Sigmund Freud's theories of child and adolescent undesirable behaviors can be discouraged through

development focus on the psychosexual stages and the punishment or extinction.

influence of unconscious processes. According to Freud,
development occurs in stages, including oral, anal, phallic, Behaviorism has contributed to understanding how
latent, and genital stages. These stages are characterized learning occurs and how behaviors can be modified
by the focus on different erogenous zones and the through conditioning techniques. However, it has been
resolution of conflicts related to them. Freud also criticized for oversimplifying human behavior and
emphasized the importance of early childhood neglecting the role of cognition, emotions, and internal
experiences, especially the relationship with parents, in mental processes in development. Nonetheless,
shaping personality and behavior later in life. Additionally, behaviorist principles continue to influence educational
he introduced concepts like the Oedipus complex and the practices, parenting strategies, and therapeutic
Electra complex to explain the development of gender interventions aimed at promoting positive behavior and
identity and the dynamics of family relationships. While skill acquisition in children and adolescents.
Freud's theories have influenced psychology, they have Piaget's cognitive development theory is a foundational
also been subject to criticism and debate, particularly framework in understanding how children and adolescents
regarding their emphasis on sexuality and the unconscious acquire knowledge and understanding of the world around
mind. them. Piaget proposed that development occurs in four
Erik Erikson's theories of child and adolescent stages: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage,
development revolve around the concept of psychosocial the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational
stages, each associated with a unique developmental task stage.
or crisis. Unlike Freud, Erikson emphasized the importance During the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), infants
of social and cultural factors in shaping personality learn about the world through sensory experiences and
development. He proposed eight stages, spanning from motor actions. In the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years),
infancy to old age, with each stage presenting a conflict children develop language and symbolic thinking but
that individuals must resolve to progress successfully. struggle with logical reasoning. The concrete operational
These conflicts are balanced between positive and stage (7 to 11 years) is characterized by the ability to think
negative outcomes, and resolution contributes to the logically about concrete events and perform simple mental
development of virtues or strengths. For example, the operations. Finally, the formal operational stage (11 years
infancy stage focuses on trust versus mistrust, while and older) involves the development of abstract thinking
adolescence deals with identity versus role confusion. and hypothetical reasoning.
Erikson's theories highlight the significance of social
relationships, identity formation, and the search for Piaget's theory emphasizes the active role of children in
meaning throughout the lifespan. They have been constructing their understanding of the world through
influential in understanding human development and interaction with the environment. He described processes
guiding interventions to support healthy growth and such as assimilation, where new experiences are
identity formation. incorporated into existing mental structures, and
accommodation, where existing schemas are adjusted to
Behaviorism, as it applies to child and adolescent accommodate new information.
development, emphasizes the role of the environment in
shaping behavior. Developed primarily by psychologists While Piaget's theory has had a profound impact on
such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behaviorism developmental psychology, it has also faced criticism for
focuses on observable behaviors and the principles of underestimating children's abilities and overlooking
conditioning. Watson proposed that behavior is learned cultural influences on development. Nonetheless, it
through classical conditioning, where associations are remains a valuable framework for understanding the
formed between stimuli and responses. Skinner expanded cognitive processes underlying child and adolescent
on this with operant conditioning, which involves the development.
reinforcement or punishment of behaviors to increase or
decrease their occurrence. John Bowlby's attachment theory focuses on the
importance of early relationships, particularly the bond
In the context of child and adolescent development, between infants and their caregivers, in shaping child
behaviorism suggests that behaviors are acquired through development. Bowlby proposed that infants are
interactions with the environment, including parental biologically predisposed to form attachments as a means
influences, peer interactions, and societal norms. Positive of survival and protection. According to his theory, the
behaviors can be reinforced through rewards, while
quality of these early attachments influences social, including the acquisition of social skills, the development
emotional, and cognitive development throughout life. of moral reasoning, and the influence of media and role
models on behavior. It has also informed educational
Attachment theory emphasizes the concept of the practices and interventions aimed at promoting positive
"internal working model," which represents the child's behavior and social competence in children and
expectations about relationships based on early adolescents.
attachment experiences. Bowlby identified four
attachment styles: secure attachment, insecure-avoidant Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive
attachment, insecure-anxious attachment, and development emphasizes the role of social interactions,
disorganized attachment. These attachment styles are cultural context, and language in shaping cognitive
shaped by the caregiver's responsiveness and consistency development. Vygotsky proposed that children learn and
in meeting the child's needs. develop within their social and cultural environments
through collaborative interactions with more
Securely attached children tend to have caregivers who knowledgeable others, such as parents, teachers, and
are sensitive and responsive to their needs, leading to peers.
positive outcomes in social relationships and emotional
regulation. In contrast, insecurely attached children may Key concepts in Vygotsky's theory include the zone of
exhibit difficulties in forming trusting relationships and proximal development (ZPD), scaffolding, and cultural
managing emotions. tools. The ZPD refers to the difference between what a
child can accomplish independently and what they can
achieve with the guidance and support of a more
Bowlby's attachment theory has had a significant impact knowledgeable person. Scaffolding involves providing
on understanding child and adolescent development, temporary support and assistance to help children
influencing parenting practices, early childhood education, accomplish tasks within their ZPD. Cultural tools, such as
and therapeutic interventions. It highlights the importance language, symbols, and artifacts, mediate learning and
of nurturing caregiving and supportive environments in enable individuals to communicate, problem-solve, and
fostering healthy attachment relationships and promoting understand their world.
overall well-being from infancy through adolescence and
beyond.
Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interaction
Albert Bandura's social learning theory focuses on the in cognitive development, suggesting that learning is a
idea that individuals learn through observing others' collaborative and socially mediated process. He argued
behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. that language plays a central role in cognitive
Bandura proposed that learning can occur through direct development, serving as both a means of communication
experiences (such as reinforcement and punishment) as and a tool for thinking.
well as through vicarious experiences, where individuals
learn by observing others and the consequences of their
actions.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory has influenced educational
Key concepts in Bandura's theory include observational practices, highlighting the importance of social interaction,
learning, modeling, and self-efficacy. Observational peer collaboration, and meaningful learning experiences in
learning involves paying attention to others' behaviors and promoting cognitive development. It underscores the
their outcomes, while modeling refers to imitating the dynamic interplay between individual and social factors in
behaviors of role models. Self-efficacy refers to individuals' shaping development and learning from childhood through
beliefs in their own abilities to succeed in specific adolescence and beyond.
situations, which influences their motivation and behavior.

Bandura's social learning theory highlights the importance

of social influences, cognitive processes, and individual
agency in shaping behavior and development. It
emphasizes the role of modeling and reinforcement in
learning new behaviors and the importance of self-
regulation and self-efficacy beliefs in goal attainment.

Bandura's theory has been influential in understanding

various aspects of child and adolescent development,