TERM PAPER ON
CAVITATION
BY
GROUP 4
COURSE CODE: MEE 443
SUBMITTED TO : Engineer I.B. IBRAHIM
DATE TO BE SUBMITTED : 5TH OF FEBRUARY, 2024
Word Count : XXXX
GROUP MEMBERS
NAME MATRIC SIGNATURE
NUMBER
OWOLABI,Mubaraq 19/30GD069
Temitope
19/30GD0
19/30GD0
19/30GD
19/30GD0
19/30GD0
19/30GD0
19/30GD
Outline for Essay
I. Introduction
A. Definition of Cavitation
B. Importance in Fluid Mechanics
C. Purpose and Scope of the Paper
II. Fundamentals of Cavitation
A. Explanation of Cavitation Phenomenon
B. Conditions Leading to Cavitation
C. Types of Cavitation (e.g., Vaporization, Bubble Cavitation)
III. Mechanisms and Dynamics
A. Fluid Flow and Pressure Changes
B. Cavitation Bubble Formation and Collapse
C. Impact on Surrounding Fluid
IV. Effects on Hydraulic Systems
A. Impact on Pump Performance
B. Damage to Hydraulic Machinery
C. Noise and Vibration Issues
V. Detection and Measurement
A. Techniques for Identifying Cavitation
B. Monitoring Tools and Technologies
C. Quantifying Cavitation Severity
VI. Prevention and Mitigation
A. Design Considerations
B. Material Selection
C. Fluid Dynamics Optimization
VII. Case Studies
A. Real-world Examples of Cavitation Issues
B. Lessons Learned and Solutions Applied
VIII. Research and Advancements
A. Current Research in Cavitation
B. Emerging Technologies for Cavitation Control
C. Future Directions in Cavitation Studies
IX. Conclusion
A. Summary of Key Findings
B. Implications for Fluid Mechanics
C. Recommendations for Further Research
D. References
INTRODUCTION
Cavitation, in the realm of fluid mechanics, is a phenomenon characterized by
the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor or gas bubbles within a liquid
flow. This process is induced by local drops in pressure, typically associated
with high fluid velocity or low pressure regions. The implosion of these bubbles
generates shock waves, leading to distinct effects on the surrounding fluid and
the equipment through which it flows.
Understanding cavitation is crucial in fluid mechanics due to its significant
impact on various hydraulic systems. The presence of cavitation can lead to
adverse consequences, affecting the performance and integrity of machinery. In
pump systems, for instance, cavitation can cause reduced efficiency, increased
noise, and accelerated wear and tear. The implosions of bubbles can also induce
erosion and damage to adjacent surfaces.
This paper aims to comprehensively explore the fundamentals, mechanisms, and
effects of cavitation, shedding light on its intricate dynamics within fluid flows.
It delves into the detection and measurement techniques essential for identifying
cavitation in operational systems. Furthermore, the paper investigates
preventive measures and mitigation strategies, emphasizing design
considerations and technological advancements aimed at minimizing or
eliminating cavitation-related challenges.
The scope of this paper extends to real-world case studies, offering practical
insights into instances where cavitation has posed challenges to hydraulic
systems. By examining these cases, the paper seeks to derive valuable lessons
and highlight effective solutions that have been applied in practice.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CAVITATION
The phenomenon of cavitation occurs due to pressure difference within the
fluid. When the static pressure is reduced compared to the liquid's vapour
pressure it will boil causing vapours to be produced. These vapours called
cavities or bubbles will implode when it moves to a higher pressure space in the
fluid.
Common causes of cavitation include:
Increase in velocity of fluid flow
Pipe blockage on the suction side
Poor piping design
Conditions not meeting NPSH (net positive suction head) requirements
Types of cavitation
1. Vaporization Cavitation
When a liquid vaporizes in the eye of the impeller as a result of pressure drop,
this is called vaporization cavitation. This type of cavitation is also called
inadequate NPSHa (Net Pressure Suction Head) cavitation.
2.Internal re-circulation
Internal recirculation occurs when the pump can’t discharge a liquid at the
proper rate. This means the liquid re-circulates around the impeller, traveling
through low- and high-pressure zones that lead to heat and high velocity —
which produces problematic vaporized bubbles that will begin to pop.
