APTER . Loads and Load Curves ___—_—— r, 2.1. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS A power station feeds diffe ent types of consumers—domest! €tc. The present day powe; stations invariably feed a grid whi The design of a power piant or system must take into account 'd in the next 30 Purpose load forecasting studies have to be made to predict the increase in load in Mrorclectsic Blears or so. A modern power station takes 5 to, 10 years for completion and some yt oe Stations take even longer time. As such the power system planning must be done about POS d ‘advance. The estimate of power and the increase in generation capacity depend on maximum ae the distribution and variation in demand and the energy requirements. 2.2. MAXIMUM DEMAND Each device at the consumer terminals has its rated capacity.{The connected load of a consumer f ‘Mean: the sum of the continuous ratings of all the devices ana outlets installed on his fistribution I 7 *he maximum demand of a consumer means the maximura power that his circuit is likely to draw at any time ff alt-the devices and outlets were used simultaneously to the full extent, the "maximum demand of the consumer would equal his connected load. Experience has shown that consumers do not use all the devices at full load simultaneously. The maximum demand of each consumer is, therefore, less than his connected load. The maximum demand and the connected load are related by «commercial, industrial, agricultural © eMjelivers power to the load centres. one future increase in load. For this (21) Maximum Dernand ‘Connected Load ie Udita consumer has 10 bulbs each of 100 wait, his connected load is 1000 watt (assuming that “no other electrical device exists in his premises). However he would not use all the 10 lamps simultaneously. At sometime of the day he may use only 3 bulbs, at another time only 2 and still at -ranother time six. Ifthe maximum numberof pubs used by him simultaneously i six, his maximum demand is 600 watt and demand factor is 0.6 Each device will run at its rated capacity at sometime during its operation. The demand factor indicates the contribution of the device towards the maximum demand of the consumer. Peery factors tor various types of loads vary within very wide limits. Some typical values are iven in Table 2-1. given in Tab! 7. 2.1. A residential consumer has the following connected load : 8 bulbs of 100 W ‘of 60 W each and 2 light plug points of 100 W each. His use of electricity during a as un : one fan 12 midnight to Sam Demand Factor =|... ltteer ————— Samto7 am 2 fans and one light point Tamto9 am NIL 9 am to 6 pm 2 fans 2 fans and 4 bulbs Find (a) connected load (6) maximum demand (¢) demand factor (d) energy consumed during 24 hours (e) energy consumed in 24 hours if all devices are used all the day. Solution. (a) Connected load = 8 x 100 + 2 x 60 +2 x 100= 1120 W (6) Total wattage at different times is 6 pm to midnight 12 midnight to 5 am 60 W 5AM to 7am 2 « 60 +1 * 100 = 220 W 7 AM to 9 am NIL 9AM to 6 pm 2% 60=120W 6 PM to midnight 2 60 +4 x 100 = 520 W ‘The maximum demand is 520 W (©) Demand factor = 222 = 0.464 1120 (@) Energy consumed from 12 midnight to 5 am 60 x 5 = 300 Wh from 5 am to 7 am 220 x 2 = 440 Wh from7amto9am NIL " from9amto6pm 120 x 9 = 1080 Wh from 6 pm to 12 midnight - 520 x 6 = 3120 Wh Total energy consumed during 24 hours = 300 + 440 + 1080 + 3120 a = 4940 Wh = 4.94 kWh (6) If all devices are used throughout the day, the energy consumed is = 1120 x 24 = 26880 Wh = 26.88 kWh 2.3. GROUP DIVERSITY FACTOR The load actually used by a consumer at any time during a day depends on his requirements at that time. ss 7 requirements at different times are different, the load varies from instant to instant The electric supply authorities have to make provisior ion, transmissi distribution facilities to supply loads to different Se Nn these ncaa proportional to kVA ratings of these equipments. Therefore every electric supply authority has to make a reasonable estimate of the maximum kVA demand of the area supplied by it. ; oe ee ee a ee by one partic fistribution transformer be 8. This group of 8 consumers will have different electrical gadgets at their premises and each consumer will use the gadgets as per his requirement. Each oid of the consumers will have a certain maximum demand, However, it is likely that the maxi deimands of different consumers occurs at different times. This is due to different habits and requirement of these & consumers I thie happens, the maximum demand of the grins will beh than the sum of their maximum demands. The contributi ju demand af a a to the power requirements of the group depends on the group diversit i Sum of individual maximum demands Maximum demand of the group Group Diversity Factor = ac ivi ansf an rypic# of tt by< in2 ene saanuerrennn i een ccemenie se cE eA diversi sum demand srOM 5 maximt the grou; eater ty. The consumers ma ation determine his effective deman The group | divided transfofmer. Example 2%. 