ‘.z’ is appended unless otherwise
specified. The data files can later be loaded as using File | Data Files... from the main ZView
menu.
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8.4. Modifying a Circuit Model

A circuit model is modified by adding series or parallel elements. In addition, the type of an
element can be changed, or an element can be cut and pasted from one location to another.
These functions are accessed though a pop-up menu by clicking with the Right mouse button on
the circuit model display area of the window.

Pop-Up | Edit...

Click on an existing element with the right mouse button and select Edit to change the name or
element type through the following screen:
The available Element Types (Resistor, Capacitor, Constant Phase Element, etc.) are described
in section 8.9 and Chapter 10.
By default, a unique name such as R1 or C2 is given to each new element as it is added. These
names may be changed to more meaningful names such as Rs (solution resistance) or Cdl
(double-layer capacitance) by changing the Element Name text.

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Pop-Up | New
Click on an existing element with the right mouse button and select New.
Adds series or parallel elements. After the new element is added, the Edit... menu is used to
select the element type.
The Pop-Up | New menu has 4 sub-menu choices which control the location of the new element.
In the following examples, click on the element labeled Old to insert an element in the New
location.
Note: If an element is added to the wrong location, simply delete the element by clicking on it
and selecting Delete from the pop-up menu.

Series (after): Adds an element to the right of the existing element.

Clicking on the Old item and adding a series (after) element, puts the new
element in the position labeled New.
To add an element after a parallel pair, click on the dot before the pair. To
understand this behavior, think of the dot as representing the entire pair.
Adding an element after the dot adds a new element after the existing parallel elements.

Parallel (after): Adds an element below the existing element.

The new parallel element normally is in parallel with only the existing
element.

To add an element which is in parallel with the whole existing group, click
on the dot before the existing group.

Series (before): Adds an element to the left of the existing element.

To add an element in series with an existing parallel pair, insert the new element before the dot.

Parallel (before): Adds an element above the existing element.

The new parallel element normally is in parallel with only the existing
element.

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8.5. Fitting Results

Equivalent Circuits fitting provides error estimates for each variable as well as general ‘goodness
of fit’ values.

Element Errors: The Error estimates are calculated by testing several solutions near the
‘best fit’. For example, if the best value for a particular resistor is 100 Ω,
the value is increased until the ‘goodness of fit’ starts to decrease. If 98
and 102 Ω produces a very similar ‘goodness of fit’, but 97 and 103 Ω
produces a poorer fit, the Error is reported as 2 Ω.
Very large error estimates are typically a result of an incorrect model -
often one that contains more elements than are represented by the data. If
the model contains too many elements, the extra elements have no effect
on the ‘goodness of fit’.
Goodness of Fit: The Chi-Squared is the square of the standard deviation between the
original data and the calculated spectrum. This is often a poor
measurement of the ‘goodness of fit’. As an example, let us examine just 2
points from a spectrum - assuming that the impedance was 2 Ω at high
frequencies and 1 kΩ at high frequencies.
If there was an error of 1 Ω in the fit of both points, the 1 kΩ point would
be a very good fit (0.1%), but the 2 Ω point would have a 50% error. This
would actually produce a much smaller Chi-Squared value than if both
points had a 1% error (10 Ω error in the 1 kΩ point and 0.02 Ω error in the
2 Ω value).
An alternate ‘goodness of fit’ value is the Weighted Sum of Squares.
Depending on the Weighting Type parameter in the Model | Edit Fit
Parameters... window, the Sum of Squares is proportional to the average
percentage error between the original data points and the calculated
values. This is particularly useful when comparing the ‘goodness of fit’ of
two different models to a single data set.
Failure to Fit: There are several situations where the Fitting calculation engine may
report a ‘Singular Matrix’, ‘Divide by Zero’, or other math error. These
are typically a result of an incorrect model or poor initial estimates.
1. Simulate the spectrum, and check to see if the model resembles the
original data. If they are very different, the model may be
incorrect, or the initial value estimates may be poor. Try changing
the values, and re-simulating, or try eliminating elements which
have little effect.
2. Check for unnecessary elements. If two resistors are placed
directly in series or two capacitors directly in parallel, there is now
way to separate the effects of the two elements. This results in an
extra element that has no correlation to the data.
3. Set some of the elements to Fixed. It is much easier for the fitting
engine to find a solution when it has fewer variables to calculate.
To add an element which is in parallel with the whole existing group, click on the dot before the
existing group.
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Pop-Up | Cut
Pop-Up | Copy
Pop-Up | Delete
Pop-Up | Paste
These functions are similar to a word processors editing functions. Cut removes an element, but
it is saved in a buffer, so that it can later be Pasted. Copy puts a copy of the element in the
buffer which can later be Pasted, but leaves the original in place. Delete permanently removes
the element.
To Paste an element, click on an existing element, and select on the Paste-Series or Paste-
Parallel functions. These functions position the pasted element in the same format as the Pop-Up
| New functions.

8.6. Freedom Settings

Each circuit element value has a ‘Freedom’ parameter which describes how the element is to be
treated when fitting data. The choices are Fixed(X), Free(+), and Free(±).
These parameters are not used during simulation.
When fitting, they determine what an acceptable value for the circuit element is. When set to
Fixed(X), the value will not be changed during fitting. Free(+) will cause the element to be fit,
but only positive values will be used. Free(±) will allow the element to assume any value,
positive or negative.
Using Free(+) is most often used because it will eliminate the possibility of invalid negative
answers such as negative capacitances. On the other hand, certain adsorption reactions and other
phenomena will often mimic a negative capacitance, requiring the use of Free(±). Use Free(±)
only when you believe a negative value is required.
When the model contains a large number of elements, it may be necessary to Fix some of the
values during initial development of the model. Especially if the initial estimates of the values
are poor, ZView may fail to find a solution, or find an incorrect solution. To solve this problem,
set the values with the best estimates to Fixed (for example, the solution resistance can often be
estimated accurately from the Graphs). Fitting the data should produce good values for the
remaining Free elements, at which time, all elements can be set to Free and the model refitted.
If an element value is set to zero and Fixed, it is effectively eliminated from the model.

8.7. Initial Estimates

Equivalent circuit modeling works by an iterative process. The spectra of the model is repeatedly
calculated and compared to the original data set. During each iteration, the element values are
refined to select the values which produce the best match. This requires estimates of the values
from which to start the search.
Methods of calculating the initial values are described in Chapter 5 - Tutor #3. Before fitting
data, simulate the model using your initial estimates. The simulated data should show the same
general features as the data. For example, if the data has two time constants (two semi-circles on
a Complex-Plane graph), the simulated model should also display two time constants.

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8.8. Fitting Results

Equivalent Circuits fitting provides error estimates for each variable as well as general ‘goodness
of fit’ values.

Element Errors: The Error estimates are calculated by testing several solutions near the
‘best fit’. For example, if the best value for a particular resistor is 100 Ω,
the value is increased until the ‘goodness of fit’ starts to decrease. If 98
and 102 Ω produces a very similar ‘goodness of fit’, but 97 and 103 Ω
produces a poorer fit, the Error is reported as 2 Ω.
Very large error estimates are typically a result of an incorrect model -
often one that contains more elements than are represented by the data. If
the model contains too many elements, the extra elements have no effect
on the ‘goodness of fit’.
Goodness of Fit: The Chi-Squared is the square of the standard deviation between the
original data and the calculated spectrum. This is often a poor
measurement of the ‘goodness of fit’. As an example, let us examine just 2
points from a spectrum - assuming that the impedance was 2 Ω at high
frequencies and 1 kΩ at high frequencies.
If there was an error of 1 Ω in the fit of both points, the 1 kΩ point would
be a very good fit (0.1%), but the 2 Ω point would have a 50% error. This
would actually produce a much smaller Chi-Squared value than if both
points had a 1% error (10 Ω error in the 1 kΩ point and 0.02 Ω error in the
2 Ω value).
An alternate ‘goodness of fit’ value is the Weighted Sum of Squares.
Depending on the Weighting Type parameter in the Model | Edit Fit
Parameters... window, the Sum of Squares is proportional to the average
percentage error between the original data points and the calculated
values. This is particularly useful when comparing the ‘goodness of fit’ of
two different models to a single data set.
Failure to Fit: There are several situations where the Fitting calculation engine may
report a ‘Singular Matrix’, ‘Divide by Zero’, or other math error. These
are typically a result of an incorrect model or poor initial estimates.
1. Simulate the spectrum, and check to see if the model resembles the
original data. If they are very different, the model may be
incorrect, or the initial value estimates may be poor. Try changing
the values, and re-simulating, or try eliminating elements which
have little effect.
2. Check for unnecessary elements. If two resistors are placed
directly in series or two capacitors directly in parallel, there is now
way to separate the effects of the two elements. This results in an
extra element that has no correlation to the data.
3. Set some of the elements to Fixed. It is much easier for the fitting
engine to find a solution when it has fewer variables to calculate.

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8.9. Circuit Elements

ZView Equivalent Circuit models can contain a large variety of circuit elements. Some elements
are analogs to electrical components such as resistors and capacitors; others have no electrical
equivalent and are defined by their mathematical functions.
The following predefined elements are directly selectable from the Pop-Up | Edit menu.
R Resistor
C Capacitor
L Inductor
CPE Constant Phase Element #1
QPE Constant Phase Element #2
Ws Warburg - Short Circuit Terminus
Wo Warburg - Open Circuit Terminus
GE Gerischer Impedance
DE Distributed Element
DX Extended Distributed Elements (defined by more than 4 variables)
When a Distributed Element is selected, one of the element parameters selects the Distributed
Element Type as defined in Chapter 10. All other elements are defined on the following pages.
For all equations:
𝑗 = √−1
𝜔 = angular frequency of the AC signal

8.9.1. R - Resistor
𝑍=𝑅
𝑍 ′ = 𝑅, 𝑍 ′′ = 0

8.9.2. C - Capacitor
1
𝑍=
𝑗∙𝜔∙𝐶
𝑍 ′ = 0, 𝑍 ′′ = −1⁄(𝜔 ∙ 𝐶)

8.9.3. L - Inductor
𝑍 =𝑗∙𝜔∙𝐿
𝑍 ′ = 0, 𝑍 ′′ = 𝜔 ∙ 𝐿

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8.9.4. CPE - Constant Phase Element #1

1
𝑍=
𝑇 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

Parameters: CPE-T, CPE-P

The CPE is defined by two values, CPE-T and CPE-P. If CPE-P = 1, then the equation is
identical to that of a capacitor. If CPE-P = 0.5, a 45 ° line is produced on the Complex-Plane
graph. When a CPE is placed in parallel to a resistor, a Cole-Element (depressed semi-circle) is
produced.

Often a CPE is used in a model in place of a capacitor to compensate for non-homogeneity in the
system. For example, a rough or porous surface can cause a double-layer capacitance to appear
as a constant phase element with a CPE-P value between 0.9 and 1. In fact, a capacitor is actually
a constant phase element - one with a constant phase angle of 90 °.

A CPE with CPE-P value of 0.5 can be used to produce an Infinite Length Warburg element. A
Warburg element occurs when charge carrier diffuses through a material. Lower frequencies
correspond to diffusion deeper into the material. If the material is thin, low frequencies will
penetrate the entire thickness, creating a Finite Length Warburg element. If the material is thick
enough, so that the lowest frequencies applied do not fully penetrate the layer, it must be
interpreted as infinite. The CPE produces the same spectrum as the high frequency portion of a

Finite Length Warburg when CPE-T = �W-T � W-R.

8.9.5. QPE - Constant Phase Element #2

1
𝑍=
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑄 ∙ 𝜔)𝑛

Parameters: QPE-Q, QPE-n

This Constant Phase element has the equation format used by Dr. Bernard Boukamp in his
EQUIVCRT program. It will fit exactly the same spectrums as the CPE element, but the Q
parameter values will be different from the T parameter values in Constant Phase Element #1.