3. The vane passing syndrome
Vane syndrome usually results from one of two things: either the diameter of the
impeller is too large, or the housing has a coating that is too thick. Either way,
there isn’t enough space within the housing, and liquid passing through it
reaches a higher velocity than the pump was designed for. The higher velocity
leads to a lower pressure that heats the liquid, and destructive bubbles result.
4. Air aspiration
Air aspiration occurs when air is pulled into the system, becomes trapped, and
bubbles form. These bubbles pop when they reach the impeller.
5. Turbulence Cavitation
This is cavitation due to turbulence caused by Formation of vortexes in the
suction flow,
Inadequate piping, sharp elbows, restrictions, connections, filters and strainers
in the suction.
Advantages of cavitation :
Cleaning and Surface Preparation: Cavitation can be harnessed for effective
cleaning processes in industries like pharmaceuticals, food processing, and
automotive. Ultrasonic cleaners use cavitation to remove dirt, grease, and other
contaminants from surfaces.
Mixing and Homogenization: Cavitation helps in mixing and homogenizing
liquids, leading to improved product quality and reduced processing time. It is
utilized in industries such as chemical processing, food, and beverage
production.
Disruption and Extraction: In industries like biochemistry and biotechnology,
cavitation can be used to disrupt cells and extract valuable compounds.
Ultrasonic disruption methods break cell walls and release intracellular
materials without the need for harsh chemicals or high temperatures.
Water Treatment: Cavitation-based water treatment processes help in
disinfection, oxidation, and removal of pollutants. Technologies like ultrasonic
reactors and hydrodynamic cavitation systems are used for wastewater treatment
and purification.
Medical Applications: In medicine, cavitation finds applications in lithotripsy
for breaking kidney stones, drug delivery systems, and medical imaging
techniques like ultrasound imaging.
Energy Efficiency: Cavitation reactors are often more energy-efficient compared
to traditional mixing and homogenization methods. They require lower energy
inputs and offer higher throughput, making them environmentally friendly
options.
CAVITATION BUBBLE AND COLLAPSE
Cavitation is the appearance of vapor regions (or cavities) inside an initially
homogeneous liquid when the pressure decreases locally (Brennen, 1995, Franc
and Michel, 2006). Analogous to boiling where water turns into vapor when the
temperature reaches the boiling point, in cavitation the phase change from water
into vapor takes place when the pressure decreases below its vapor pressure.
The formation of the bubbles or nucleation in liquid water is however quite
complex, as pure water is able to sustain pressure below the vapor pressure
before the intermolecular bonds break for the formation of bubbles.
Cavitation is the appearance of vapor regions (or cavities) inside an initially
homogeneous liquid when the pressure decreases locally (Brennen, 1995, Franc
and Michel, 2006). Analogous to boiling where water turns into vapor when the
temperature reaches the boiling point, in cavitation the phase change from water
into vapor takes place when the pressure decreases below its vapor pressure.
The formation of the bubbles or nucleation in liquid water is however quite
complex, as pure water is able to sustain pressure below the vapor pressure
before the intermolecular bonds break for the formation of cavities. In practice,
microscopic dissolved gas or solid impurities, known as cavitation nuclei, act as
weak points in the continuum liquid where the cavities grow once the vapor
pressure is reached. Bubbles grow by vaporization of liquid water as long as the
local pressure is below saturation pressure. When the local pressure increases
again above vapor pressure, the condensation of water vapor causes the bubble
to reabsorb. Due to liquid inertia the reabsorption is usually
FLUID FLOW AND PRESSURE CHANGES
Cavitation is a phenomenon in which small cavities are generated in a liquid. It
occurs when the local static pressure is lower than the vapor pressure of the gas
dissolved in the liquid. Cavitation is the main reason for mechanical erosion.
The shock wave that occurs during the collapse of small cavities can cause
strong stress and impact on the surface of metals, which leads to the formation
of wears. However, cavitation also has various useful applications. In industry,
cavitation is used to homogenize and mix chemical compounds. In the
biomedical area, cavitation can be used in a shock wave lithotripsy to destruct
kidney stones. Moreover, cavitation is a good cleaner. One can use the acoustic
technique to generate cavitation in a fluid to help remove the surface
contaminants.
The Impact of Cavitation on Surrounding Fluid
Cavitation can have significant and diverse impacts on the surrounding fluid.
