INTELLIGENCE
OVERVIEW & LOS
By the end of the lecture you will have
Definitions of intelligence
A better appreciation of the complexity of
Common sense vs psychological definitions the construct
Brief history An initial insight into:
Development of eugenics cultural differences
Theories of intelligence some historical issues in relation to this
Latent factors construct
Measures of intelligence Knowledge of theories of intelligence
Intelligence and crime Measures of intelligence
Better understanding of the link between
intelligence and crime
WHAT IS
INTELLIGENCE?
DEFINITION
Can you think of a synonym?
What does an intelligent person look like?
DEFINITION
‘The ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the
environment, understand, and correctly utilize thought and reason’ APA
definition
‘A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the
ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend
complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely
book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts, it reflects a
broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—
“catching on”, “making sense” of things, or “figuring out” what to
do’ (Deary et al., 2006, p. 690)
CULTURAL
DIFFERENCES
HISTORY
AND INITIAL
RESEARCH
EARLY RESEARCH – GALTON
Measured psychophysical abilities (e.g. reaction times, touch sensitivity, visual and auditory
discriminations)
However, Wissler (1901) found these measures not to be correlated
Studied eminent British men (who possessed “the reputation of a leader of opinion, or an originator, of a
man to whom the world deliberately acknowledges itself largely indebted”)
They could all be traced to 300 families, concluded that “there is no escape from the conclusion that
nature prevails enormously over nurture”
Argued that intelligence was largely hereditary
Any problem with Galton’s conclusion?
EARLY RESEARCH – GALTON
Biased sample
Environmental factors were largely overlooked:
Nutrition
Access to resources
Education
Applications are extremely problematic:
Galton was in favour of population control
Founded eugenics – “The aim of eugenics is to
bring as many influences as can be reasonably
employed, to cause the useful classes in the
community to contribute more than their
proportion to the next generation” (Galton, 1904)
EARLY TESTS – BINET
Alfred Binet (1857-1911) designed first intelligence test in collaboration with
Theodore Simon (1872 - 1961)
Changes in educational system (compulsory mass education): Commissioned by
state of France (Ministry of Education) to identify children with learning problems
Measured performance on tasks related to every day problems of life, e.g. solving
logic problems, naming objects in a picture, digit span, word definition
Introduced the concept of mental age – by establishing the ‘norm’ (average) per
each age group
EARLY TESTS – STERN
Stern believed it was important to compare a person's mental age to their chronological
age
Ratio IQ = MA (mental age)/ CA (chronological)
Terman later introduced the abbreviation IQ for intelligence quotient and suggested
multiplying Stern's fraction by 100 to convert it to a percentage
IQ = (MA/CA)*100
However, ages increases but beyond the age of about18 people do not show large increase
in intellectual ability
Not applicable to adults
E.g., following Terman’s formula a 40 y.o. subject performing as a 20 y.o. subject would
only have a score of 50
IQ
Wechsler developed a new
measure – Deviation IQ
It is obtained by dividing the
subject’s test score by the
average scores of people
within the same age group
then multiplied by 100
E.g., a subject that scores
the same as the average
person in their group has
an IQ = 100
THEORIES
THEORIES – SPEARMAN’S TWO FACTORS THEORY
Charles Spearman (1927) developed the first model of
intelligence
He found positive correlations between scores on
sensory acuity (visual, auditory, tactile) and academic
achievement
However, weaker correlation for some measures, i.e.,
children with high score one measure did not
necessarily have high scores on every other measure.
He proposed two factors:
‘g’ factor: measure of general intelligence
- g is involved in performance on all tasks
- better predictor of task performance
‘s’ factor: set of task specific abilities
IS INTELLIGENCE GENERAL OR SPECIFIC?
Still debated: some agreement that there is a general component of intelligence,
however:
Thurstone (1938) – proposed 7 distinct primary mental abilities (PMA: Verbal
comprehension, Verbal fluency, Reasoning, Spatial visualisation, Number, Memory,
Perceptual speed)
Cattell (1971) – claimed ‘g’ consisted of 2 related, but distinct components – fluid and
crystallised intelligence
Fluid intelligence (GF): the capacity to
THEORIES – learn new things and to solve problems
HORN - CATTELL pure, not affected by
THEORY experience/culture/education
involved in tasks that require high
levels of reasoning or abilities to
draw inferences
Crystallised intelligence (GC): learned
knowledge, information, content
“Intelligence, then, involves two factors, - the
capacity for knowledge and knowledge affected by experience/culture and
possessed” (Hemnon, 1921, p. 195) education
ability to make good use of
language or solve problems
LATENT FACTORS
How can we measure intelligence?
Factor analysis can be used to deconstruct a
concept in basic components
Highly correlated items (e.g., questions) are
likely to measure the similar factor
Correlated factors are likely to measure the
same construct (e.g., intelligence)
Different theories propose different factors
HIERARCHICAL
MODULE OF
INTELLIGENCE
CARROLL
Three level hierarchy
1) A general intelligence
2) Set of independent sub abilities
3) Larger set of task specific
abilities
MORE ON TESTS: WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE
Today standard batteries are used to evaluate the intelligence
quotient:
E.g., Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS – IV, 2010)
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale Children (WISC-V) was also
developed in 2016
4 subscales:
Verbal comprehension (VCI): ability to comprehend verbal stimuli.