The Q parameter is inside the exponent, while the T value is outside the exponent. The n and P
parameters are identical. The Q and T parameters are related via the equation T = Qn.

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8.9.6. Ws - Finite Length Warburg - Short Circuit Terminus

tanh[(𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃 ]
𝑍=𝑅∙
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

Parameters: Ws-R, Ws-T, Ws-P

This element is also known as a Generalized Finite Warburg element (GFW). It is an extension
of another more common element, the Finite-Length Warburg (FLW).
To use the FLW equation, set Ws-P = 0.5 and set its freedom to ‘fixed’.
The FLW is the solution of the one-dimensional diffusion equation of a particle, which is
completely analogous to wave transmission in a finite-length RC transmission line.
In the diffusion interpretation Ws-T = L2 / D. (L is the effective diffusion thickness, and D is the
effective diffusion coefficient of the particle).
The GFW is similar to this, but for it the square root becomes a continuously varying exponent
Ws-P such that 0 < Ws-P < 1.
If the data exhibits only the high frequency (45 ° slope) behavior and not the transition to low
frequency behavior, either Wo-R or Wo-T must be set as Fixed(X). Alternately, a CPE can be
used in this situation.
This version of the Warburg element terminates in a finite resistance. At very low frequencies, Z′
approaches Ws-R and Z″ goes to zero.
The graph was produced with:
Ws-R = 1000
Ws-T = 0.1
Ws-P = 0.5
The frequency of the Z″ maximum is ωmax = 2.53 / Ws-T = 25.3 rad/sec = 4.03 Hz

®
ZView Manual 8.14
Chapter 8 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

8.9.7. Wo - Finite Length Warburg - Open Circuit Terminus

coth[(𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃 ]
𝑍=𝑅∙
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

Parameters: Wo-R, Wo-T, Wo-P

This element is also known as a Generalized Finite Warburg element (GFW). It is an extension
of another more common element, the Finite-Length Warburg (FLW).
To use the FLW equation, set Ws-P = 0.5 and set its freedom to ‘fixed’.
The FLW is the solution of the one-dimensional diffusion equation of a particle, which is
completely analogous to wave transmission in a finite-length RC transmission line.
In the diffusion interpretation Ws-T = L2 / D. (L is the effective diffusion thickness, and D is the
effective diffusion coefficient of the particle).
The GFW is similar to this, but for it the square root becomes a continuously varying exponent
Ws-P such that 0 < Ws-P < 1.
This version of the Warburg element terminates in an open circuit. At very low frequencies, the
Z′ approaches Ws-R and Z″ continues to increase, similar to the behavior of a capacitor.
If the data exhibits only the high frequency (45 degree slope) behavior and not the transition to
low frequency behavior, either Wo-R or Wo-T must be set as Fixed(X). Alternately, a CPE can
be used in this situation.
The graph was produced with:
Ws-R = 1000
Ws-T = 0.1
Ws-P = 0.5
The frequency at which the spectrum changes from diffusional (45o slope) to capacitive behavior
is ω = 2.53 / Ws-T = 25.3 rad/sec = 4.03 Hz

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8.15 ZView Manual
Chapter 8 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

8.9.8. Ls - de Levie Pore – Finite Length

This element describes the impedance of a pore with conductive and reactive pore
walls. This is in contrast to Finite Length Warburg element where the pores are non-reactive
(infinite polarization resistance).

𝑅
𝑍=� 1/2
� coth�Λ1/2 �
Λ
where,
Λ = 1⁄𝐴 + 𝐵 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝜙

The graph was produced with

Ls-A = 3
Ls-B = 0.001 -4
Ls-Phi = 1
Ls-R = 1

-3
Z''

-2

-1

0
0 1 2 3 4
Z'

The following references give a detailed description of the electrochemical model:

1 A. Lasia, “Impedance of porous electrodes”, Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry,

“Modeling and Numerical Simulations,” vol. 43, p. 67-138, M. Schlesinger, Ed., Springer, 2009,
ISBN: 978-0-387-49580-4.

2. R De Levie, Adv. Electrochem. Electrochem. Eng. 6, 329 (1967).

®
ZView Manual 8.16
Chapter 8 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

8.9.9. Lo - de Levie Pore – Semi-infinite Length

This element describes the impedance of a pore with conductive and reactive
pore walls. It is similar to the Finite Length de Levie element, however it is
assumed that the penetration depth of the ac signal is not sufficient to reach the bottom of the
pore.

1
𝑍=
� 1 + 𝐵 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝜙
𝐴

The graph was produced with

Lo-A = 3
Lo-B = 0.001
Lo-Phi = 1

The following references give a detailed description of the electrochemical model:

1 A. Lasia, “Impedance of porous electrodes”, Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry,

“Modeling and Numerical Simulations,” vol. 43, p. 67-138, M. Schlesinger, Ed., Springer, 2009,
ISBN: 978-0-387-49580-4.

2. R De Levie, Adv. Electrochem. Electrochem. Eng. 6, 329 (1967).

-2.0

-1.5
Z''

-1.0

-0.5

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Z'

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8.17 ZView Manual
Chapter 8 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

8.9.10. GE - Gerischer Element

𝑌 = 𝑌0 �𝐾𝑎 + 𝑗 ∙ 𝜔

or

𝑌0
𝑌= ���𝜔 2 + 𝐾𝑎2 + 𝐾𝑎 − 𝑗 ∙ ��𝜔 2 + 𝐾𝑎2 − 𝐾𝑎 �
√2

or

1 �𝜔 2 + 𝐾𝑎2 + 𝐾𝑎 �𝜔 2 + 𝐾𝑎2 − 𝐾𝑎
𝑌= �� − 𝑗 ∙ � �
𝑌0 √2 𝜔 2 + 𝐾𝑎2 𝜔 2 + 𝐾𝑎2

Parameters: GE-T = Y0
GE-P = Ka

These graphs were produced with:

GE-T = 0.001
GE-P = 20

At low frequency,

𝑌 ′ (𝜔 → 0) = 𝑌0 ∙ �𝐾𝑎

and,

1
𝑍 ′ (𝜔 → 0) =
𝑌0 ∙ �𝐾𝑎

At high frequencies (ω >> Ka), the impedance matches

that of a CPE, where:

1
𝑍(𝜔 → ∞) =
√2 ∙ 𝑌0 ∙ �𝑗 ∙ 𝜔

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ZView Manual 8.18
Chapter 8 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

8.10. Distributed Elements

The 17 different distributed elements are described in Chapter 10.
Each element uses 5 parameters to describe its function.

DE-Type: Selects the type of Distributed Element used (1 - 33)

DE-R: Usually a resistance
DE-T: A time constant or capacitance
DE-P: An exponent
DE-U: Usually a resistance or exponent

If the DE-Type parameter is zero, the element is effectively eliminated from the model.

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8.19 ZView Manual
Chapter 8 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

8.11. Extended Distributed Elements

The 19 extended distributed elements are described in Chapter 10.
These elements differ from the standard distributed elements in that
they require more than 4 variables in their mathematical formula.
Each element uses 7 parameters to describe its function.
DX-Type: Selects the type of Distributed Element used (1 - 4)
DX-R:
DX-T:
DX-U:
Depends on the type of Distributed Element selected
DX-P:
DX-A:
DX-B:

If the DX-Type parameter is zero, the element is effectively eliminated from the model.

®
ZView Manual 8.20
Chapter 8 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

Element Follower

Several special elements can be used to replicate a single element multiple times in a model. The
replicated elements are not independently fit. Instead, they will exactly follow the value of the
original element. This behavior is demonstrated through the following model.

The theta element can be a fixed or free parameter with values between 0 and 1. Its placement in
the model does not affect the result. The theta value is used by the x(θ) and x(1-θ) elements.
These elements multiply the impedance of the elements in which they are parallel.
The follower elements exactly replicate an existing element. In the example, fC1 replicates C1
and fR1 replicates R1.
If theta were 0.75, the model shown above might represent a dielectric material (C1 + R1) that is
75% covered by another dielectric (C2 + R2) and 25% covered by a pure resistor (R4).

8.12. Batch Fitting

The Batch Fitting mode is used to repeatedly fit the same circuit model fit on multiple files. It
should only be used after you are experienced using regular (single file) fitting mode. You must
also be confidant that all of the files to be fit can be modeled with the same circuit model.
To access the Batch Fitting mode, use Model | Edit Fit Parameters... from the Equivalent
Circuits window and select Batch Fitting. The ‘Run’ button in the Equivalent Circuits window
will now display Run Batch Fit.
Click on the Run Batch Fit button to display the following choices:

®
8.21 ZView Manual
Chapter 8 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

Files are added to the Files to Fit list by double-clicking on a file in the Files list or selecting a
file and clicking .
The results of the fitting, including the circuit element values and estimated errors, are put in file
designated by Output. The output file is in standard ASCII text and is readable by the Windows
Notepad program. The values are separated by commas and can also be read by spreadsheet
programs such as Excel.
If Save Spectra is selected, the calculated spectra for each fit will be saved. The calculated
spectra use the same base file name as the original file, but use the extension .sim. Thus, the
calculated spectra for the file demo.z would be demo.sim. The saved files may be viewed by
loading them as normal data files using Files | Data Files....

Print individual fitting results prints a single page for each fitted file, summarizing the circuit
element values and their estimated errors.

When Use previous fit as initial values is selected, the results of each fit are retained and used

as the initial values for the next fit. This can speed the fitting calculations, if all of the data files
are from a time series, and the values change slightly from one file to the next. If Use previous
fit as initial values is unchecked, the original circuit element estimates will be used for each fit.
This is more appropriate when fitting data from multiple samples - where the circuit values vary
randomly from one file to the next.
Ok starts the batch fitting process.
Cancel exits the batch fitting menu without fitting.

®
ZView Manual 8.22
Chapter 9 Standard Circuit Models

CHAPTER 9. STANDARD CIRCUIT MODELS

Several models, which often occur in published literature, are described in this chapter. It is very
important that you fully understand the original references when using the models. The examples
are meant to demonstrate how a model from the scientific literature is actually implemented in
ZView. Do NOT use these examples in place of a proper literature search.

For each example, a predefined equivalent circuit model file is located in the directory
C:\SAI\ZModels.

®
9.1 ZView Manual
Chapter 9 Standard Circuit Models

9.1. Example Model 1 - Lithium-Titanium Disulfide Battery

This model is based on the paper: S.R. Narayanan, D.H. Shen, S. Surampudi, A.I. Attia, G.
Halpert, “Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of Lithium-Titanium Disulfide Rechargeable
Cells,” J. Electrochemical Society, 140(7) 1854-1861 (1993).

Circuit Model File: AppendixC LI Battery.mdl

Rs is the ohmic internal resistance of the cell. This factor encompasses several factors including
the solution resistance as well as the electrical resistance of the anode and cathode materials.
Cf and Rf are proposed as the capacitance and resistance of the passive film which forms of the
lithium anode.
Cdl represents the double layer capacitance. In this implementation of the model, the Cdl and
CPE from the reference paper are combined into one CPE, labeled as Cdl in the model above.
While a capacitor and CPE in series are not identical to a single CPE, they are almost
indistinguishable in their spectrums. The sharp variations (which appear to always go in opposite
directions) from the reference in Fig. 11 and Fig. 14, may indicate that there is actually one
element in this position in the model.
Rct is the cathode charge transfer resistance.
Wc is a diffusional impedance. It is implemented as a CPE instead of a finite length Warburg
element. The CPE produces an identical spectrum to the higher frequency portion of a finite
Warburg element. Since the data does not extend to low enough frequencies to demonstrate the
finite (low frequency) character of the Warburg element, a CPE must be used. The Wc-T value
represents the Warburg coefficient, which is related to the diffusion coefficient of the lithium
ions into the cathode.