4 », Sra Gils typical wintey Sroup of 2 consumers has the following electricity demand patt re ays greater than unit diversity factor will Consumer A: Connected | load Load from 12 midnight to § am {vow from 5 am to 6am Lew from 6 am to Sam 200 W from 8 am to $ pm NIL from S pm to 12 midnight 500 W Consumer B: Connected load 3kW Load from 11 pm to 7 am NIL from 7 am to 8 am 300 W from 8 am to 10 am 1kw from 10 am to 6 pm 200 W from 6 pm to 11 pm 600 W (@) Calculate demand factors of both consumers. (b) Plot the variation in demana versus time of the day for each consumer and the group. (c) Find group diversity factor: (d) Find energy consumed by each consumer in 24 hours. (¢) Find the maximum energy which each consumer would consume in 24 hours if his load were constant and equal to his maximum demand. (f) Find the ratio of actual energy to maximum energy for each Solution. (2) Maximum demand of consumer A =1.1kW 9 ~ Demand factor of consumer A Maximum demand of consumer B Demand factor of consumer B (b) The variation in demand versus time curves are plotted and shown in Fig. 2.1. This curve is known as chronological load curve. This is further discussed in sections 2.5 and 2.6. 8 8 3 2 8 LOAD WATTS LOAD WATTS 8 3 =. 105° See ag AM TIME PM Fig. 2-1 12ee PI . Jot the chronologi, By adding the demands of the two consumers at different times, we ca” P icy load curve of the group. This is shown in Fig. 2.2. (©) From Fig 2.2 it is seen that maximum demand 1100 + 1000 _ 999 1100 of the group is 1100.W Group diversity factor = 4 hours a r (d) Energy consumed ty Meri 00 1 +200 x 2 +500 *7 = ONE ; ¥ ae i or sal load 1 It is seen that energy consumed by A is equal to the area under eee pai a i ‘A. Thus the area under a chronological load curve is equal to enerBY ing 24 hours = Energy consumed by ae 1 + 1000 x 2 + 200 x 8 + 600 x 5 = 6900 Wh = 6.9 kWh This is equal to the area under load curve B. oanreaikwh (¢) Maximum energy which A could consume in 24 hours oe icsente Maximum energy which B could consume in 24 hours = 1 * 24 = Actualenergy _ 5.5 Maximum energy 26.4 () For A, 0.2083 Actualenergy _ 6.9 _ 9 9875 Maximum energy 2! The ratio of actual energy to maximum energy of a consumer is known as load factor of the consumer. Similarly the ratio of actual energy to maximum energy of a group of consumers is the [oad factor of the group- actual energy to maxi stem is the load factor ofthe system. THis is discussed again in section 2.9 Tt is seen from the results of example 2.2 that diversity between the two consumers has reduced the maximum demand of this group of two consumers. If their pattern of using electricity were similar the total maximum demand would have been 2.1 kW. Diversity has reduced the combined maximum demand to 1100 W. This reduction in maximum demand and diversity has an important effect on power system economics because the power supply authorities will have to make lesser investment in generation, transmission and distributic il i i ee sere ion facilities. This is discussed For B, Table 2.1. Demand factors BopelofiLone : Demand Factor Reside i tial SAW and less ‘7 1 Ka to 1 kW oe and abo Commercial a 0s Restaurants, shops and office mp Sy Educational institutions, oe Theatre, Cinema, “4 Hotels 0.5 Industrial 0s Cottage (less than $ kW) ) wa Scale (5 kW to 25 kw) os edium (25 kW to 100 kW) 07 . HE Moe tantooww 8 = Vaz————_OAD Curves, ‘ eA nA PIVERSITY Factor ee exist in the tir te Tegards the fee me of maximum deman preach ae care tS 10 the substation one stn opener sa 8 coe the sub-stations to the generating statiot ividual variations have diminishing effect which result in decreasing MUMET!CA tors as the power pl; fable 2.2 gives ower plant end of the system is approached. Tal f diversity factors, OF Me SY re ——__ Tab 2, iveraity factors Values of diversity fj Some typical values o} = waaay Residential Commercial __ Industrial Group diversity factor 8s aw is LAOS Diversity factor between transformers 1,3 as i Diversity factor between feeders 12 A e Diversity factor between sub-stations Ll A Wy Peak diversity factor Lgxngxiy —12xiaeid 12*tdetd ‘The diversity factors between transformers, between feeders and between sub-station can be Combined into a single term commonly referred to Peak Diversity Factor - Maximum Demand of a Consumer Group (23) Demand of the Consumer Group at the time of system peak demand Peak diversity factor gives an indication of the effective demand of the consumer at the Ie product of the diversity factors between transformers, eran Reoders and between sub-stations. Whe de tors etsity factors are known, Let LL, Ly"... individual connected loads of group 1 L, L,', L,"....= individual connected loads of group 2 d, = demand factor of group 1 d, = demand factor of group 2 G, = group diversity factor for group 1 G, = group diversity factor for group 2 , = peak diversity factor for group 1 P, = peak diversity factor for group 2 EL xdy Maximum demand of group 1= 7 «» (2.4) Maximum demand of group 2 = e es Demand of group | at the time of the system peak demand ae (2.6) P Gxr Qu Demand of group 2 at the time of the system peak demand d; = meaty Gx PrTT EL, xd, Ela xdo Qy system peak demand = G5, *G, x Pa ing complex is to be electrified from an exis, Wa connected load of 5 KW. The shoppig ew residential-cum-shopP! .d load of 2 kW with demany ‘xample 2.3. A n ich havin; ‘will have 600 apartments ea‘ pec nr ppore sop ch having © conte factor of 0.8 and will have the