Reason with semantic material, communicate thoughts/ideas
Perceptual reasoning (PRI): tasks require to maintain visual image,
special manipulation
Working memory (WMI): also requires attention and
concentration
Speed of mental processing (PSI): e.g. efficient use of cognitive
abilities
MORE ON TESTS: WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE
Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) can be derived
Two further scores can be calculated:
General Ability Index (GAI)
- it is calculated from the VCI and the PRI subscales
- it measures overall cognitive ability
- it reduces emphasis on WM and processing speed
- developed in relation to the WISC-III for children whose WM
abilities was discrepant from reasoning
Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI)
- it is calculated from the WMI and PSI subscales
- It measures the efficiency of information processing: speed,
capacity, etc.
MORE ON TESTS: WECHSLER ADULT
INTELLIGENCE SCALE
IQ tests such the WAIS-IV are often use if forensic
settings
Can you think about any example where the WAIS could
be used in forensic settings?
Why do you is important to test the IQ of those that
become involved in the CJS?
MORE ON TESTS: WECHSLER ADULT
INTELLIGENCE SCALE
In forensic settings can be used pre trial:
To assess whether the individual’s cognitive
functioning can impact their ability to stand a trial
To determine whether an intermediary is needed
to assist the individual or facilitate understanding
During trial and sentencing:
To obtain a fair sentence
To recommend rehabilitation programs
MORE ON TESTS: WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE
PROS
Wildly used measure in both research and clinical settings
Easy to administer
Detailed instructions are available
Test-retest: after an interval of 22 days, correlation
coefficients ranged from .74 to .90
Inter-rater agreement: range between .98 to .99 on all
subtests
Internal reliability: Cronbach’s alpha on subscales range from
.87 to .98
MORE ON TESTS: WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE
CONS
Expensive and time consuming
Partially linked to language comprehension/ semantic knowledge
Practice effect and malingering (subject deliberately scores less)
Lack of stability: some argue the correlation coefficient is not perfect
(conditions at testing)
The Flynn effect: increase in absolute intelligence of the population
over time
Culturally bias (?)
Omits important (non-cognitive) factors of human mind: personality
traits, emotional intelligence, creative/divergent thinking, wisdom
INTELLIGENCE
AND CRIME
Research has found a negative correlation between IQ and criminal behaviour:
INTELLIENCE ANDfound
1) Bartels et al. (2010) CRIMINAL BAHAVIOUR
correlations between state IQ and violent crimes ranging from .29 and .57
State IQ measured with National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), reading and math tests
scores
r < -.50 for violent crime, murder and burglary, r < -.30 robbery, theft, MVT, r < -.20 (non sing.) for rape
2) Fergusson et al. (2005) longitudinal study, lower IQ measure at 11 y.o. associated with criminal conduct later in life
IQ measure with the WAIS – III
IQ at 11 y.o. sign predictor of the DVs (i) criminal behaviour (both property and violent offence), and (ii) arrest
and conviction. After adjusting for conduct issues IQ remains sign predictor of (i) criminal behaviour (but not
arrest/convictions).
INTELLIENCE AND CRIMINAL BAHAVIOUR
Jacobs et al. (2019) argued that there are limitations to the available literature:
Small samples
Lack of research on UK population
Studies do not often take into account other variables (psychiatry morbidity, childhood abuse,
substance abuse, etc.)
In their study they focused on the relation between verbal IQ and criminality
Use a large sample (n= 6872 participants aged =/>16)
Focused on UK population by using data collected via the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey (APMS).
Controlled for: bullying, childhood sexual abuse, childhood physical abuse, smoking status, alcohol
dependence, drug use, and mental disorders
Verbal IQ measured via National Adult Reading Test (NART).
Measure of crime: (i) prevalence of violence, qst. ‘Have you been in a physical fight or deliberately hit
anyone in the past 5 years?’ (ii) violent episodes
Both prevalence of violence and number
of violent episodes increase with
decreased verbal IQ
The prevalence of violence perpetration
decreased from 16.3% in the IQ 70–79
group to 2.9% in the IQ 120–129 group
mean number of violent episodes
decreased from 0.72 (IQ 70–79) to 0.06
(IQ 120–129)
Jacobs, et al. (2019)
Model further adjusted for marital
status, behavioural factors,
childhood adversity, and
psychiatric morbidity
Lower IQ associated with higher
odds for violence crime (twice as
higher compared with the higher
IQ)
Can these results be interpret as
evidence of causation?
Jacobs, et al. (2019)
INTELLIENCE AND CRIMINAL BAHAVIOUR
Why should intelligence link to criminal behaviour?
H1: IQ linked to several life outcomes e.g., school and job performance.
These factors might in part explain why people with low IQ become
involved in criminal conduct
H2: Low IQ often associated with lack of empathy, this might explain
why low IQ is linked to violent crime
Implications are important
If cognitive abilities influence propension to violent offending,
prevention becomes possible
BUT!! It is important to establish causation
Ethical implications of labelling children or individual
THANK YOU