®
ZView Manual 9.2
Chapter 9 Standard Circuit Models

9.2. Example Model 2 - Corrosion of a Coated Metal

This model is based on the electrochemical system described in: “An Introduction to
Electrochemical Corrosion Testing for Practicing Engineers and Scientists,” W. Stephen Tait,
1994; PairODocs Publications; 2048 St. Clair, Racine, WI 53402

Circuit Model File: AppendixC Coated Metal.mdl

This model is often used to model a metal with an organic coating, with corrosion taking place
under the coating. Many different models have been used to describe coated metals. This model
is shown as an example and is NOT necessarily correct for all situations.
Rs is the solution resistance of the bulk electrolyte.

Ccoat is the capacitance of the coating. Typical coating capacitances are on the order of 1
μF/cm2. The value can vary based on the thickness of the coating as well as its dielectric
constant. The dielectric constant and thickness can both change over time when exposed to water
because the coating can absorb water (changing the dielectric constant) and swell.
Ccoat is implemented as a Constant Phase Element (CPE). If Ccoat-P = 1, then the Ccoat-T is a
simple capacitance value. See the description of the CPE element for a discussion of the element
when the -P value is less than one. Note that to produce the data shown in Figure 8.1 of the
reference, the -P value may be as low as 0.5.

Rcoat is the resistance of the coating. Coatings often have very small pores which contain
electrolyte, providing a conduction path through the coating.
Cdl represents the double layer capacitance of the electrolyte at the metal surface. Because of
inhomogeneities in the coating and metal surface, this capacitance is implemented as a CPE.

Rcorr is the corrosion resistance of the metal.

®
9.3 ZView Manual
Chapter 9 Standard Circuit Models

9.3. Example Model 3 - Localized Corrosion

This model is based on the electrochemical system described in:

Analysis and Interpretation of EIS Data for Metals and Alloys; Florian Mansfeld; Victoria Road,
Farnborough, Hampshire GU14 7PW, England

Circuit Model File: AppendixC Localized Corrosion.mdl

Several different models are described in this reference. This model is described in Chapter 3 and
shown in Figure 3-1 of the reference.

Rs is the solution resistance of the bulk electrolyte.

Ct is total capacitance from the surface film on the metal. The model shown in Fig. 3-1 shows
two separate capacitances; Cpit × (1 - F) and F × Cpit. These two capacitances are exactly in
parallel and so they are indistinguishable. Only the combined capacitance can be determined as
described in Equation 2 (p. 3-5). Ct is implemented as a Constant Phase Element (CPE). If Ct-P
= 1, then the C-T is a simple capacitance value. See the description of the CPE element for a
discussion of the element when the -P value is less than one.

Rpit1 represents the quantity Rp / (1 - F) in Figure 3-1. Note that the value Rp cannot be calculated
directly, but if the fraction of the surface covered by pits (F) is very small, then Rpit1 ≅ Rp / (1 - F)
Rpit2 represents the quantity Rpit / F in Figure 3-1.

Wpit creates a transmission line impedance. Note that equation used in the reference (Eq.1, p 3-
2) for W is slightly different than the equation used by ZView for a constant phase element (see
section 8.9).
𝑍 = 𝐾 ∙ 𝐹 −1 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝑛 (Equation in reference).

𝑍 = 1⁄[𝑇 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃 ] (ZView equation)

These are actually the same equation where the parameters Wpit-T = F / K and Wpit-P = -n.

®
ZView Manual 9.4
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

CHAPTER 10. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DISTRIBUTED ELEMENTS

This appendix covers the various types of Distributed Elements (DE) available.
A Distributed element can be inserted at any position in a circuit model, as described in Chapter
8 - Circuit Modeling.
Important Note: Previous versions of ZView have used Distributed Elements to create Constant
Phase and Warburg elements. While Distributed Elements may still be used to create these
elements, Constant Phase and Warburg elements can also be created directly, without the use of
a Distributed Element. These elements are described in section 8.9 - Circuit Elements.
Each Distributed Element (DE) is defined by 5 parameters; DE-Type, R, T, U and P.
The Extended Distributed Elements (DX) are special distributed elements which require more
than 5 parameters to define their values. In addition to the DX-Type, R, T, U and P values, A
and B parameters are also used.
The DE-Type value selects which distributed element type is to be used. In the following pages,
each element is listed according to its DE-Type value. If DE-Type = 0, then the DE is not used,
independent of the values for the other DE parameters.
The R, T, U and P are free parameters which have different meanings for each DE-Type. In
general they use the following convention:
R - Usually resistance
T - A time constant or capacitance
U - Usually a resistance or an exponent
P - An exponent
Note: There is a special option available, if DE-Type is set to be negative. In this case the DE
returns the impedance of a dielectric element, calculated by taking the quantity calculated by the
function (with R taken as C0-C∞) to be a complex dielectric constant (or capacitance) and
converting it to an impedance. Specifically, if this option is selected, the function takes the
calculated impedance of the element and then takes the reciprocal and divides by j × C0 × ω.
1
𝑍𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑗 ∙ 𝐶0 ∙ 𝜔 ∙ 𝑍
See the discussion in the paper by MacDonald and Potter, Solid State Ionics 23, 61 (1987).
In addition to the various distributed elements, there are two simple varieties of discrete circuits
(DE-Type = 1 and 17). These allow more flexibility in the model circuits.

®
10.1 ZView Manual
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.1. DE-Type = 0 (Short Circuit)

In this option, none of the free parameters are used. Instead, a value of 0 is returned for the
impedance. Note that the element value of zero is interpreted as a command to remove the
element from the circuit.

®
ZView Manual 10.2
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.2. DE-Type = 1 (R - C Parallel Combination)

U, P - Not Used

This option substitutes a simple R-C parallel combination into the circuit. If either the resistor or
capacitor is assigned a value of zero, that element is ignored, not just set to zero. The formulae
used are given below:

If R = 0 and T = 0, then
1
𝑍=
𝑗∙𝑇∙𝜔

Otherwise,
𝑅
𝑍=
1+𝑗∙𝑅∙𝑇∙𝜔

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10.3 ZView Manual
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.3. DE-Type = 2, 3 (Constant Phase Element (CPE) and/or Series RC)

The constant phase element (CPE) is a simple distributed element which produces an impedance
having a constant phase angle in the complex plane. The exponent P determines this angle
(which is (π / 2) × P, with -1 ≤ P ≤ 1). In the special case of P = 1, the CPE acts like a capacitor
with T equal to the capacitance. The CPE can also yield an inductance for P = -1, or a resistance
for P = 0. Included in this function are two different (though mathematically equivalent) versions
of the CPE. The two are included, because there can be different correlations between the
parameters, which may be of some interest in certain applications.

1
DE-Type = 2 𝑍(𝐶𝐶𝐶1) =
𝑇 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

𝑅
DE-Type = 2 𝑍(𝐶𝐶𝐶2) =
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

See Solid State Ionics 13, 147 (1984).

DE-Type = 2:
For CPE only with no parallel RC elements: set R = 0, U = 0 in input. If T is set to zero, the
overall DE is just a series R and C.

DE-Type = 3:
Uses only R, T and P; U is not used. No parallel branch is used. Either R or T must be fixed; they
cannot both be free parameters.

®
ZView Manual 10.4
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.4. DE-Type = 4, 5 (ZARC - Cole Element)

The ZARC - Cole element (ZC) is a common distributed element which can be thought as
representing a constant phase element (CPE) in parallel with a resistor, as illustrated above. The
ZARC produces a complex plane impedance curve which forms an arc of a circle (hence ZARC)
with the center displaced from the real axis. The smaller P is, the more the center is displaced
(for P = 1, a semicircle results, just as for an R-C parallel combination).
As with the CPE, two different, though mathematically equivalent, versions are presented for
purposes of parameter correlations. The first is directly represented by the circuit shown above,
while the second is not representable by discrete elements.

𝑅
DE-Type = 4, U = 0 𝑍=
1 + 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

𝑅
DE-Type = 4, U = 1 𝑍=
1 + (𝑗 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

𝑅
DE-Type= 5 𝑍=
1 + (𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

See Solid State Ionics 15, 159 (1985) and Solid State Ionics 20, 111 (1986). The latter reference
gives more information on many of the present distributed circuit elements.

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10.5 ZView Manual
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.5. DE-Type = 6, 7, 8 (Havriliak - Negami Element)

The Havriliak - Negami element (HN) reduces to the ZARC - Cole form when P is fixed at unity
and to the asymmetric Davidson-Cole response when U is fixed at unity. It thus encompasses
both possibilities. It yields an asymmetric complex plane plot (except in the limit of P = 1) and
may have a peaked imaginary value.
The best fits are obtained when collections between parameters are as low as possible. The
correlations themselves depend on how the model is parameterized, with one set of parameters
often yielding lower correlations than another. Thus, it is useful to have available several
different parameterizations for the same model. Here, three different choices are provided.
The formula for impedance of the HN element is given below:
𝑅
DE-Type= 6 𝑍𝐻𝐻 =
(1 + [𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔]𝑈 )𝑃

𝑅
DE-Type= 7 𝑍𝐻𝐻 =
(1 + [𝑗 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔]𝑈 )𝑃

𝑅 ∙ sin[(𝜋⁄2) ∙ 𝑈]
DE-Type= 8 𝑍𝐻𝐻 =
(1 + [𝑗 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔]𝑈 )𝑃

For DE-Type = 6, T is a relaxation time, while for DE-Type = 7 and 8, T should be considered a
capacitance.
The HN yields power-law responses at both low and high frequencies. The low-frequency-
limiting frequency power-law exponent and log-log slope is U, and the high-frequency limiting
slope is -U × P.
See Harvriliak and Negami, J. Polymer Sci. C 14, 99 (1966); Wang and Bates, Solid State Ionics,
50, 75 (1992); and MacDonald and Wand, Solid State Ionics (1993).

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ZView Manual 10.6
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.6. DE-Type = 9 (Generalized Finite Warburg Element)

The Generalized Finite Warburg element (GFW) is an extension of another more common
element: the Finite-Length Warburg (FLW). The FLW is the solution of the one-dimensional
diffusion equation of a particle, which is completely analogous to wave transmission in a finite-
length RC transmission line. The model can be ended in either a short circuit or open circuit.
The type of terminus (short or open) is selected with the U parameter.
To use the FLW equation, set P = 0.5, and set its freedom to ‘fixed’.

A. Shorted Terminus U = 0, fixed

Its impedance expression is shown below:
𝑅 ∙ tanh�(𝑗 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝜔)1/2 �
𝑍𝐹𝐹𝐹 =
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝜔)1/2

where S = L2 / D. L is the effective diffusion thickness, and D is the effective diffusion

coefficient of the particle.
The GFW differs in that instead of P = 0.5, the exponent P can take values between 0 and 1. The
actual expression for the GFW is:
𝑅 ∙ tanh[(𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃 ]
𝑍𝐺𝐺𝐺 =
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

A. Open Terminus U = 1, fixed

Its impedance expression is shown below:
𝑅 ∙ coth�(𝑗 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝜔)1/2 �
𝑍𝐹𝐹𝐹 =
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝜔)1/2

where S = L2 / D. L is the effective diffusion thickness, and D is the effective diffusion

coefficient of the diffusing species.
The GFW is similar to the FLW except that the square root is the exponent P such that 0 < P < 1.
The actual expression for the GFW is:
𝑅 ∙ coth[(𝑖 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃 ]
𝑍𝐺𝐹𝐹 =
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

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10.7 ZView Manual
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.7. DE-Type = 10 (Williams-Watts Fractional Exponential)

This distributed element is entered as an approximation to the Williams-Watts (WW) fractional
exponential response in the frequency domain. An approximation is used since the actual integral
is very difficult to compute accurately. For P values greater than approximately 0.2, this function
is typically within 1% (or usually very considerably better) of the actual Williams-Watts
function. The approximation used is found by fitting a Havriliak-Negami element in series with a
capacitor to the exact WW data in the dielectric domain. Expressions for the parameters R, T, U,
and P were found as a function of the WW parameter, P, and then were un-normalized.