following service in addition Service Connected load __Demand factor 1 Flour mill 10 kW 07 1 Saw Mill 5kW 08 1 Laundry 20 kW 0.65 1 Cinema 80 kW 0.5 The street lighting for the complex will consist of 200 tube lights of 40 watt each. diversity factor and peak diversity factor may be The residential load demand factor, group assumed as 0.5, 3.0 and 1.25 respectively. The group and peak diversity factors for the commerci| Joad may be taken as 2.0 and 1.6. The street lighting demand, group and peak diversity factor, say ’be taken as unity. Find the increase in peak demand of the system resulting from this complex, [K.U. 1993, Solution. = Maximum demand of each appartment = 5 0.5 = 2.5 kW 600% 2:5 5 kW 5 500 kW. ‘Maximum demand of 600 apartments = Demand of 600 apartments at the time of the system peak Maximum demand of total commercial complex. _ 202% 0.8 +10X0.7 +5x0.8 +20%0.65 +80x0. 2 —32+7+44+13+40 2 = 48 kW Demand of the commercial load at the time of the system peak = 48 — 39 i ainss ae Demand of stret lighting atthe time of the system peak = 200%40 _ 4 jw, Increase in system peak demand = 400 # 30+ 8 = 438 kW ee 2.5. TYPES OF LOAD The main types of load on a s industri system are domestic, industrial, commercis ici sarang etc. A graph showing the hourly variation in demand during ie A called a chronological load curve. The chronological load curves follow a Seis pau fe for each of the above loads. Fig. 2.3 shor othe ig ws some typical chronological load curves for different types of ipal, traction, of the day is 2.5.1. Domestic or Residential load. Resi |. Residential load consists of lights, f i like radios, heaters, electric irons, refrigerators, coolers, electric water a . eae chines 2 a ereronree 2 = aata Fa ee ind Bp LOADS. AND LOAD CURVES os ein ly Biv ® dems staneoU! ¥ a; The exnall.c yoints simul » ie 3 consumers ener: use all the light Pé | factor of unity. S may generally use_al | be pede INDUSTRIAL . 5 3 3 3 fire nla Barna Siac veer Biat Neale 72 (12 St 6.2 6 sy aeaneaie! mh ry a © oe TARIGATION g a i e ie Ss phe 6 12 6 12 = 8 AM PM () tw Fig. 2.3. Chronological load curves for different types of loads. For big houses, the demand factor may be only around 0.5. During summer the major part of domestic load may consist of referigerator load, fan load during day and light and fan load during evenings. During winter, the major load is light load during evenings and early mornings and some. heater load and referigerator load. x 2.52, Industrial load. The industrial load may be further sub-divided into small, medium and heavy. The chronological load curve for industrial load will depend on the number of shifts per day in the industry, the curve in Fig. 2.3 (6) referring to single shift industry. During night the load is mostly lighting plus some loads like refrigeration load which require continuous supply. Around 6 AM some machines start working and the load starts increasing, The shift starts at 8 AM and the load suddenly jumps to full value and remains almost constant throughout the day, except during the lunch break, tll the end of the shift. The demand factor may vary from about 0.8 for small industries to about 0.5 for heavy industries. The demand factor, especially for small industries, also am PM load decreases as almost all other loads, except Fig. 2.4. Chronological load curve for a residential, decrease after this time. ‘metropolitan area. LOAD resembles a residential ed ear residential, a Sunday load curve During summer the residential loads come . industri traction loads are eae uP at a time when industrial loads are over and during winter Ne AS sch the peak demand during summer is generally lower than that Chronological load curves reflect the activit ues oa rauny day shows a higher than normal load during phe a Pulation quite acurately. A cloudy day. Thunderstorms during the day usually result in sharp peak easter Weery ————_—A0 CURVES by switching on of the lights. Soy m, ct sys transport SY electri Swésing an increase an the jong, SS Poliday crowds may tax the urbon h i tion. As suc *s is completely submerged into the effect of mass Sareananter area is not likely to be much different from the curv’ Similarly populated aren. leat ; ina The early morning dip in Chronological load curve is typical of all metropolitan Sa Reasons. Some utilities, by offering low tariffs, persuade people to use SneENeENENA enerate hours thereby easing the sitatier during system peak load hours. The generation cost to g additional energy during light load periods is less than the average generation cost. 2.7. LOAD DURATION CURVE-ENERGY LOAD CURVE lanning i i se (tis necessary, for system plant S04 aperation, to know the total energy equirements and the duration of various Toads. J < The area under a chronological load curve gives the energy consumed (i.e. kWh) uring 24 hourk, A load duration curve is a re-arrangement ofall the load elements ofa chronological curve in, a descendiny ‘OF hours for which a parti ical the day. The area under the evict equal 0 the area under the chronoloy a \ad curve. Since the curves are generally of irregular shape, the area can be determined only A graphical method for obtaining a load duration curve from a chronological curve is shown in Figs. 2.5 and 2.6. The abscissa for both the curves is 24 hours: In load chemin curve, the abscissa at any load ordinate equals the length ofthe abscissa intercepted by that load ordinate on kw 1826 ce alles. —> KW-HR as ENERGY ts Fig. 2.7. Ei Joad curve. 