The impact of cavitation on surrounding fluid could be divided into Negative
and positive impacts:
Negative Impacts
1. Shock waves and microjets: As cavitation bubbles collapse violently, they
generate intense shock waves that propagate through the surrounding liquid.
These waves can reach pressures thousands of times the ambient pressure,
leading to several detrimental effects:
a. Erosion: The concentrated energy of the shock waves can erode solid
surfaces in contact with the cavitating liquid, damaging pumps, propellers, and
other machinery (Machinery Lubrication, 2023).
b. Noise and vibration: The rapid bubble collapse creates loud noises and
vibrations, which can be detrimental to equipment and unpleasant for humans
(Cavitation Explained and Illustrated, 2023).
c. Reduced efficiency: Cavitation can disrupt the smooth flow of the liquid,
causing energy losses and reducing the overall efficiency of pumps and other
fluid systems (StudySmarter, 2023).
2. Chemical changes: The violent bubble collapse can also generate high
temperatures and pressures within the cavities, leading to:
a. Oxidation: These extreme conditions can promote the breakdown of
dissolved molecules and the formation of unwanted chemical products,
potentially altering the fluid's properties (Cavitation effects, 2023).
b. Sonoluminescence: In some cases, the energy released during bubble
collapse can lead to the emission of visible light, a phenomenon known as
sonoluminescence.
Positive Impacts:
1. Cleaning and microfluidics: The erosive power of cavitation can be
harnessed for cleaning purposes, removing contaminants from surfaces
(Cavitation effects, 2023). It also finds applications in microfluidic devices,
where the precise manipulation of small fluid volumes relies on controlled
cavitation (Nature Communications, 2021).
2. Mixing and homogenization: Cavitation can promote efficient mixing of
different fluids or solid particles within the liquid, enhancing mass transfer and
homogenization processes (Cavitation Explained and Illustrated, 2023).
3. Sonochemistry The high pressures and temperatures generated during
cavitation can initiate and accelerate chemical reactions, finding applications in
fields like synthesis, sonodegradation of pollutants, and medical diagnostics
(Cavitation Explained and Illustrated, 2023).
Effects of cavitation on Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic cylinder cavitation is a nightmare for any hydraulic system, leading
to a cascading series of damaging issues that will eventually destroy critical
(and costly) components within your hydraulic system.
The simplest explanation of cavitation is the presence of gas entrapped within
bubbles in a liquid. When these bubbles collapse on themselves (or implode),
the result is noise, heat, serious surface damage, and a negative impact on
efficiency and productivity.
In deeper lenses, we can section the effects of cavitation in an hydraulic system
into 3 aspects:
Cavitation vs Pump Performance
Cavitation causes pump performance deterioration, mechanical damage, noise
and vibration which can ultimately lead to pump failure. Vibration is a common
symptom of cavitation, and many times the first sign of an issue. Vibration
causes problems for many pump components, including the shaft, bearings and
seals. Cavitation also causes pitting of the impeller and pump housing.
Damage to Hydraulic Machinery
Cavitation can cause severe damage to hydraulic machinery. The greatest
damage results from the excessive heat generated as the vapor bubbles collapse
under pressure. This leads to violent implosions, drawing surrounding material
into the collapse.Cavitation can also lead to accelerated wear of critical surfaces,
catastrophic seal failure, overheating, lubrication issues, and fluid
contamination.
Noise and Vibration Issues
Cavitation is usually recognized by sound. The pump will either produce a
"whining" sound (more mild conditions) or a "rattling" sound (from intense
implosions) that can sound like marbles in a can. This can lead to serious
problems and mechanical damage to many pump components, including the
seals, bearings, and shaft. The noise and vibration from cavitation can also
cause serious damage to the piping system in which it occurs.
DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT
Identifying cavitation in fluid mechanics involves several techniques.
1.Visual methods include high-speed photography or laser-induced visualization
to capture vapor bubble formation. Acoustic methods utilize hydrophones or
accelerometers to detect characteristic cavitation noise, helping pinpoint its
location and severity. Pressure measurements are crucial; cavitation induces
pressure fluctuations, and pressure sensors can identify regions with low
pressure indicative of vapor bubble collapse.
2.Advanced techniques involve using non-intrusive diagnostics like particle
image velocimetry (PIV) to study flow patterns and identify cavitation zones.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations aid in predicting cavitation
susceptibility by analyzing pressure distributions and fluid velocities.