R - Resistive (R0 - R∞) or Capacitive scaling factor (C0 - C∞).

T - Williams-Watts Time constant
P - Williams-Watts Exponent
U - Not used

See J. Chem. Phys. 84, 496 (1986).

®
ZView Manual 10.8
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.8. DE-Type = 11 (Jonscher Response)

This model is one of the Jonscher “Universal Dielectric Response” functions--the GJ2.
In terms of the input parameters, its impedance (DE-Type = 11) is:

1 1
𝑍 = 𝑅 ∙ �𝑆 −𝑈 � − 𝑗� + 𝑆 −𝑃 � − 𝑗��
tan(𝑃1) tan(𝑃2)

where,
𝑆 =𝜏∙𝜔 =𝑇∙𝜔
𝑈
𝑃1 = 𝜋 ∙
2
𝑃
𝑃2 = 𝜋 ∙
2

This GJ2 is more or less two related CPEs in series.

On the other hand, when DE-Type = 11, R must be interpreted as a capacitance, C0 - C∞, and at
the admittance level, it is the parallel combination of two related CPEs.
See J.R. Macdonald, "Generalizations of ‘‘universal dielectric response’’ and a general
distribution-of-activation-energies model for dielectric and conducting systems," J. Appl. Phys.
58, 1971 (1985).

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10.9. DE-Type = 12 (Exponential Distribution of Activation Energies - EDAE)

(FORM 1, ASYMMETRIC: EDAE1)

The exponential distribution of activation energies element (EDAE) utilizes all of the free
parameters. Here R is the element’s scaled resistance, P is an exponent factor, T is a time
constant, and U is a range scaling factor which must be > 1 (U = 1 degenerates to a simple Debye
response).
The expression for the complex EDAE impedance is not analytic in the general case, though for
specific values of P analytic solutions do exist. Instead, the EDAE distribution is expressed as an
integral. For its explicit form, see J. Appl. Phys. 58, 1955 (1985) and J. Appl. Phys. 58, 1971
(1895). The limits of the integration are 0 and U, where U is a logarithmic range variable. The
input parameter P is the P of the EDAE1 function, the function which also involves the inputs R
and τ.
The integral is broken into real and imaginary parts as usual. The resulting integrals are
evaluated as discussed under DE-Type = 14.

See J. Appl. Phys. 58, 1955 (1985), J. Appl. Phys. 58, 1971 (1985), and J. Appl. Phys. 61, 700
(1987).

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10.10. DE-Type = 13 (Exponential Distribution of Activation Energies - EDAE)

(FORM 2, SYMMETRIC: EDAE2)

This form of the EDAE uses two exponential terms (one equal to the negative of the other), and
the range of integration is broken into two pieces where U is half the U of the EDAE1. The other
parameters still have the same roles as for the EDAE1. This function will yield a symmetric
response curve. Inputs are R, T, U, P, and DE-Type.
A Six-parameter general form of the EDAU is available in Circuit Models D and O.

See J. Appl. Phys. 58, 1955 (1985), J. Appl. Phys. 58, 1971 (1985), and J. Appl. Phys. 61, 700
(1987).

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10.11. DE-Type = 14 (Gaussian Distribution of Activation Energies - GDAE)

(FORM 2, SYMMETRIC: GDAE2)

The Gaussian distribution of activation energies (GDAE2) involves integration, as does the
exponential distribution of activation energies (EDAE). It turns out that the 64th-order Gauss-
Legendre integration routine used for EDAE calculations is too inaccurate (sometimes worse
than 10%) for GDAE situations. Therefore, a Romberg integration routine is used for all GDAE
calculations. Its accuracy can be set by the choice of GACC Accuracy parameter. The smaller
this parameter, the faster and less accurate the integration.

A full description of the GDAE approach occurs in J. Appl. Phys. 61, 700 (1987). The GDAE
approach in circuit D involves the full, possibly asymmetric model. Here, the limits of
integration are plus and minus U. In addition, P = XIGDAE = XI, a width parameter of the
model. The quantity THGDAE of the full GDAE model is here taken identically as zero.

See J. Appl. Phys. 61, 700 (1987).

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10.12. DE-Type = 15, 16 (General Diffusion DCE)

This function represents homogeneous diffusion with a general boundary condition. In its full
form, it is most appropriate for diffusion of a neutral species in an electrode. Its mathematical
representation is essentially the same as that of a homogeneous transmission line with arbitrary
terminating impedance. See J. Electroanal. Chem. 101, 307 (1979) for definitions and further
discussion. Because diffusion is so important in impedance spectroscopy, several general
diffusion (GD) possibilities are included here. It is worth noting, however, that for unsupported
binary conduction, as in a solid material, the special choices associated with the BCD element of
circuit H should be used.
If DE-Type = 15, then there are three different parameterization possibilities available for the
three macroscopic GD parameters. The parameterization possibilities are determined by the
value of U = DE-U selected and are discussed below. Alternatively, if DE-Type = 16, then four
microscopic parameters are introduced, as discussed below. Finally, as discussed in the section
on circuit B, if one of the above DE-Type values is used for circuit element DE, but U is taken
negative, then correlation present between the GD impedance and some other circuit elements is
taken into account in the fitting.

A. DE-Type = 15
In order to define the GD impedance, let s = ω × TD, a normalized frequency variable. We
always set TD = DE-T, where TD is the diffusional time constant. Further, define X = (i × s)0.5
and XTX = X × tanh(X). Then, the impedance for general diffusion is, in terms of the three
parameters, QD, PD, and TD:
𝑃𝑃 ∙ 𝑋𝑋𝑋
𝑄𝑄 ∙ �1 + �
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑠)
Z𝐷 =
𝑃𝑃 + 𝑋𝑋𝑋

(a) When |U| = 1 (and fixed), then QD = DE-R (dimensions of resistance) and PD = DE-P, all in
terms of the DE input parameters of a given circuit.
Note that PD is a normalized (dimensionless), reaction rate constant here. When PD is very
large (for example, set it at 1030, fixed), the above impedance reduces to that of the ordinary
finite-length Warburg (obtained from the DE-Type = 9 case with DE-P = 0.5). By contrast, when
PD = 0, the present expression reduces to that of an open-circuit (restricted) diffusion situation,
one which leads to
𝑄𝑄 ∙ coth(𝑋)
𝑍𝐷 =
𝑋

See J. Electrochem. Soc. 129, 1754 (1982). The general expression with PD disposable spans all
conditions between these two extremes.
(b) When |U| = 2, CD = DE-R and has the dimensions of capacitance, then P = DE-P, QD = TD /
CD, and PD = TD × P. Here, P is the quotient of an un-normalized rate constant and the
thickness of the available diffusion region.
(c) Finally, when |U| = 3, then QD = DE-R and PD = TD × P.

Sometimes, fitting with |U| = 1, 2, or 3 leads to appreciably different correlations between the
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parameters. The parameterization which involves the lowest correlations is generally best. But
also note the differences in standard deviation estimates for the results of the various U choices.
Finally, note that when the data only encompass an infinite-length Warburg response region
(impedance proportional to 1 / X), only one free parameter can be obtained from them, and one
must set one of the pair QD, TD (|U| = 1) or CD, TD (|U| = 2), as well as DE-P, fixed, not free.

B. DE-Type = 16
For this choice, the (partly) microscopic parameters QDM = DE-R, k = DE-P, d = |U| = |DE-U|,
and D = DE-T are involved. Here, k is a reaction rate constant, d is the thickness of the available
diffusion region, and D is the effective diffusion constant of the diffusing entity (uncharged or
charged for a fully supported situation). The PD parameter of (A) above is equal to k × d / D.
Further, the QD parameter above is related to the present QDM scale factor by QD = QDM × d /
D. The diffusion impedance is,
(𝑘 ∙ 𝑑 ⁄𝐷 ) ∙ 𝑋𝑋𝑋
�1 + �
(𝑗 ∙ 𝑠)
𝑍 = 𝑄𝑄𝑄 ∙
(𝑘 + (𝐷⁄𝑑 ) ∙ 𝑋𝑋𝑋)

where,
𝑗 ∙ 𝜔 1/2
𝑋 =𝑑∙� �
𝐷

Thus, Td in (A) = d2 / D. When k becomes very large, this expression reduces to the usual finite-
length Warburg form: ZD = QD × tanh(X) / X and to the above open-circuit result when k = 0.
Clearly, one must keep d fixed when fitting with either of these k choices. Furthermore, when
DE-Type = 16, only three of the four parameters of ZD may be simultaneously free. Thus, when
the extent of the diffusion region is known (e.g., the electrode separation), it is appropriate to fix
d.

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10.13. DE-Type = 17 (Ideal Elements: RX, RY, C, and LL)

This DE, which is actually entirely composed of ideal elements, involves RX and C in parallel,
and the result in parallel with the series combination of RY and LL.
Although, some feel strongly that a circuit, which is used to model inductive effects (Im(Z) > 0)
probably arising from an adsorption-reaction process, should use a negative differential
capacitance and a negative differential resistance. See discussion and rationale in J. Electroanal.
Chem. 82, 271 (1977), there is an alternative provided in this DCE. Thus, if one wanted to obtain
an inductive-like semicircle (below the real axis in a conventional impedance-plane plot), one
could use, for example, either

A. Circuit D: C4 negative
R4 negative
and DE4-Type = 0, or

B. Circuit D: C4 and R4 not included (set to zero) and DE4-Type = 17. Use
positive initial values of RX and LL (both free) and omit RY and C
(set T and U to zero).

Note that with DE-Type = 17, it is possible to include inductive effects in any of the circuits of
the present program wherever a DE element appears in the circuit.

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10.14. DE-Type = 18, 19 (Dissado-Hill Response Element - DHE)

The Dissado-Hill frequency-response distributed circuit element (Dissado, Nigmatullin, and Hill,
Adv. Chem. Phys. 63 253 (1985)) yields response similar to, but still different from, the HN and
the EDAE (general double exponential distribution of activation energies, termed EDAE3 or
DEDAE).

The DHE is too complex to list its impedance expression here. It is calculated by a series
expansion, mostly as given in the above reference. But the original program did not converge
adequately near its peak. In the present realization of the response function, a powerful
convergence accelerating technique is incorporated which yields rapid convergence even at the
peak.

The DHE leads to a limiting low-frequency power-law slope of U and a limiting high-frequency
power-law slope of -Phi where these input parameters are limited to the ranges -1 < U ≤ 1 and 0
< Phi ≤ 1. The DHE also uses the usual inputs R (R0 - Rinf) and T (tau), or εt for NELEM = 18.
Since it is primarily defined as a dielectric response function, its use directly as an impedance
requires an appropriate value of CELCAP in the input file. Contact Scribner for additional
support with the CELCAP parameter.

DE-Type = 18:
DH defined at the Z level (MODE = 0, 1, or 2)

DE-Type = 19:
DH defined at the complex dielectric constant level.

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10.15. DE-Type = 20-28 (Power Law Related Elements)

It is sometimes found that conductance involves power-law frequency response with a log-log
slope, or exponent, of unity or possibly even greater. Since such behavior cannot be described by
the CPE, a few different fitting possibilities are provided here. When the real-part has an
exponent of unity or greater, the associated imaginary part does not exactly follow power-law
behavior. But usually it can be reasonably well approximated with a power law whose exponent
is somewhat smaller than that of the real part. Several Power-Law response elements (PLE) are
provided for fitting to data which exhibit such behavior. Here R, U, and T are just fitting
parameters. When U = 0, note that #22 reduces to the CPE. Here Y = 1/Z is complex
conductance.