2.6. Load duration curve. Fig. 2.7. Energy 5. Chronological curve. Fig.26 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENER@y ce and these intercepts are plotted accordingly. At minimum load L, the intercept COVErS the le period of 24 hours. Any-point on-a load duration curve gives the number of hours, in the 24 a uur period, during which the given load and higher loads prevail. If the loads were constayy luring thé 24 hour period, both the chronological load curve and the load duration curve would b. exactly similar and rectangular in shape. The load duration curve can be plotted for any period of time e.g. a week or a month or a year. The load duration curve plotted for 8760 hours i. a year known as the yearly load duration curve (Fig. 2.8) and is particularly useful for economic studie, Of the stations. The abscissa can also be plotted as percentage of time (Fig. 2.8). For hydro plants it is necessary to know the amount of energy between different demang levels. This can be found by plotting an energy load curve (Fig. 2.7) which can be derived from , chronological load curve or load duration curve. The energy load curve plots the cumulative integration of area under the load curve starting at zero load to the particular load. In Fig, 25 the minimum load is L-kW. Between zero and L, the energy is directly proportional to load and the ‘energy load curve is a straight line. For each next element of load above the minimum load L, the lementary area is lesser because of the lesser duration for which the load lasts. As such the energy Joad curve depicts an increasing slope upto the peak load. The energy corresponding to the peak Joad is the total energy or the area under the load duration curve. The energy at loads b and c is B and C. Therefore, the energy included between the loads of b kW and ¢ kW is (BC) kWh Extension of the initial straight line portion of the curve gives average load M. M represents the load value which the chronological and the load duration curve would have if they were of rectangular shape and contained the same total energy. From the energy load curve, the-kilowatts of load that can be carried on the base or peak, for a given number of kilowatt-hours per day available frorii a source like river flow, ‘ean-be easily determined. LOAD Mw—> kWhrs. 0 2190 4380 6570 8760 0 S12. 18 ioe 0 25% 50% 75% 100% . sates TIME IN HOURS Fig. 2.8. Yearly load duration curve. Fig. 2.9. Mass Curve Tass curve cat nological Toad curve by summing up the engrgy consumed upto different times starting at the zero time. For th i i , — a chronological curve of Fig. 2.5, thes ‘A-mass curve is used in the study of variations between the rate of water flow and the electrical Joad and the determination of the necessary storage:LOADS AND LOAD CURVES is E ain a certal ag tonp FACTOR 4410 the peak toads ea fad factor for a system or a plant is the ratio of the average 10a of time, 4 ea = ‘Average load Load factor = —— Peak Load 4 in a certain time (S9Y oe Load factor can alsdvbe defined.as the ratio-of the energy consumes s tained at the maximum hours or a year) to the energy which would be consumed if the load is ma velue throughout that time. x va | rgy consumed during a time of ¢ hours, Peak load xt The peak load is generally taken as that prevailing for a half hour perio" Toad may be that pertaining to a day, a month or a year, thus giving daily, mont! .. (2.10) 1d and the average ly or yearly load | factor. Load factor has an 49 100 effect on power plant design, operation and cost of 76 78 generation as discussed in = z if section 3.8. 50 ~ ( The load factor depicts ff = t a the variation of load durinj t fa Seer Oe 7 a | “Rot give any indication of the —> Hours 24 => HOURS. of the load duration 499 400) ig. 2.10 depicts differedt systems having the % 75- same maximum demand, & z different shapes of load t 50 50/- duration curves but the same t load factor. 100% load factor = . 2 means a recta, i fa duration curve with > Hi 24 —>HouRsS 24 : ; Fig. 2.10, Load duration curves having equal maximum demands lof the time considered. — (100 MW) and the same load factor (7596) but different shapes. 10. CAPACITY FACTOR plant capacity factor (also known as plant factor) is the ratio of the average annual load to the power plant capacity: ‘Average Annual Load Rated Plant Capacity Jt can also be defined as the ratio of the energy produced by the plant in a year to the jaximum energy that the plant could have produced, If the plant is always run at its rated capacity, the capacity. ei ee ‘hasta ian tibiae aii: The capacity factor depicts the extent of the use of the generating station. It is different from load factor because of the reason that the rated capacity of each plant is always greater than the expected maximum load. The power plants have always some reserve capacity to take into account the future expansion, i ft F i Capacity Factor = = 1) ww (2.12)28 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERg, a ig is evident that if the rated plant capacity equals the maximum load, the capacity factor ag, factor become identical. 