3.Nuclei counting techniques quantify the concentration of gas nuclei in the
fluid, crucial for understanding cavitation inception. Sonoluminescence, where
light emission from collapsing bubbles is observed, is another method.
4.Material erosion and damage assessments provide indirect evidence of
cavitation. Analyzing wear patterns on surfaces exposed to cavitation helps
assess its impact. Additionally, using transparent materials in experiments
enables direct visual confirmation of cavitation damage.
Monitoring Tools and Technologies for cavitation
Several monitoring tools and technologies are employed to detect and analyze
cavitation in various applications:
Pressure Sensors:
Role: Measure pressure fluctuations associated with cavitation.
Technology: Piezoelectric or strain gauge pressure sensors provide real-time
data on pressure variations.
Velocimetry (PIV):
Role: Non-intrusive method for studying fluid flow patterns.
Technology: Laser-induced visualization combined with high-speed cameras to
track particles and analyze flow dynamics.6
Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD):
Role: Simulate fluid behavior, aiding in predicting cavitation-prone areas.
Technology: Numerical algorithms solving fluid flow equations on computer
models.
Sonoluminescence Detection:
Role: Observing light emission during bubble collapse.
Technology: Photodetectors or photomultiplier tubes to capture the emitted
light.
Transparent Materials and Visualization Techniques:
Role: Direct visual confirmation of cavitation occurrence.
Technology: Transparent materials like acrylic or glass in test setups for
observing cavitation damage.
Integration of these tools provides a comprehensive approach to monitor and
understand cavitation phenomena in diverse fluid systems.
Quantifying cavitation severity involves assessing various parameters
influenced by cavitation effects. Key metrics include:
Cavitation Number (σ):
Definition: A dimensionless parameter comparing local fluid pressure to vapor
pressure.
Interpretation: High cavitation numbers indicate lower likelihood of cavitation,
while low values suggest increased risk.
Pressure Fluctuations:
Measurement: Using pressure sensors to quantify fluctuations during cavitation
events.
Interpretation: Higher amplitude and frequency of pressure fluctuations indicate
more severe cavitation.
Bubble Collapse Energy:
Calculation: Assessing the energy released during bubble collapse.
Interpretation: Higher energy levels correlate with more destructive cavitation.
Erosion Rate:
Measurement: Monitoring material erosion caused by cavitation.
Interpretation: Increased erosion rates indicate more severe cavitation effects on
surfaces.
Acoustic Intensity:
Measurement: Analyzing the intensity of acoustic signals generated by
cavitation.
Interpretation: Higher intensity corresponds to more intense cavitation activity.
Cavitation Index (CI):
Calculation: Combining parameters like pressure, velocity, and fluid properties.
Interpretation: Higher CI values suggest increased cavitation severity.
Damage Area:
Measurement: Assessing the extent of material damage caused by cavitation.
Interpretation: Larger damaged areas indicate more severe cavitation effects.
Nuclei Count:
Measurement: Quantifying gas nuclei concentration in the fluid.
Interpretation: Higher nuclei counts may correlate with increased likelihood of
cavitation.
Quantifying cavitation severity often involves a combination of these metrics,
and the specific choice depends on the application and available monitoring
tools. Integrated analysis of multiple parameters provides a more
comprehensive understanding of the severity of cavitation in a given system.
PREVENTION AND MITIGATION OF CAVITATION
(A) DESIGN CONSIDERATION
1. To prevent cavitation, consider designs that minimize fluid velocity
variations, use materials resistant to cavitation erosion, and incorporate proper
pump and system sizing. Additionally, maintaining a sufficient net positive
suction head (NPSH) and optimizing impeller designs can help mitigate
cavitation risks in pump applications.
2. Another way is to ensure that the design includes proper flow control and
pressure management. By carefully designing the shape and size of components,
such as pumps or propellers, you can minimize the occurrence of cavitation.
3. Additionally, optimizing the shape and size of components, such as impellers
or nozzles, can help reduce the risk of cavitation. Proper flow control and
pressure management are also crucial in preventing cavitation. By taking these
factors into consideration during the design process, you can minimize the
occurrence of cavitation and ensure optimal performance.