In DE-Type = 20-28

DE − R = R
DE − T = T
DE − P = p
DE − U = U
and,
ω = frequency (rads)

DE-Type = 20: For NCL response, set U = p = 0

𝑌 = 𝑅 ∙ 𝜔𝑇 + 𝑗 ∙ 𝑈 ∙ 𝜔 p

DE-Type = 21:

𝑌 = 𝑅 ∙ 𝜔𝑇 + 𝑈 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

DE-Type = 22:

𝑌 = 𝑅 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝑇 + 𝑗 ∙ 𝑈 ∙ 𝜔𝑃

DE-Type = 23: Ladder when p = 0.5

𝑃
𝑈 4
𝑌 = ∙ 𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔 ∙ �1 + �1 + � �
2 𝑗∙𝑅∙𝑇∙𝜔

DE-Type = 24: Ladder #2

𝑈
𝑌= ∙ (1 + (1 + 𝑗 ∙ 4 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃 )
2𝑅

DE-Type = 25: Effective medium response using PCPE (#27)

𝑌𝑌 = 𝑇 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)−𝑃
𝑌𝑌 − 𝑅
𝑌𝑌 = 3 ∙ 𝑈 ∙
𝑌𝑌 + 2𝑅 − 𝑈 ∙ (𝑌𝑌 − 𝑅)

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

𝐸 = 𝑅 ∙ (1 + 𝑌𝑌) Dielectric level.

DE-Type = 26: SCPE; Series element in O-circuit. (Uses CELCAP).

1
Σ = 𝑈 ∙ 𝐸𝐸 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

DE-Type = 27: PCPE; EPSILON LEVEL.

𝐸 = 𝑈 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)−𝑃

DE-Type = 28

𝐸 = 𝑅 ∙ 𝜔𝑇 − 𝑈 ∙ (𝑗 ∙ 𝜔)𝑃

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10.16. DE-Type = 29 (Modified Davidson-Cole Response)

1+U
Z=R∙
1 + U ∙ (1 + j ∙ T ∙ ω)P

10.17. DE-Type = 30 (Dielectric Level Jonsher Response)

This model used the same equation as DE-Type 11, however it is defined on the dielectric level.
See DE-Type = 11 for more information.

1 1
𝐶 = 𝑅 ∙ �𝑆 −𝑈 � − 𝑗� + 𝑆 −𝑃 � − 𝑗��
tan(𝑃1) tan(𝑃2)

1
𝑍= 𝑗𝑗𝑗

where,
𝑆 =𝜏∙𝜔 =𝑇∙𝜔
𝑈
𝑃1 = 𝜋 ∙
2
𝑃
𝑃2 = 𝜋 ∙
2

10.18. DE-Type = 31-33 (Dielectric Level Havriliak-Negami)

This model used the same equation as DE-Type 6, 7 and 8, however it is defined on the dielectric
level. See DE-Type 6, 7 and 8 for more information.

DE-Type = 31 HN#1 (e)

𝑅
𝐶=
(1 + (𝑗 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑈 )𝑃
1
𝑍=
𝑗∙𝜔∙𝐶

DE-Type = 32 HN#2 (e)

𝑅
𝐶=
(1 + (𝑗 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜔)𝑈 )𝑃
1
𝑍=
𝑗∙𝜔∙𝐶

DE-Type = 33 HN#3 (e)

𝜋 𝑈 1
𝐶 = 𝑅 ∙ sin �2 ∙ (1+(𝑗∙𝑅∙𝑇∙𝜔)𝑈)𝑃 � and 𝑍 = 𝑗∙𝜔∙𝐶

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10.19. DX-Type = 1 (Electrochemistry in Macrohomogeneous Porous Electrodes)

This element is based on the model described by Paasch, K. Mica, and P. Gersdorf “Theory of
the Electrochemical Impedance of Macrohomogenous Porous Electrodes,” Electrochemica Acta
38(18), 2653-2662 (1993).
The impedance is calculated through equation 22 from the above reference.
This equation has been rewritten in the form:
coth(𝐵) 2
𝑍 = 𝑋𝐴 ∙ + 𝑋𝐵 ∙ �1 + �
𝐵 𝐵 sinh(𝐵)
where,
𝑘 + 𝑗 ∙ 𝜔 1/2
𝐵 =𝑑∙𝛽 =� �
𝜔1

The β value is defined by Equations 34 and 40. An alternate form of this model can be created by
DX-Type = 2, which defines β through Equations 37 and 44.
The element parameters are defined as:
𝜌2 +𝜌2
Eq. 22 DX-A = 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑑 �𝜌1 +𝜌2 �
1 2

𝜌 ∙𝜌
Eq. 22 DX-B = 𝑋𝐵 = 𝑑 �𝜌 1+𝜌2 �
1 2
Eq. 34 DX-R = 𝑘
Eq. 34 DX-T = 𝜔1
Eq. 40 DX-U = 𝜔2
Eq. 40 DX-P = 𝜔3

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10.20. DX-Type = 2 (Electrochemistry in Macrohomogeneous Porous Electrodes)

This element is based on the model described by G. Paasch, K. Mica, and P. Gersdorf, “Theory
of the Electrochemical Impedance of Macrohomogenous Porous Electrodes,” Electrochemica
Acta 38(18), 2653-2662 (1993).
The impedance is calculated through equation 22 from the above reference.
This equation has been rewritten in the form:
coth(𝐵) 2
𝑍 = 𝑋𝐴 ∙ + 𝑋𝐵 ∙ �1 + �
𝐵 𝐵 sinh(𝐵)

where,
𝑘 + 𝑗 ∙ 𝜔 1/2
𝐵 =𝑑∙𝛽 =� �
𝜔1

The β value is defined by Equations 37 and 44. An alternate form of this model can be created by
DX-Type = 1, which defines β through Equations 34 and 40.
The element parameters are defined as:
𝜌2 +𝜌2
Eq. 22 DX-A = 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑑 �𝜌1 +𝜌2 �
1 2

𝜌1 ∙𝜌2
Eq. 22 DX-B = 𝑋𝐵 = 𝑑 �𝜌 �
1 +𝜌2
Eq. 44 DX-R = 𝑘
Eq. 37 DX-T = 𝜔1
Eq. 44 DX-U = 𝜔𝐶𝐶
Eq. 44 DX-P = 𝜔2

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10.21. DX-Type = 3 (Electrochemistry in Macrohomogeneous Porous Electrodes)

This element is a sub-element of the DX-Type = 1 element listed above.
This element is based on the model described by G. Paasch, K. Mica, P. Gersdorf, “Theory of the
Electrochemical Impedance of Macrohomogenous Porous Electrodes,” Electrochemica Acta,
38(18) 2653-2662 (1993).
The impedance is calculated through equation 40 from the above reference.
This element is not normally fitted to data. Instead, it is used to simulate the sub-element in
equation 40 so that its function may be better understood.

𝜔2 𝑗∙𝜔
𝑍 = 1 + �� � ∙ coth �� �
𝑗∙𝜔 𝜔3

The element parameters are defined as:

Eq. 40 DX-U = 𝜔2
Eq. 40 DX-P = 𝜔3

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10.22. DX-Type = 4 (Axial Diffusion Through a Thin Film)

This element is based on the model described in:
1. “An Application of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy to Atmospheric Corrosion
Study,” A. Nishikata, Y. Ichihara and T.Tsuru, Corrosion Science, 37(6), 897-911 (1995).
2. “Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of Metals Covered With a Thin Electrolyte Layer,”
A. Nishikata, Y. Ichihara and T.Tsuru, Electrochemical Acta, 41(7/8), 1057 (1996).
All referenced equations are from 2.
From the Equations:
1) 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑤 coth(𝛾 ∙ 𝑋𝑤 ) + 𝑅𝑠𝑠 ⁄2

2) 𝛾 = (𝑅𝑠∗ ⁄𝑍 ∗ )1/2 𝑍𝑤 = 𝐿−1 (𝑅𝑠∗ ∙ 𝑍 ∗ )1/2

∗
𝑅𝑝∗
3) 𝑍 = 𝛼
∗
1 + �𝑗 ∙ 𝜔 ∙ 𝐶𝑑𝑑 ∙ 𝑅𝑝∗ �

The element parameters are defined as:

Eq. 3 DX-R = 𝑅𝑝∗
∗
Eq. 3 DX-T = 𝐶𝑑𝑑
Eq. 3 DX-P = 𝛼
Eq. 2 DX-U = 𝑅𝑠∗
Eq. 2 DX-A = 𝐿
Eq. 1 DX-B = 𝑋𝑤

Note: This distributed element calculates the impedance of the Zw coth(γ × Xw) term from
equation 1. The Rsg / 2 term is not included in this distributed element. It can be added to a
model by simply placing a resistor in series with the DX.

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10.23. DX-Type = 5 (Impedance of Three-Phase Electrodes on Solid Electrolytes)

This element is based on the model described in:
“Impedance Characteristics of Three-Phase Electrodes on Solid Electrolytes,” D.R. Franceschetti
and A. P. Ross, Applied Physics A 49, 111-116 (1989).
This element is based on Equations 15 and 16 from the above reference.
Equation 15 has been rewritten as:
𝑗∙𝜔
𝑅𝜃 �1 + �
𝑘0𝑏
𝑍=
𝑗∙𝜔
+ [𝑀 ∙ coth(𝑀)]−1
𝑘0𝑏
where,
𝛿2 𝑗∙𝜔
𝑀 = �𝑘0𝑏 ∙ �𝐷 � ∙ �1 + 𝑘 �
𝑏 0𝑏

The element parameters are defined as:

DX-R = 𝑅𝜃
DX-T = 𝑘0𝑏
𝛿2
DX-P =
𝐷𝑏

DX-U, DX-A and DX-B are not used by this element.

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10.24. DX-Type = 6 (Transmission Line - Open Circuit Terminus)

This element is normally only used for simulation, not fitting. Most transmission line systems
can be described by other elements such as the Constant Phase or Warburg elements.
These transmission line elements are most often used in the simulation mode to obtain a better
understanding of how a series of RC elements can create the Constant Phase or Warburg spectra.
Both of the following diagrams are electrically identical, they are simply two different ways of
drawing the same circuit.

Parameters: Rs = DX-R
CPEx-T = DX-T
CPEx-P = DX-P
N = DX-U
Rt = DX-A
Rx = DX-B
The Rs, Rx and CPEx elements are repeated N times. The Rt termination resistor is optional. If
Rx or Rt is set to zero, the element is deleted (equivalent to R=infinity). If CPEx-P = 1, the CPE
is identical to a capacitor. Either Rx or Rt must be Fixed, not Free.
The N value must always be Fixed, not Free.
When N is large (> 100), Rx = 0, Rt = 0 (removed from the circuit), and CPEx-P = 1, then this
element will create the same spectra as the Finite Length Warburg - Open Circuit Terminus
element.

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10.25. DX-Type = 7 (Transmission Line - Short Circuit Terminus)

This element is normally only used for simulation, not fitting. Most transmission line systems
can be described by other elements such as the Constant Phase or Warburg elements.
These transmission line elements are most often used in the simulation mode to obtain a better
understanding of how a series of RC elements can create the Constant Phase or Warburg spectra.
Both of the following diagrams are electrically identical, they are simply two different ways of
drawing the same circuit.

Parameters: Rs = DX-R
CPEx-T = DX-T
CPEx-P = DX-P
N = DX-U
CPEt-T = DX-A
CPEt-P = DX-B
The Rs and CPEx elements are repeated N times. The CPEt termination CPE is optional. If
CPEt-T is set to zero, the CPEt element is deleted (equivalent to a short at the CPEt location). If
CPEx-P is equal to 1, the CPE is identical to a capacitor.
The N value must always be Fixed, not Free. When N is large (> 100), CPEt-T = 0 (removed
from the circuit), and CPEx-P = 1, then this element will create the same spectra as the Finite
Length Warburg - Short Circuit Terminus element.