2.11, UTILISATION FACTOR It is defined as the ratio of the maximum demand to the rated capacity of plant ee aa ee Qay Rated Plant Capacity eee eee “The utilisation factor for a plant depends on the use to which the plant is put. A low utilisatc, factor means that the plant is either a standby plant or has been installed to take into account ih, future increase in the load. For a power plant, in an integrated system, @ high pee ee shows that the plaht is probably the most efficient 1° the system. Since loads 4h ss of rate capacity are also carried, sometimes, utilisation factor may be more than unity. It is evident that pacity Factor = (Load Factor) * (Ualisation ‘actor) w= (2.14) BASE LOAD AND PEAK Lt Zystem load varies from time to time. AM, ical chronological curve is as shown in Fig, 2.11, The maximum demand is M. If the total demand is supplied from one power plant gurrinstalled capacity M (or somewhat t higher to Keep some reserve capacity), the lant will be running under time, pastes ng ee QA ‘SHhetter method is to divide the load into two portions, one below the line AB and the other above the line AB. These loads are referred to as base load and peak load respectively. These two loads are supplied from separate plants called the base load plant and the peak load plant. A base load plant operates at a high load factor and BASE LOAD should be one which has low operating costs. The a 6 12 6 12 peak load plant operates at a low load factor, An THES Sometimes the load curve can be divided into three portions i. base load, intermediate load Fig. 2-11, Base load and peakjlaad and peak load. Exampl€2.4. The load on a power plant on a typical day is as under : T 12-5am 59am 96pm 6 pm-10pm —-10 pm-12 am Load (MW) 20 40 80 100 20 Plot the chronological load curve and load duration curve, Fi I . Find the k a and the energy supplied by the plant in 24 hours. eee pee aS Solution. The chronological load curve is plotted in Fig. 2.12.’The duration of loads is as under : Load (MW) 100 80 and 40 and 20 and above Duration (Hours) 4 13 ee ma The load duration curve is plotted in Fig. 2.13. The energy produced by the plant in 24 hours fa12 6 12 — ss AM s 12 a 12 18 24 TIME —» TIME —> Fig. 2.12. Chronol nological curve for Example 2.4, Fig, 2.13. Load duration curye for Example 2.4 =100x44+ 4+ 80 x (13 ~ 4) +40 (17 - 13) + 20 (24-17) = 1420 MWh Load factor = 1420 100% 24 = 0.5917 or 59.17% Example 2.5. The plant of Example 2.4 i it i factor and the utilisation fiona ideo Gauge IRE cay Solution. Capacity factor =100 , 9 5917 -.473 ¢ ~ haste : “ a : 00 Utilisation factor = —~ = 0.8 ation factor = T= Example 2.6, Plot the energy load curve and the mass curve for the chronological load curve of Example 2, Solutio The energy at different load levels is as under : Load = 20 MW, Energy = 24 = 20 = 480 MWh Load = 40 MW, Energy = 480 + 20 = 17 = 820 MWh Load = 80 MW, Energy = 820 + 40 x 13 = 1340 MWh Load = 100 MW, Energy = 1320 + 20 x4 = 1420 MWh The energy load curve is plotted in Fig. 2.14. The energy supplied upto different times of the day is as under : 9 x 5 = 100 MWh 60 MWh 80 MWh 1380 MWh 1420 MWh Energy supplied upto 5 am = 2' Energy supplied upto 9 am = 100 + 40 x 4 = Energy supplied upto 6 pm = 260 + 80 x 9 = 9 Energy supplied upto 10 pm = 980 + 100 x 4= Energy supplied upto 12 pm = 1380 + 20 * 2 == GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENgp, The mass curve is plotted in Fig. 2.15. 100 1500 Fis: 60 +200 io I ft on = 3 5 z ‘ g 40 2 600 Z 2 3 300 20 fom 12, 6. | 1 0 . 710 1420 AM PM ENERGY MW Hrs. —> nee Fig, 244. Energy load curve for Example 2.4. Fig 215. Mass curve for Example 2.4 ample 2.7.'The maximum demand of a power plant is 40 MW. The capacity factor is 0 “he utilisation factor is 0.8. Find (a) load factor (b) plant capacity (c) reserve capacity (¢) annual energy production. [PU. 199) Capacity factor _ 0.5 Utilisation factor 0.8 - __-Max.demand __ (6) Plant capacity = Tyrijisation factor 0.8 ‘serve capacity = 50-40 = 10 MW (0 « 0,625 « 8760 = 219000 MWh 625 Solution. (a) Load factor = = 50 MW € < Sam 9¢ 6S 8pm 10 2 50 50 100 100 150 80 50 o Plot chronological load curve. Find the energy required by the system in one day and the system daily load factor. [PU. 1991] Solution. The chronological load curve is plotted in Fig. 2.16. Energy required by the system in 24 hours 100 +50. 100 +150. a 2 ad ipa eaateeagalehh 2 150+80 , , 80450, 2 2 a = 2060 MWh Daily load factor = 2060 150 24 = 0.5722 or 57.22% TIMEor LOADS AND LOAD curves and the mas e E: 1d Sotrtnn’ 2.9. ForAKé system of Example 2.8 plot the load duration Curve is plotte ‘on FollpyVing the procedure outlined in section 2.7, the load duratio in Fig. 2.17. 150 2500} t 2000} 100 z t 1500] is ; 1000] 500) ° ol 1 —_1—_ 6 120 18 24 12 6 12 6 12 HOURS —> AM TIME —> Fig. 2.17 Fig. 2.18 The energy consumed upto different times is as under : From 12 midnight upto 5 am, Energy = 250 MWh PKI” upto 9 am, Energy = 250 + 300 = 550 MWh a upto 6 pm, Energy = $50 + 900 = 1450 MWh z upto 8 pm, Energy = 1450 + 250 = 1700 MWh rr upto 10 pm, Energy = 1700 + 230 = 1930 MWh upto 12 Mid night, Energy = 1930 + 130 = 2060 MWh The mass curVe is plotted in Fig. 2.18. 