(B) MATERIAL SELECTION
1. Hardness and Toughness:Choose materials with a balance of hardness and
toughness. Hardness helps resist wear, while toughness prevents brittle failure
under cavitation-induced stress.
2. Cavitation Resistance:Some materials, such as certain stainless steels, nickel
alloys, or ceramics, exhibit better resistance to cavitation erosion. Research and
select materials specifically designed for their cavitation-resistant properties.
3. Surface Coatings:Apply specialized coatings to enhance cavitation resistance.
Hard coatings, like ceramics or tungsten carbide, can protect surfaces from
erosion in cavitation-prone environments.
(C) FLUID DYNAMICS OPTIMIZATION
Optimizing fluid dynamics plays a key role in preventing cavitation. Consider
the following strategies:
1. Flow Analysis:Conduct detailed flow analysis to identify areas of potential
cavitation. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations can help visualize
and understand fluid behavior, allowing for targeted improvements.
2. Impeller Design: Optimize impeller geometry to ensure smooth and uniform
fluid flow. Minimize sharp angles and corners, and consider using advanced
impeller designs, such as inducers or special profiles, to reduce cavitation risk.
3. Inlet Conditions: Improve inlet conditions by using well-designed suction
pipes. Avoid sudden changes in cross-sectional area or direction, as these can
lead to flow disturbances and cavitation.
4. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):Maintain a sufficient NPSH margin by
ensuring that the available NPSH (NPSHa) exceeds the required NPSH
(NPSHr). This prevents the formation of vapor bubbles at the pump inlet.
Real-world Examples of Cavitation Issues
Marine Propellers: Cavitation is a common problem in marine propulsion
systems. When the pressure drops around a rotating propeller, bubbles can form
due to the low pressure. As the bubbles move to areas of higher pressure, they
collapse, leading to noise, vibration, and erosion of the propeller blades. This
reduces the efficiency of the propulsion system and can cause damage to the
propeller over time.
Hydraulic Systems: Cavitation can occur in hydraulic systems, particularly in
pumps and valves. When the pressure drops in the fluid as it passes through a
constriction or a valve, bubbles can form. These bubbles collapse when they
enter areas of higher pressure, leading to noise, vibration, and erosion of
components. In severe cases, cavitation can cause cavities or pits to form on the
surfaces of hydraulic components, reducing their effectiveness and lifespan.
Water Turbines: Cavitation can also affect water turbines used in hydroelectric
power generation. When water flows over the turbine blades, the pressure can
drop, leading to cavitation bubbles forming on the surface of the blades. As the
bubbles collapse, they can cause erosion and pitting of the turbine blades,
reducing their efficiency and requiring maintenance to repair the damage.
Control Valves: Control valves used in various industrial processes can
experience cavitation issues. When the flow of fluid through a valve is
restricted, the pressure can drop, leading to cavitation. This can cause damage to
the valve internals and reduce its ability to control the flow of fluid accurately.
Diesel Fuel Injectors: In diesel engines, cavitation can occur within the fuel
injectors. As the fuel is pressurized and sprayed into the combustion chamber,
the rapid changes in pressure can cause cavitation bubbles to form within the
fuel. These bubbles can collapse with enough force to cause erosion of the
injector components, leading to decreased performance and fuel efficiency.
Lessons learned and solutions applied
Cavitation is usually an undesirable occurrence. In devices such as propellers
and pumps, cavitation causes a great deal of noise, damage to components,
vibrations, and a loss of efficiency.Cavitation has also become a concern in the
renewable energy sector as it may occur on the blade surface of tidal stream
turbines.
When the cavitation bubbles collapse, they force energetic liquid into very
small volumes, thereby creating spots of high temperature and emitting shock
waves, the latter of which are a source of noice.
Pumps and propellers;
Major places where cavitation occurs are in pumps, on propellers, or at
restrictions in a flowing liquid.
As an impeller's (in a pump) or propeller's (as in the case of a ship or
submarine) blades move through a fluid, low-pressure areas are formed as the
fluid accelerates around and moves past the blades. The faster the blade moves,
the lower the pressure can become around it. As it reaches vapor pressure, the
fluid vaporizes and forms small bubbles of gas. This is cavitation. When the
bubbles collapse later, they typically cause very strong local shock waves in the
fluid, which may be audible and may even damage the blades.