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10.26. DX-Type = 8 (Electrochemical Capacitor)

This element is based on the model described in:
1. “A Mathematical Model of an Electrochemical Capacitor with Porous Electrodes,” C.J.
Farahmandi; Proceedings of the Symposium on Electrochemical Capacitors II, Vol. 96-25, pp.
167-179.
2. “Mathematical Modeling of Electrochemical Capacitors,” Venkat Srinivasan and John W.
Weidner. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 146(5), 1650-1658 (1999).
The impedance is calculated through equation 22 from the reference 2 listed above.
This equation has been rewritten in the form:
4𝛾 2(1 + 𝛾 2 ) coth��𝑗𝑗𝑗� 2𝛾
𝑍 = 𝑅′ ∙ � + ∙ + � + 𝑅𝑠
(1 + 𝛾)2 ��𝑗𝑗𝑗� sinh��𝑗𝑗𝑗� (1 + 𝛾) 2
�𝑗𝑗𝑗 (1 + 𝛾)2

The element parameters are defined as:

𝐿 ∙ (𝜅 + 𝜎)
DX-R = 𝑅 ′ =
𝐴∙𝜅∙𝜎
𝑎𝑎𝐿2 (𝜅 + 𝜎)
DX-T = 𝜏 =
2∙𝜅∙𝜎
DX-P = 𝛾
𝐿𝑠
DX-U = 𝑅𝑠 =
𝐴 ∙ 𝜅𝑠

DX-A and DX-B are not used.

There are several special relationships that are helpful in calculation physical parameters.
τ is a time constant that describes how long it takes to fully penetrate the porous layer. At
frequency ω (radians/sec) = 1 / τ the Complex Plane graph shows a transition frequency between
the transmission line (45o) and capacitive (90o) behavior. To calculate physical parameters from
τ, use:
𝑎 ∙ 𝐶 ∙ 𝐿 2𝜏
= ′
𝐴 𝑅
Rs is the total resistance of the separator. It appears as a series resistance and cannot be
distinguished from other series resistance such as contact resistance.
γ and Rs can have similar effects on the spectra. It may not be possible to fit both of these
parameters, one may need to be fixed and the other free.

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10.27 ZView Manual
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

The graph was produced with:

DX-R = 0.001
DX-T = 5
DX-P = 0.2
DX-U = 0.0005

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ZView Manual 10.28
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.27. DX-Type = 9 (Electrochemical Capacitor)

This element is based on the model described in:
1. ‘A Mathematical Model of an Electrochemical Capacitor with Porous Electrodes’; C.J.
Farahmandi; Proceedings of the Symposium on Electrochemical Capacitors II, Vol. 96-25, pp.
167-179.
2. ‘Mathematical Modeling of Electrochemical Capacitors’; Venkat Srinivasan and John W.
Weidner; Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 146(5), 1650-1658 (1999).
The impedance is calculated through equation 22 from the reference 2 listed above. It is an
identical model to DX-Type 8, but the parameters are redefined.
This equation has been rewritten in the form:
4𝛾 2(1 + 𝛾 2 ) coth��𝑗𝑗𝑗� 2𝛾
𝑍 = 𝑅′ ∙ � + ∙ + �
(1 + 𝛾)2 ��𝑗𝑗𝑗� sinh��𝑗𝑗𝑗� (1 + 𝛾) 2
�𝑗𝑗𝑗 (1 + 𝛾)2
where:
𝐿 ∙ (𝜅 + 𝜎)
𝑅′ =
𝐴∙𝜅∙𝜎

𝑎𝑎𝐿2 (𝜅 + 𝜎)
𝜏=
2∙𝜅∙𝜎
𝜅
𝛾=
𝜎

The element parameters are defined as:

DX-R = 𝜅
DX-T = 𝜎
DX-P = 𝐿
DX-U = 𝑎 ∙ 𝐶
DX-A = 𝐴

DX-B is not used.

Note: This element does NOT contain the Rs (total resistance of the separator) parameter used in
DX-Type 8. A series resistance should be added to the complete circuit model for this purpose.
Note: This element contains 5 parameters, but the equation has, at most, 3 independent
variables. At least 2 of the parameters MUST be set as ‘fixed’. Different combinations of κ, σ and
aC will produce very similar spectra. It may not be possible to fit all of these parameters, one
may need to be fixed and the other free.

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10.29 ZView Manual
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

The graph was produced with:

DX-R = 1
DX-T = 0.2
DX-P = 0.05
DX-U = 666
DX-A= 1000

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.28. DX-Type = 10 (Bisquert #1)

This element is based on the model described in:
“Impedance of constant phase element (CPE)-blocked diffusion in film electrodes,” J. Bisquert,
G. Garcia-Belmonte, P. Bueno, E. Longo, L.O.S. Bulhoes; J. Electroanaly. Chem., 452, 229-234
(1998).
The impedance is calculated through equation 8 from the reference listed above.
This equation has the form:
𝜔0 𝑗𝑗
(𝑗𝑗)𝑛 �
𝑗𝑗 + 𝐴 ∙ coth ��𝜔0 �
𝑍 = 𝑅𝑊 ∙
𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
𝐴�𝜔 + (𝑗𝑗)𝑛 ∙ coth ��𝜔 �
0 0

The element parameters are defined as:

DX-R = 𝑅𝑊
DX-T = 𝜔0
DX-P = 𝑛
DX-U = 𝐴

The graph was produced with:

DX-R = 1
DX-T = 10
DX-P = 0.9
DX-U = 1

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.29. DX-Type = 11 (Bisquert #2)

The following papers are necessary in order to use these elements:
1. “Anomalous transport effects in the impedance of porous film electrodes,” Juan Bisquert,
Germa Garcia-Belmonte, Francisco Fabregat-Santiago, Albert Compte, Electrochemistry
Communications, 1(9), 429-435 (1999), www.chemweb.com
2. “Influence of the boundaries in the impedance of porous film electrodes,” Juan Bisquert, Phys.
Chem. Chem. Phys., 2, 4185-4192 (2000).
The impedance is calculated through equation 1, 2, and 15 from the reference 1 listed above.
Note that equation 15 has been redefined to the form of parallel R-CPE.

Where x1, x2, and x3 are each a parallel Resistor and Constant Phase Element combination:

For example, element x1 has a Resistor value r1 and CPE parameters t1 and p1. See the CPE
description at beginning of this chapter.
The x1, x2 and x3 parameters match the x1, x2 and ζ parameters in equation 1 and 2 of reference
1.
Note: The L (length) value in equations cannot be fitted. It must have a fixed value.
The Resistor and CPE elements can be simplified to either Resistor or CPE by setting the other
elements values to zero. Most physical models are greatly simplified from the 9 independent
variables that this model uses. A CPE can be simplified to a capacitor by setting the
corresponding p value to 1 and settings freedom to fixed.
As an example of how the model is simplified, load the circuit model file
C:\Sai\ZModels\exampleDX11.mdl
Note that there are many other simplified systems can be produced with this distributed element.

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

This graph was produced with the example model.

DX-R = DX-r1 = 10000

DX-T = DX-t1 = 0 (unused)
DX-P = DX-p1 = 0 (unused)
DX-U = DX-r2 = 10000
DX-A = DX-t2 = 1e-5
DX-B = DX-p2 = 0.8
DX-C = DX-r3 = 0 (unused)
DX-D = DX-t3 = 10000
DX-E = DX-p3 = 1
DX-F = DX-L = 0.001

This graph is similar to the Fig. 2a in

reference 1. Reference 1 contains
typographical errors when listing the
element values.

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.30. DX-Type = 12 (Bisquert #3)

The following papers are necessary in order to use these elements:
1. “Anomalous transport effects in the impedance of porous film electrodes,” Juan Bisquert,
Germa Garcia-Belmonte, Francisco Fabregat-Santiago, Albert Compte, Electrochemistry
Communications, 1(9), 429-435 (1999), www.chemweb.com
2. “Influence of the boundaries in the impedance of porous film electrodes,” Juan Bisquert, Phys.
Chem. Chem. Phys., 2, 4185-4192 (2000).
The impedance is calculated through equation 18 from the reference 2 listed above.
Note that the equation has been redefined to the form of parallel R-CPE.

Where x1, x2, and x3 are each a parallel Resistor and Constant Phase Element combination:

For example, element x1 has a Resistor value r1 and CPE parameters t1 and p1. See the CPE
description at beginning of this chapter.
The x1, x2 and x3 parameters match the X1, ZB and ζ parameters in Fig. 1 of reference 2.
Note: The L (length) value in equations cannot be fitted. It must have a fixed value.
The Resistor and CPE elements can be simplified to either Resistor or CPE by setting the other
elements values to zero. Most physical models are greatly simplified from the 9 independent
variables that this model uses. A CPE can be simplified to a capacitor by setting the
corresponding p value to 1 and settings freedom to fixed.
As an example of how the model is simplified, load the circuit model file
C:\Sai\ZModels\exampleDX12.mdl
Note that there are many other simplified systems can be produced with this distributed element.

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ZView Manual 10.34
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

This graph was produced with the example model.

DX-R = DX-r1 = 1
DX-T = DX-t1 = 0 (unused)
DX-P = DX-p1 = 0 (unused)
DX-U = DX-r2 = 0 (unused)
DX-A = DX-t2 = 0.01
DX-B = DX-p2 = 0.7
DX-C = DX-r3 = 0 (unused)
DX-D = DX-t3 = 0.005
DX-E = DX-p3 = 1
DX-F = DX-L = 1

This graph is similar the Fig. 2c in reference 2.

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.31. DX-Type = 13 (Wang / Spherical Diffusion)

The following papers are necessary in order to use these elements:
1. ‘Kinetic Behavior of Metal Hydride Electrode by Means of AC Impedance’; Chunsheng
Wang; J. Electrochem. Soc., 145(6), 1801-1812 (1998).
2. ‘Cyclic Voltammetry and AC Impedance of MnNi(3.55)Co(0.75)Mn(0.4)Al(0.3) Alloy
Single-Partical Electrode for Rechargeable Ni/MH Battery’; M. Mohamedi, T. Sato, T. Itoh, M.
Umeda, I. Uchida; J. Electrochem. Soc., 148(8), A983-A987 (2002).
The impedance is calculated through equation A-1 from reference 1 listed above.
𝜎
𝑍=
𝑗𝑗 𝐷
�𝑗𝑗𝑗 ∙ coth �𝑟0 (1 − (1 − 𝑋0 )1/3 )� 𝐷 � − 𝑟
0

For an example of the circuit element, load the circuit model file
C:\Sai\ZModels\exampleDX13.mdl

This graph was produced with the example model.

DX-R = 𝑟0 = 1
DX-T = 𝐷 = 1
DX-P = 𝜎 = 1
DX-U = 𝑋0 = 1

A similar data set from the Warburg-Open Circuit element is shown for comparison. This
element behaves similarly to a Warburg impedance, but the transition between the high
frequency and low frequency behaviors is much slower.