2.10. The annual load duration curve of a small hydroplant shows 438 x 10* kWh ing the year. It is a peak load plant with 20% annual load factor. Find station capacity. ‘capacity factor is 15%, find reserve capacity of the plant. Energy generated during 1 year Solution. Annual load factor = Max. load » 8760 _ 438x108 ~ Max. load x 8760 Maximum load = 2500 kW = 2.5 MW Max.load i gs load fact Capacity factor = Fr capacity 0.2 Max. load x02 O-19~ Pant capacitycs. Max.load 0.15 _ Plant capacity 0.2 = Pl _ Max. load _ 2 Eaoe 5 f075)... 0.75 Reserve capacity = 3.333 - 2.5 = 0.833 HW Example 2.11. A power station is to supply 4 areas whose peak loads are 10090 6a ky 8000 kW and 7000 kW. The diversity factor of loads at the station is 1.5 and annual ad factor, 65%, Find maximum demand on station and annual energy supplied. Suggest instal’ caPaciy, taking into account the increase in maximum demand by 60%, type of station and number and si, of units, [PU. 1994) ‘Se!3lua, sum of maximum demands = 31000 kW = 31 MW Sum of max. demands _ 31 _ 59.667 MW Diversity factor 1.5 ‘Annual energy = 20.667 = 8760 x 0.65 = 117677.9 MWh 0.75 Maximum demand = Increase in maximum demand = 20.667 x 0.6 = 12.4 MW Installed capacity = 20.667 + 12.4 = 33.067 MW For the above value of installed capacity the power station can be either diese] station ot a Zas turbine plant, The diesel units are manufactured in small sizes an is station will need too many units and the cost would be very high. bine plant with 2 of 10 MW each and two units of 15 MW each would be suitable. The station will have a total installed capacity of 50 MW and thus will have sufficient reserve capacity also. } Aete ‘Example 2.12. The daily load curve data for a system is as under : opts KP Mi eek days WGA Time 12-Sam -8am —12noon -1pm -Spm -9pm ~12 pm Load (MW) 100 150250 100 250 350 150 Saturday and Sunday Time 12-Sam -Spm — -9pm -12 Load (MW) 100.150 200 150 Draw a load duration curve for the system for one 350 week. Find the weekly load factor. __ Solution, From the above data, the durations of 2 different loads during one week are Load Duration t = 350MW 4x 5 = 20 hours g 250MW 2048 5=60 hours ae 200MW 60 + 4x 2 = 68 hours zi 150 MW 68 +6 x 5 +15 x 2= 128 hours bie 100MW 128 +6x5+5%2= 168 hours The load duration curve is plotted in Fig. 2.19, 1 The total area under the load di luration curve is 31600 which represents the energy consumption in one week. = _ 31600 Hod Factor = = = *100= 53.7% 50x 24x 7 40, 80 120 1968 HOURS —» Fig. 2.19,9 CURVES: a 33 nos ‘AND LOA remem : 13. Find the annual Joad factor if the average daily load factor is 0.825, the ratio of xample 2:17 1d to monthly peak load is 0 87 and the ratio of average monthly peak load to jansal Pion. Anal Toad factor 0.825 x 0,87 x 0.78 = 0.5598. solution. “OF VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY ON LOADS 2.13. EFFECT OF er reactive components of power with voltage and frequency is an important 19. ation of active ane and operation, The composite load at a sub-station usually consists of paver 51 9g, Lighting and heating 20-25%, Synchronous motors 10%, Transmission 0-20%. e ffect of voltage 21304. Effect of Vshting loads do not consume any reactive power. Since the resistance of fetes toad. rant, the active power does not vary as (voltage) but approximately as Tights ee (v010E/7 ing, The resistance is almost constant and active power varies as (voltage)? Heating, potrs. The performance of an induction motor can be analysed from its duction i etve and reactive power vary with voltage in a rather complex manne. JIso depends on whether the shaft torque is constant or varies with speed and also sor running at ful load or less than fll load The decrease of volage causts an wheter the moro thatthe effect on power is small. Ifthe shat torque is constant, a 10% drop ines ul oad condition may cause about 0.5% decrease in power, However if the voltage decreases apprec' i equivalent © Jably (to-about 0.8 pu) the power increases with further reduction in voltage. “Aa Synchronous motors. The active power does not depend on voltage and remains, more or tess*constant, A reduction in voltage causes the vars to increase in the leading direction. ih most ofthe analysis the composite sub-station loads are represented by constant impedances so that both P and Q are assumed to vary as (voltage)? However. it is only an approximate representation. P : 213.2. Effect of frequency. The power consumed by a resistive load does not depend on frequency, However most of the loads are inductive in nature. The impedance of an inductive load depends on the frequency and therefore the power drawn by an inductive load depends on frequency: The analysis of the effect of frequency on motor load is rather complex. Since “only very small changes in frequency are permissible, the effect of frequency on active and reactive power is neglected in calculations. (However in 1 uency control studies it is generally assumed that a one per _ cent er cent decrease m active powel 2.14, LOAD FORECASTING Load forecasting can be divided into two categori Toad forecasting, * 2.14.1, Long term load forecasting. It takes a pretty