CAVITATION SOLUTIONS;
Since all pumps require well-developed inlet flow to meet their potential, a
pump may not perform or be as reliable as expected due to a faulty suction
piping layout such as a close-coupled elbow on the inlet flange. To have a
well-developed flow pattern, pump manufacturer's manuals recommend about
(10 diameters?) of straight pipe run upstream of the pump inlet flange.
Unfortunately, piping designers and plant personnel must contend with space
and equipment layout constraints and usually cannot comply with this
recommendation. Instead, it is common to use an elbow close-coupled to the
pump suction which creates a poorly developed flow pattern at the pump
suction.
To overcome cavitation: Increase suction pressure if possible. Decrease liquid
temperature if possible. Throttle back on the discharge valve to decrease
flow-rate. Vent gases off the pump casing.
Research and Advancements
Current Research in Cavitation
research in cavitation in fluid mechanics often focuses on understanding its
effects on various applications like pumps, propellers, and hydraulic systems.
Investigations delve into mitigating cavitation-induced damage and improving
efficiency through computational simulations, experimental studies, and
advanced imaging techniques. This includes Turbulent free-surface in
self-aerated flows: superposition of entrapped and entrained air and Controlled
inertial nano-cavitation above 100 MHz. Journal of Fluid Mechanics
Emerging Technologies for Cavitation Control
Passive flow control techniques, and particularly vortex generators have been
used successfully in a broad range of aero- and hydrodynamics applications to
alter the characteristics of boundary layer separation. The passive flow control
techniques reviewed typically delay and suppress boundary layer separation by
decreasing the pressure gradient at the separation point. The area of interest
concerns hydraulic machinery, whose performance and life span are particularly
susceptible to cavitation. The impact on performance includes a reduction in
efficiency and fluctuations in discharge pressure and flow, while cavitation can
greatly increase wear of bearings, wearing rings, seals, and impeller surfaces
due to excessive vibration and surface erosion.
Future directions in cavitation studies
With growing consumer demand for natural products, greener extraction
techniques are found to be potential alternatives especially for pharmaceutical,
neutraceutical, and cosmetic manufacturing industries. The advantages of
cavitation-based extraction (CE) are to eliminate the application of toxic
solvents, reduction of extraction time and to achieve better extraction yield, as
well as purity. The cavitational phenomena enhance the extraction efficiency via
increased mass transfer rate between the substrate and solvent, following the
cell wall rupture, due to the intense implosion of bubbles.. The optimization of
parameters, such as ultrasonic power density, frequency, inlet pressure of HC,
extraction temperature and the reactor configuration denote their significance
for better efficiency.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the study of and the implications of cavitation have a profound
impact on engineering design and performance. From preventive measures in
design to leveraging cavitation positively in innovative applications. Therefore,
developing sufficient understanding of this phenomenon remains crucial.
Continued exploration promises enhanced efficiency, durability, and sustainable
practices, marking cavitation as a dynamic area for future advancements in fluid
mechanics.
Implications for Fluid Mechanics
Cavitation significantly influences engineering design and system performance,
necessitating strategic measures. In fluid system design, understanding potential
causes of cavitation guides decisions, influencing pump design, where larger
pumps may be chosen to prevent cavitation by lowering fluid velocity. Material
selection also favors anti-cavitation properties, like stainless steel for hydraulic
pumps. While cavitation prevention might be more expensive in design, it
ensures long-term benefits in increased durability and reduced maintenance.
Cavitation's impact on system performance is evident in the wearing down of
components due to cavitation pitting, reducing efficiency, particularly in pumps,
causing decreases in flow rate and pressure losses. Despite challenges,
engineers leverage cavitation positively in some applications such ultrasonic
cleaning and kidney stone removal via controlled cavitation, turning
troublesome bubbles into beneficial tools.
Recommendations For Further Research
Further research into cavitation should explore advanced materials and coatings
for mitigating cavitation erosion in machinery and emphasizing durability. It
should also investigate innovative pump and propeller designs to minimize
cavitation-induced noise and vibration, thus enhancing overall efficiency.
Further mathematical modeling research and analysis tools development should
focus on refining simulations, improving accuracy in predicting cavitation
dynamics.
Additionally, the potential applications of controlled cavitation in emerging
fields, such as energy harvesting and medical diagnostics needs to be
investigated to broaden the scope of cavitation research.
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