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ZView Manual 10.36
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.32. DX-Type = 14 (Young)

The following papers are necessary in order to use these elements:
1. “Electrochemical study of the passive behaviour of Ni-Cr alloys in a borate solution - a mixed-
conduction model approach,” M. Bojinov, G. Fabricius, P. Kinnunen,*, T. Laitinen, K. Ma¨kela¨,
T. Saario, G. Sundholm, J. Electroanaly. Chem. 504, 29-44 (2001).
2. The Electrochemical Behaviors of Barrier-Type Anodic Films on Aluminum in Ammonium
Adipate Solution, Han-Jun Oh and Choong-Soo Chi, Bull. Korean Chem. Soc., 21(2) 193 (2000).
3. “Electrochemical Behaviour of Ni-Cr Alloys in a High-Temperature Aqueous Electrolyte,” M.
Bojinova*, P. Kinnunena, G. Sundholmb, Corrosion Journal.
The impedance is calculated through equation 2 in reference 3, or equation 9 in reference 3

𝑝 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 ∙ exp(𝑝−1 )
𝑍𝑌 = ln � �
𝑗𝑗𝐶𝑌 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗

For an example of the circuit element, load the circuit model file
C:\Sai\ZModels\exampleDX14.mdl
This graph was produced with the example model.
DX-R = 𝐶 = 4.1𝑥10−8
DX-T = 𝜏 = 5.72𝑥10−7
DX-P = 𝑝 = as shown in graph
DX-U = Not Used

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.33. DX-Type = 15 (Jamnik-Mailer)

The following papers are necessary in order to use these elements:
1. “Treatment of the Impedance of Mixed Conductors, Equivalent Circuit Model and Explicit
Approximate Solutions,” J. Jamnik and J. Mailer, J. Electrochem. Soc., 146(11), 4183-4188
(1999).
2. “Generalized equivalent circuits for mass and charge transport: chemical capacitance and its
implications,” J. Jamnik and J. Mailer, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 3, 1668-1678 (2001).
3. Wei Lai, CalTech: Material Science. Personal correspondence.

The generalized form of the model and equations are from reference 3.

𝑍1 𝑍2 2 𝑘𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) + (𝑍22 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍12 𝑍𝐵 ) tanh(𝑘/2)

𝑍= + ∙
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑘(𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 ) + (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) tanh(𝑘/2)

where:
𝑘 = �(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 )⁄𝑍3
𝑅𝑖
𝑍𝑖 = = impedance of parallel 𝑅𝑖 , 𝐶𝑖
1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑅𝑖 𝐶𝑖
where i = A, B, 1, 2 and 3.
For an example of the circuit element, load the circuit model file
C:\Sai\ZModels\exampleDX15.mdl
Note that Z3 cannot be equal to zero (R3 = 0, C3 = 0).

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ZView Manual 10.38
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.34. DX-Type = 16 (Maxwell-Wagner)

Maxwell-Wagner Model:

1 2𝜎�1 + 𝜎�2 − 2𝑓(𝜎�1 −𝜎�2 )

= 𝜎�1
𝜌�𝑚 2𝜎�1 + 𝜎�2 + 𝑓(𝜎�1 −𝜎�2 )

𝜌�𝑚 is the experimental impedance spectrum. f is a real number.

𝜎�1 = 𝜎1 + 𝑗𝑗𝜀1
𝜎�2 = 𝜎2 + 𝑗𝑗𝜀2
𝜎1 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝜎2 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗
f=A
R, T, P, U, A are the parameters used by ZView

This equation was provided by Wei Lai at CalTech. (2005)

"Evaluating Delectroc Impedance Spectra using Effective Media Theories," D.S. McLachlan,
J.H. Hwang, T.O. Mason, J. of Electroceramics 5(1) 37-51 (2000)

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.35. DX-Type = 17 (Lai #1)

DX-R = r1
DX-T = c1
DX-P = RSEI
DX-U = CSEI
DX-A = RCT
DX-B = Rd (Gerischer)
DX-C = Rp (Gerischer)
DX-D = Cd (Gerischer)
DX-E = Cdl
DX-F = L

1 1
𝑋3 = +
1 1
𝑅𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝑗𝑗𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝐶𝐶 + 𝑍𝑑 + 𝑗𝑗𝐶𝑑𝑑
SEI represents the Solid Electrolyte Interface. The second sub-circuit is the Randles circuit. The
diffusion element is the Gerischer element.

𝑅𝑑
tanh �𝑗𝑗𝑅𝑑 𝐶𝑑 +
𝑅𝑃
𝑍𝑑 = 𝑅𝑑 ∙
𝑅𝑑
�𝑗𝑗𝑅𝑑 𝐶𝑑 +
𝑅𝑃

When using this element, start with example model files exampleDX17 #1.mdl or exampleDX17
#2.mdl.

The 3 Gerischer parameters (Rd,Rp,Cdl) must all be non-zero. If any of these are zero, Zdl is
assumed to be zero. The other parameters (R1, R2, Rsei, Csei, Rct, Cdl) can be individually
removed by setting them to zero.

This element was added for Wei Lai, MIT (2008). It is a modified version of DX-Type 11.

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ZView Manual 10.40
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.36. DX-Type = 18 (Lai #2)

𝑟0
coth 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟3
� 1
+ 2
+
1 + (𝑗𝑗)𝑝1 𝑟1 𝑡1 1 + (𝑗𝑗)𝑝2 𝑟2 𝑡2 1 + (𝑗𝑗)𝑝31 𝑟3 𝑡3
𝑍 = 𝑟0 ∙
𝑟0
� 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
+ +
1+ (𝑗𝑗) 𝑝1 𝑟1 𝑡1 1 + (𝑗𝑗) 𝑝2 𝑟2 𝑡2 1 + (𝑗𝑗) 𝑝3 𝑟 𝑡
3 3

For Wei Lai, MIT (2008), personal correspondence

Same as DX-11, with X1 = Rs, X2 = 0, X3 = 3 parallel R-CPE in series

DX-R = Rs,
DX-T = R1, DX-P = T1 (CPE1), DX-U = P1 (CPE1)
DX-A = R2, DX-B = T2 (CPE2), DX-C = P2 (CPE2)
DX-D = R3, DX-E = T3 (CPE3), DX-F = P3 (CPE3)
DX-F = L (Length) is set to 1

Start with example model file exampleDX18.mdl.

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.37. DX-Type = 19 (Jamnik-Maier-Lai-Lee or JMLL)

This is an extended version of DX-Type 15. The original Jamnik-Maier model (DX 15) has been
expanded for Jong-Sook Lee (Chonnam National Univ, Korea). Each of the Capacitors (CA, CB,
C1, C2 and C3) has been replaced by a Constant Phase Element (CPE):
See DX-Type 15 for a list of references.

The generalized form of the model and equations are from reference 3. Note that the capacitors
have been replaced by CPEs, not shown in this diagram.

𝑍1 𝑍2 2 𝑘𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) + (𝑍22 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍12 𝑍𝐵 ) tanh(𝑘/2)

𝑍= + ∙
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑘(𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 ) + (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) tanh(𝑘/2)

where:
𝑘 = �(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 )⁄𝑍3
𝑅𝑖
𝑍𝑖 = = impedance of parallel 𝑅𝑖 , 𝐶𝐶𝐶1
1 + 𝑗(𝜔𝑇𝑖 )𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑖
where i = A, B, 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Note that Z3 cannot be equal to zero (R3=0, C3=0).

For an example of the circuit element, load the circuit model file
C:\Sai\ZModels\exampleDX19.mdl.
This example file will display appropriate parameter names for each sub-element. For example,
RA, TA, PA, RB, TB, PB, R1, T1, P1, etc.

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ZView Manual 10.42
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.38. DX-Type = 20 (Lai #3)

Element DX20 performs both equation 1 and equation 2 shown below.

The only difference between 1 and 2 is the additional of the A term in series with the common
part of the equation. The additional parameter N is a multiplier for the series A term.

Z = N*A + 2A/...

N should always be a fixed value (no fitted). If N=0, it is identical to Equation 1, if N=1, it is
Equation 2.

The example model Example20.mdl should be used as a starting point for this model. It renames
the normal ZView parameters to the ones used in the equations (N,T,A,B).

R=N
T=T
P=A
U=B

Developed for Dr. Wei Lai, Postdoctoral Associate (2009), Materials Science and Engineering,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA.

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.39. DX-Type = 21 (Jamnik-Maier-Lai-Lee #2 or JMLL #2)

Same as DX-Type 19, with Warburg element substituted for R1 || C1

A simplified example of this element is show below (inside the red box)

Use the circuit mode exampleDX21.mdl as a starting point for this element.

Requested by Prof. Jong-Sook Lee, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Chonnam
National University, South Korea.

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.40. DX-Type = 23 (Polczynski- Jurczakowski or PJ)

This element describes a novel impedance element for electrochemical processes coupled with
chemical reactions. Use the circuit mode exampleDX23.mdl as a starting point for this element.

The PJ element has four parameters (k, Z1, Z-1, 𝜉) and their physical meaning is defined by Eq.
45 in Ref. [1]:
𝑍̂𝜉
𝑍̂PJ =
�𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘

It is similar to Gerischer impedance, however, the parameter 𝑍̂𝜉 is complex:

𝜉+𝑎
𝑍̂𝜉 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍−1
1 + 𝜉𝜉

where
𝑗𝑗
𝑎=�
𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘

The PJ element parameters are defined as:

DX1-Xi = 𝜉
DX1-T = Z1
DX1-P = k
DX1-B = Z-1

Typically the parameter B should be fixed to 0 (not used) as discussed in Ref. [2]. When Xi is
fixed to 1 (and B=0) the element reduces to Gerischer impedance. For Xi ≠ 1 characteristic
deviations from Gerischer impedance are visible at low frequencies. All cases i.e. Xi = 1, Xi
< 1 and Xi > 1 are shown in Figure 1 below:
DX1-B=0, DX1-T = 1, DX1-P = 1
DX1-Xi = 1.5
DX1-Xi = 1.0 (same as Gerischer GE1_T=1, GE1_P=1)
DX1-Xi = 0.5

-0.4

-0.2
Z ''

0.0

0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Z'
Figure 1. Complex plane plot of impedance of the PJ element for three different 𝝃 values: 𝝃
= 1.5; 𝝃 = 1.0; 𝝃 = 0.5, other parameters, i.e. T and P equal to 1, B = 0.
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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

[1] Jurczakowski, Polczynski, J. Phys. Chem. C, 118 (15), 7980-7988 (2014)

[2] Polczynski, Jurczakowski, Electrochimica Acta, 188, 882-887 (2016)

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ZView Manual 10.46
Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

10.41. DX-Type = 24 (Jamnik-Mailer with Havriliak–Negami Capacitance)

References:
1. J. Jamnik and J. Mailer, “Treatment of the Impedance of Mixed Conductors, Equivalent
Circuit Model and Explicit Approximate Solutions,” J. Electrochem. Soc., 146(11), 4183-4188
(1999).
2. J. Jamnik and J. Mailer, “Generalized equivalent circuits for mass and charge transport:
chemical capacitance and its implications,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 3, 1668-1678 (2001).
3. Wei Lai, CalTech: Material Science. Personal correspondence.
4. Jong-Sook Lee, School of Materials Science and Engineering Chonnam National University.
Personal Correspondence, South Korea.

The generalized form of the model and equations are from reference 3.