long time to plan, install and commission ae generating capacity, Generation system expansion planning starts with a forecast of ipated future load requirements. Proper long term load forecasting is necessary for optimal feneration capacity expansion. (es 1 forecast, the system planner is confronted with the following questions : arf tould the maximum demand be forecast using forecasted enerBy and load factors or me be forecast separately, eS Should the total forec; i ee ¢ appropriate load compo; ast be obtained by combining the forecast of appr »p s or should the total forecast be directly obtained from the historical load dats. ae simple forecasting method be used or should more formal mathematical prosedu® : Long term load forecasting and Short term Each of the above methodologies has its own advantages and limitations. No one appr03=" Used by all A he ‘ peach itpeent aac nee Choosing the best method for a given system requires 6°34 GENERATION OF EI NE ee eee is extrapolay forecasting ad al data adjusted to reflect und by evaluating the tre, nd curve fitting are One method, used by many utilities, for long range loa ;polation technique involves fitting trend curves to basic historie™ Browth trend itself. Once the trend curve is known, the forecast © Curve function at the desired future point. Some of the functions Straight line Bx Parabola yeA+Br+ OF 8 curve y=A+Br+Cr+De Exponential y= ce Gompertz yetr (A+ ce) ination y=A+Br+Ce™ re y is the load in year x (with base year 7°! } Na eee ce eee ee acids isto be quautniedwsing staisicalieniie® XE ry If the uncertainty of extrapolated results Se aicas SCR . ‘variance, i¢ technique becomes probabilistic extrapo is not used in actual practice. (Another technique for load forecasting is correlation. This technique relates system | -varioils demographic an ic ically Tal Tation, employment, industri i se aturation, weather data etc. are used in correlation, techniques. However the i feasting af te demographic and economi fastos rather fic : Z 2.14.2. Short term load forecasting. Le a ee iil ‘monitoring and controlling power system operation. forecast wit i to | ieeded for successful operation of the pow jour Forecast is important for__ ‘Short term load forecasting techniques generally involve physical decomposition of load into components. The load is decomposed into a daily pattern reflecting the difference in activity level during the day, 5 = Tepresenting the day of the week effect on load, a trend ne © seasonal in Toad and a weal VE Teflecting the deviati in Toad due to weather fluctaatio; fom error can be sta ataliter as cana ro) and A, B, ©; D are constants compute for, - - ~Thus the expected hourly toad forecast is divided i - r e into five components and write YG.#) = ADP (i) + AWP (k, /) + WSC (i, f) + TR(i) + SEC (i, j) ; ih 1 Where Y(i #) = load forecast for jth hour of i th day e rable 4 ae @) = average daily load pattern at J th hour J) = average weekly load increme: j ae nt pattern at j the hour and & th day of the WSC (i, j) = weather sensitive component at 5 TR (i) = trend component of load on i EC (i, /) assumed ibuted. The average daily pattern ae Tepresents the ey i load pattern over an optimal number of past ioe O16 Gayle. I isan average ofthe ail J th hour of i th day th day e~~ AND LOAI D CURVES short term the wend EEN component includes tree components “pendent om the economic cycle and a time The statistical erro present Component represents the err and vi ri standard deviation en developed 1d forecasting have be Many di; EO Pree ee byes or don hcp nr mye mutha MESS ee ; ; »wing loads: Example 2414. 4 feeder supplies 3 distribution transformers which feed the following ‘Transforfner 1 Motor loads 300 kW, demand factor 0.6 commercial loads 100 kW, demand factor 0.5 Tansformer 2 Residential loads 500 kW, demand factor 04 Transformer 3 Residential loads 400 kW, demand factor 0. 5 $6 snd’ 20. The diversity factor of the loads on the three transformers may be taken as 2.3, 2. : The diversity factor between transformers is 1.4. Find (a) peak load on each transformer , (®) peak load in feeder (AMIE 2001) Solution. (a) Peak load on transformer 1=300*0.6+100%0.5 - 199 KW Peak load on transformer 2 Peak load on transformer 3 -400%05 _199 hw 2 100 +80+100 (6) Peak load on feeder = 7 = 200 kW SUMMARY 1. The connected load of a consumer is the sum of the continuous ratings of all the devices and outlets in his premesis. 2. The maximum demand of a consumer is the maximum power that his circuit is likely to draw at any time. ‘1 3, The ratio maximum demand/connected load is the demand factor of the consumer. |. The group diversity factor is the ratio of sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand of the group. It is always more than 1. Peak diversity factor is the ratio of maximum demand of a consumer group to the demand of the consumer group at the time of the ayeteri peak demand. Te is always more than 1. ‘A chronological load curve shows the variation in demand during the 24 hours of the day. It’s shape, is different for different types of Eee — domestic, commercial, industrial, agriculture, traction etc. The system chronological ee oR shows the variation in system Joad during the 24 hours of