𝑍1 𝑍2 2 𝑘𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) + (𝑍22 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍12 𝑍𝐵 ) tanh(𝑘/2)

𝑍= + ∙
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑘(𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 ) + (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) tanh(𝑘/2)
where:
𝑘 = �(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 )⁄𝑍3
The CA and C3 elements are composed of a simple capacitor (parameter C0) in parallel with a
Havriliak–Negami Capacitance (parameters CHN, T,P,U).
The impedance of CA and C3 are calculated as
𝐶𝐻𝐻
𝐶 ∗ = 𝐶0 +
(1 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑈 𝑃
1
𝑍=
𝑖𝑖𝐶 ∗

For an example of the circuit element with matching parameter names, load the circuit model file
C:\Sai\ZModels\exampleDX24.mdl
Note that Z3 cannot be equal to zero (C* cannot be 0).
The element was designed by Prof. Jong-Sook Lee, School of Materials Science and
Engineering, Chonnam National University, South Korea

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Chapter 10 Equivalent Circuit Distributed Elements

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ZView Manual 10.48
Chapter 11 Definition of Symbols used in ZView

CHAPTER 11. DEFINITION OF SYMBOLS USED IN ZVIEW

Z1 = Measured Real Impedance Value

Z2 = Measured Imaginary Impedance Value

11.1. Relationship between the Four Basic Immittance Functions

M Z Y E
Z µ -1M Z Y-1 µ -1 E-1
Y µ M-1 Z-1 Y µE
M M µZ µY -1 E-1
E M -1 µ -1 Z-1 µ -1 Y E
Notes: (1) µ ≡ jωC0 where C0 is the capacitance of the empty cell, defined below.
(2) E = C / C0

𝜀0 𝐴𝑐
𝐶0 =
𝐿

C0 = capacitance of the empty cell, F

ε0 = permittivity of free space, 8.854 × 10-12 F/cm
Ac = electrode area, cm2
L = electrode separation distance, cm
11.2. Impedance Format
(𝑍´, 𝑍˝ )

𝑉�
𝑍=
𝐼̃

𝑍´ = 𝑍1

𝑍˝ = 𝑍2

(|𝑍|, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒)

|𝑍| = �𝑍12 + 𝑍22

𝑍2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒 = arctan � �
𝑍1

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11.1 ZView Manual
Chapter 11 Definition of Symbols used in ZView

11.3. Admittance Format

(𝑌´, 𝑌˝ )

𝐼̃ 1
𝑌= =
𝑉� 𝑍
𝑍1
𝑌´ =
𝑍12 + 𝑍22

−𝑍2
𝑌˝ =
𝑍12 + 𝑍22

11.4. Modulus Format

(𝑀´, 𝑀˝ )

𝑀 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐶0

𝑀´ = −𝑍2 𝜔𝐶0 = −𝑍˝𝜔𝐶0

𝑀˝ = 𝑍1 𝜔𝐶0 = 𝑍´𝜔𝐶0

11.5. Dielectric or Capacitance Format

(𝐸´, 𝐸˝ )

1 1 𝑌 𝑌
𝐸= = = = −𝑗
𝑀 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐶0 𝑗𝑗𝐶0 𝜔𝐶0

−𝑍2 𝑌˝
𝐸´ = =
(𝑍12 2
+ 𝑍2 )𝜔𝐶0 𝜔𝐶0

−𝑍1 −𝑌´
𝐸˝ = =
(𝑍12 2
+ 𝑍2 )𝜔𝐶0 𝜔𝐶0

𝐸˝
tan 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝐸´
𝐶
𝐸=
𝐶0

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ZView Manual 11.2
Chapter 11 Definition of Symbols used in ZView

11.6. Parallel RCL Circuit

𝑍1
𝐷=� �
𝑍2

𝑍2 1
𝑄=� �=
𝑍1 𝐷

−1
𝐶=
(1 + 𝐷2 )𝜔𝑍2

(1 + 𝐷2 )𝑍1
𝑅=
𝐷2
𝑍2
𝐿=
(1 + 𝐷2 )𝜔

11.7. Series RCL Circuit

𝑍1
𝐷=� �
𝑍2

𝑍2 1
𝑄=� �=
𝑍1 𝐷

−1
𝐶=
𝜔𝑍2

𝑅 = 𝑍1

𝑍2
𝐿=
𝜔

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11.3 ZView Manual
Chapter 11 Definition of Symbols used in ZView

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ZView Manual 11.4
Chapter 12 K-K Transform

CHAPTER 12. KRAMERS-KRONIG TRANSFORMS IN ZVIEW

12.1. Introduction
ZView contains an implementation of the Kramers-Kronig (K-K) transform. Because of
limitations to K-K method and general understanding of the method, it cannot be fully supported
within ZView. Therefore, it is recommended that results from using the K-K method
implemented in ZView should be independently confirmed by other methods.

12.2. Theory
The K-K transform theory says that real and imaginary impedance data should contain
equivalent information. The imaginary values can be calculated from the real values, and the real
values can be calculated from the imaginary values, as shown below.

The transformed spectra should be identical to the original spectra. If the spectra are not the
same, this suggests that there was a problem with the original data.

The K-K transform equations are:

∞
2 𝑥𝑥"(𝑥) – 𝜔𝜔"(𝜔)
𝑍 ′ (𝜔) − 𝑍 ′ (∞) = � � � 𝑑𝑑
𝜋 0 𝑥2 − 𝜔2

2𝜔 ∞ 𝑍′(𝑥) – 𝑍′(𝜔)
𝑍"(𝜔) = − � � � 𝑑𝑑
𝜋 0 𝑥2 − 𝜔2

Note that these equations require the integration of a complete spectrum from zero to infinite
frequency, ω = 0 to ω = ∞.

Experimental data is never available over an infinite frequency range. Therefore, application of
the K-K transform method demands that an approximation must be used at frequencies greater
and less than the measured frequencies. This is a major limitation of the K-K method. If the
wrong approximation is used, the transformation can fail, but there is no way to know that the
correct approximation is being used.
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12.1 ZView Manual
Chapter 12 K-K Transform

ZView uses a circuit model to calculate impedance data outside the measured frequency range.

12.3. Performing a K-K Transformation

1. Generate an equivalent circuit model and fit it to the data. The circuit model does not
have to fit the data in the middle frequencies; it only needs to match the data near the
upper and lower frequency limits. It may be possible to match to high and low
frequencies best by using the Simulation mode and manually adjusting the R and C
values.

2. Use Model | Edit Fit Parameters… and set the Mode to K-K

3. Click on Run K-K Transform

12.4. K-K Transform Examples

The following examples are based on a data set measured using a Solartron 1250 FRA and
Solartron 1286 potentiostat. The Solartron 12861 Test Module was measured. The Test Module
is described in the ZPlot Manual in Tutor #1.

Data files:

Good data for kk.z: original measured data, this data set will transform very well.

Bad data for kk.z: modified data, this data set will show errors when transformed. To create this
data set, the good data was distorted. The real values where distorted by adding 10 ohms to the
first point, 20 ohms to the second point, 30 ohms to the third point, etc. The imaginary values
were not distorted.

Circuit model files:

Good data for kk.mdl: circuit model used to approximate the impedance outside the measured
range when transforming the good data.

Bad data for kk.mdl: circuit model used to approximate the impedance outside the measured
range when transforming the bad data.

12.4.1. K-K Transform of Bad (Distorted) Data

The first graph shows the data set and the simulation of the circuit model shown below.

The second graph shows original data set and the K-K transform. The transform does not match
the data.

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ZView Manual 12.2
Chapter 12 K-K Transform

-12500 -12500
bad data for kk.z bad data for kk.z
FitResult FitResult

-10000 -10000

-7500 -7500
Z''

Z''
-5000 -5000

-2500 -2500

0 0
0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500
Z' Z'

Rs CPE1 CPE2

R1 R2

Element Freedom Value Error Error %

Rs Free(+) 2018 N/A N/A
CPE1-T Free(+) 1.3887E-7 N/A N/A
CPE1-P Free(+) 0.94616 N/A N/A
R1 Free(+) 1297 N/A N/A
CPE2-T Free(+) 4.9379E-6 N/A N/A
CPE2-P Free(+) 0.97107 N/A N/A
R2 Free(+) 7283 N/A N/A

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12.3 ZView Manual
Chapter 12 K-K Transform

12.4.2. K-K Transform of Good (Non-distorted) Data

The first graph shows the data set and the simulation of the circuit model shown below.

Note: The circuit model was intentionally distorted. This demonstrates that the model does not
need to fit the middle frequencies of the spectrum, only the high and low frequency limits.

The second graph shows original data set and the K-K transform. The transform matches the data
well.

-12500 -12500
good data for kk.z good data for kk.z 12.5.
FitResult FitResult

-10000 -10000

-7500 -7500
Z''

Z''

-5000 -5000

-2500 -2500

0 0
0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500
Z' Z'

Rs CPE1 CPE2

R1 R2

Element Freedom Value Error Error %

Rs Free(+) 1750 N/A N/A
CPE1-T Free(+) 9.9939E-8 N/A N/A
CPE1-P Free(+) 0.9 N/A N/A
R1 Free(+) 1050 N/A N/A
CPE2-T Free(+) 4.7008E-6 N/A N/A
CPE2-P Free(+) 0.9 N/A N/A
R2 Free(+) 6700 N/A N/A

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ZView Manual 12.4
Chapter 12 K-K Transform

Limitations of the K-K Method

1. Many data artifacts will transform. If the data transforms, it does not indicate that the data
is from an electrochemical system. Distortions in the data from instrumentation,
resistance and capacitance of cell cables and the reference electrode can appear to be
transformable.

2. A pure capacitor cannot be transformed. The transform requires that the impedance be
finite at all frequencies. The impedance of a capacitor is infinite at frequency ω = 0.

3. Experimental data are imperfect and therefore no data set will transform perfectly. It is up
to the user to determine what is a “good” and “bad” transform.

4. If the circuit model approximations are not correct, the data will transform poorly, even if
the data is valid. In the K-K Transform examples, the imaginary values are near zero at
the high and low frequency extremes. If a more limited data set is used (incomplete semi-
circles), the approximated circuit model data has a much larger effect on the results.

5. Data that does not transform may still be useful. Impedance can be sensitive to small
changes in an electrochemical system. A distortion that causes the transform to fail will
often be systematic and affect all data sets equally. Changes in the data will still reflect
changes in the measured system.

12.6. Other Methods to Test for Invalid Data

1. Very Important: If the measured data fits any circuit model, the K-K transform is not
necessary. The equivalent circuit models available in ZView, by their mathematical
definitions, are K-K transformable. If the data matches a circuit model, than it also must
be transformable. It does not matter what model fits the data. The model does not need to
match physical properties of the cell. The K-K transform is a mathematical tool to see if
the real and imaginary data is self-consistent. It cannot tell you that the measurements are
valid electrochemical data.

2. The most common distortion to impedance data occurs when the measured system
changes over time. If the system changes between the time that high and low frequencies
are measured, the data will not transform. After measuring an impedance spectra,
measure it a second time. If the two spectra do not match, the system is changing.

3. Non-linearity can cause a transform to fail. In general, electrochemical systems are non-
linear (i.e., the I vs. E curve is not a straight line), but become linear for small AC
amplitudes. The impedance of a non-linear system will change when different AC
amplitudes are used. By repeating measurements with different amplitudes, you can
determine what amplitude causes non-linear distortion.

4. Noise can cause a transform to fail. Noise in impedance data is very easy to observe by
examining plots of the real and imaginary components of the impedance, the impedance
magnitude, and phase angle vs. frequency.

5. The K-K transform cannot tell you if you are measuring your sample, or simply
measuring the impedance of the cables or the internal components of the instrument. If

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12.5 ZView Manual
Chapter 12 K-K Transform

the spectra does not change when cell conditions are changed (pH, ion concentration,
temperature, surface area, etc.), the instrument may be measuring something other than
the cell.

6. Construct a dummy cell (resistor/capacitor test cell) that has similar impedance properties
to the real cell. Because the spectra of the dummy cell can be calculated, distortions in the
data can be identified. It is important to use a dummy cell that is similar to the real cell
because the instrument’s performance will depend on the characteristics of the cell.

12.7. References
Digby D. Macdonald and M. Urquidi-Macdonald, “Application of Kramers-Kronig
Transformations in the Analysis of Electrochemical Impedance Data, Part 1” Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, 132 (10), 2317 (1986).

Digby D. Macdonald and M. Urquidi-Macdonald, “Application of Kramers-Kronig

Transformations in the Analysis of Electrochemical Impedance Data, Part 2” Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, 133 (10), 2023 (1986).

M. Kendig and F. Mansfeld, “Corrosion Rates From Impedance Measurements: An improved

Approach for Rapid Automatic Analysis” Corrosion 39 (11), 467 (1983).

Impedance Spectroscopy - Theory, Experiment, and Applications, E. Barsoukov and J. R.

Macdonald, Editors, 2nd Edition (Wiley-Interscience: New York, NY), 149 (2005).

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ZView Manual 12.6