the day. The era nological load curve gives the ae be Bo sat sate i ai of a chronolo, ion curve is a re chronologi, a aaa es order, Thus it shows the total number of hours for which a fatieie Joad lasts during the day. ‘The energy load curve shows the amount of energy between different demand levels,* GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERg, 5. A mass curve is plotted between energy and time. 1 Pl 10. Load factor is the ratio of average load to peak load. 11. Capacity factor is the ratio of average annual load to rated plant capacity: 12. Utilisation factor is the ratio of maximum load to rated plant aa as 13. The product of load factor and utilisation factor is equal to capacity Tet" 14. The chronological load curve can be divided into two regions known as base load and pea, load regions. 15. A system needs long term load forecasting for proper planninng and short term logy forecasting for proper operation. TEST POINT QUESTIONS State whether the following are True or False: 2.1, Demand factor can be more than 1. 2.2. Group diversity factor cannot be less than 1 2.3. ‘The consumers maximum demand multiplied by group diversity factor is his effective demang at distribution transformer. 2.4. Peak diversity factor is always less than 1 2.5, For residential loads, demand factor is about 0.6. 2.6. Group diversity factor for residential consumers is less than that for industrial consumers, 2.7. In domestic loads, peak demand generally occurs between 6 PM and 10 PM. 2.8. For single shift industrial plants, the demand is nearly constant during the shift duration, 2.9. A chronological load curve depicts the variation in demand during the day. 2.10. The abcissa for daily load duration curve is the time of the day. 2.11. The area under a chronological load curve equals the energy connsumed during the day. 2.12, The areas under a chronological load curve and a daily load duration curve may or may not be equal. 2.13. In energy load curve the ordinate is power demand. 2.14, In mass curve the abcissa is the time in hours. 2.15. Load factor = Average load/Peak load. 2.16. Capacity factor = Rated plant capacity/Average annual load. 2.17. Utilisation factor = Load factor x Capacity factor. 2.18. A peak load plant has lower load factor than base load plant, 2.19. Active power of lighting load « (voltage)*. 2.20. Active power of heating load ‘ (voltage)? ANSWERS, 2.1.22. 7 2.3, F24.F 25.7 26.F 27.7 28.7 29.7 24. T215.72.16.F2.17-F 218-7219 F290 ee SHORT ANSWER / JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS : : Between which quantities is mass curve plotted ? .2. What is the difference between chronological | 3 ; 23, Detoslosd face Disctangeeeaaiegeitiiady op ee 2.4, What is capacity factor ? 2.5. What i th diference between capacity factor and utilisation factor ? 2237 0s AND LOAD CURVES 2 erence between base load and peak load hat is the i ee i aiversity factor ? Why is importa shat is divers Define deman 1 is short necessity of REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 3d factor. i term load forecasting ? on f long term load forecasting ? 10, What is the 21, Discuss why 2 Bg) maximum demand of @ gFoUP of consumers is always less than the sum of their individual maximum demands. (hy Boon the maxinnm demand and Toad factors of two systems ae equal, heir od uration curves may not be similar, (c) Utilisation factor of a plant may be more than 1. Define the terms : connected\load, maximum demand, demand factor, load factor. ‘Aresidence has following connected load : 6 lamps of 100 watt each, 6 lamps of 40 watt arch 5 fans of 60 watt each, 2 power plug, points 1000 watt each, 4 light plug points 100 wert each, one geyser 3000 watt. The electricity use on a typical summer day can be described as under : | Lamps - One 100 watt lamp from 5 am to 6 am, 3 lamps each of 100 watt and 3 lamps each of 40 watt from 7 pm to 11 pm Fans - Two fans used simultaneously from 8 am to 11 pm Power plug load Nil Light Plug load — One point used from 6 am to 8 am, 12 Noon to 2 pm and 7 pm to 10 pm Geyser - 9 AM to 10 AM Draw Chronological load curve for this residence for summer. Find (i) maximum demand (ii) demand factor (iti) average load (iv) monthly consumption of electricity. [Ans. (i) 3120 watt (ii) 0.477 (iti) 303.33 watt (iv) 2184 kWh) 23. The use of electricity in the house of Problem 2.2 on a typical winter day is as under Lamps - Two lamps 100 watt each from 5 am to 7 am, three lamps each of 100 watt and ‘two lamps each of 40 watt from 5 pm to 11 pm Power Plug — One point used from 5 am to 7 am and 8 pm to 10 pm Geyser — From 8 am to 10 am 4 pm to 9pm. 2 Light plug point ~ One point from 6 am to 8 am, 12 Noon to 2 pm and 7 Draw winter chronological load curve for this residence, Find (i) maximum demand(:) demand factor (iif) average load (iv) monthly consumption. ae aged, [Ans (i) 3000 watt (i) 0.459 (ii) 553.33 wat (0) 398 -4, Discuss the importance of diversity of loads in a power system. ce A central station supplies energy to two substations. 4 feeders take off from ¢ sub-stations, The maximum demands are as under ; Central Station 10 MW Sub-Station A 6MW Sub-Station B 8MW Feeders on sub-station A 1.5, 2, 5, 3 MW Feeders on sub-stationB =, 4, 5, 1 MW