GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY II
Unit III
INTELLIGENCE AND SPECIAL APTITUDES
Subject Name Subject Code Prepared by
General Psychology II 18BPS23C Dr. B. Selvaraj, M.A, M.Phil, Ph.D
Dept. of Psychology
Mob- 9442766594
DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence is general term referring to the overall capacity of a person for learning and
problem solving.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
There are groups of intelligence theories. They are
1. Factor theories
2. Process oriented theories.
FACTOR THEORIES
The primary interest of factor theories is in identifying the factor or factors which constitute
intelligence.
The question that whether intelligence is a single characteristic or intelligence is a collection
of a specific, distinguishable abilities is a center piece of discussion among factor theories.
The following are the different concepts arised out of discussion-
1. There is a single ability underlying the various intelligent behaviors.
2. Intelligence consists of few major factors.
3. Even intellectual tasks involves a totally different ability.
In making decisions about intelligence, theorists used a statistical technique known as
FACTOR ANALYSIS. This technique is a way of identifying groups of abilities that are
related to one another.
Let us briefly explain the factor theories of intelligence
1) G-FACTOR THEORIES
Charles Spearman proposed that a broad general intelligence factor lay beneath the surface.
Spearman said that a number of different cognitive tasks and intellectual measures tend to be
correlated with one another and forms a single common factor G.
2) TWO-FACTOR THEORY
Later Charles Spearman proposed that each individual intellectual task is based on general
intelligence factor G and specific factor S. for Example, an arithmetic test might tap both
broad general intelligence factor G and an S factor specific to mathematical ability.
3) THURSTONE‟S PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES
Thurston concluded that intelligence has multiple components. Based on his test and factor
analysis he identified 7 factors which he called PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES. They are-
1)Verbal comprehension
2)Word Fluency.
3)Perceptual speed.
4)Memory.
5)Numerical ability and
6)Spatial ability and
7)Reasoning.
Thurston assailed a battery of tests called PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITY TEST (PMA) to
measure these mental abilities.
4) GUILFORD‟S STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT MODEL
This theory is proposed by J. P. GUILFORD. This 3 dimensional theory is based on the
massive analysis of many tests.
This cubical model provides 120 factors of intelligence. Each factor is represented by a cell
in the cube and is some combination of these three dimensions-
1. 5 kinds of operations.
2. 6 kinds of products and
3. 5 kinds of contents.
According to Guilford human intelligence includes 150 factors.
5) HIERARCHICAL THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE (VERNON)
Vernon proposed hierarchical theory of intelligence. In this theory intelligence is pictured as
a sort of pyramid.
At the top of the pyramid is broad general intelligence factor G. Which shows up in all kinds
of intellectual activity. Underneath it are several moderately specific abilities like
Thurstones‟ primary mental abilities. At the bottom of the pyramid are the highly specific
abilities similar to spearman‟s factors. This hierarchical theory borrows from several factor
theories to form a multilayered view of intelligence.
PROCESS ORIENTED THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Process – oriented theorists focus on intellectual processes, ie, the pattern of thinking that
people use when theory reason and solve problems. They are more interested in how people
go about solving problems and they focus on development of intellectual processes, ie, how
the processes change as individuals mature.
The following are the processes oriented theories of intelligence.
1. PIAGET‟S THEORY
In Piaget‟s view, intelligence is an adaptive process that involves an interplay of biological
maturation and interaction with the environment.
He views intellectual development as an evaluation of cognitive processes such as
understanding the laws of nature, principle of grammar and mathematical rules. His stage
theory of cognitive development is as follows-
2. BRUNER‟S THEORY
Jerome Bruner is a process theorist who sees intellectual development as growing reliance on
internal representation.
Babies, according to Bruner have action – oriented form of intelligence. They know the
object only to the extent. That the can act on it.
Older children and adolescents know things internally and symbolically. This means that
they are able to form symbol and representations of objects and hold these mental images in
mind.
Bruner is interested on how these growing abilities are influenced by the environment
especially by the rewards and punishments people receive for using particular wage.
3. INFORMATION – PROCESSING THEORIES
These theories break intelligence down into various skills that people employ to take
information in process it, and use it to reason and solve problems. These skills may be
simple or complex.
In one approach componential analysis Robert Sternberg, distinguishes between components
and meta- components. Components are step one go through to solve a problem. Meta
components are kind of knowledge one has about how to solve a problem. We use meta-
components to plan and regulate our behaviour.
Juan – Pascual – Leone described action schemes (specific – repeatable – intellectual
sequences) and Executive schemes (similar to plan and strategies). Such schemes are
referred to as intellectual software, as distinguished from intellectual hardware resources such
as attention and memory. He suggests peode‟s software grow more sophisticated as they
mature.
Other information processing theories solve on the rules involved in intelligent.
Despite their difference all of the various approaches breath intelligence into
componentsprocesses and explore how these processes change over the course of
development.
ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE
Besides comprehensive analysis of intelligence it is most important to assess individuals
overall capacity for learning and problem solving.
Several tests have been devised for the purpose of assessing intelligence. All the intelligence
tests can be grouped into two main categories. They are
Individual testsTest which are administered to an individual in a particular time.
Group tests Tests which are administered to a large number of people at a time
These individual and group tests are of four categories They are
VERBAL TESTSTests which are based on usage of language ability. For example,
Army general classification test.
NON- VERBAL TEST Tests which are not involving the usage of language
Ability but requires individual to perform some activities.
PERFORMANCE TEST for example Draw-a-man-test.
CULTURE-FAIR INTELLIGENCE TESTTests not concerned with place, language,
education, society and culture; for example Army Alpha test.
Among the most important of the intelligence test are the STANFORD – BINET
INTELLIGENCE SCALE and three tests developed by DAVID WECHSLER for different
age groups.
A brief description of the above to follows-
STANFORD – BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE
Binet and Simon developed a test to identify mentally retarded children in French schools.
Several English language versions were developed subsequently.
The most successful was brought out in 1916 by LEWIS TERMAN of Stanford university.
Terman‟s scale known as the STANDERD-BINET became the model for many intelligence
tests and has itself been revised several times.
NATURE OF BINET‟S TEST
Binet devised his test by age levels on the basis that mentally retarded students seemed to
think non-retarded children at younger ages.
Within age scales, the tasks at each level are those which averages children of that age should
find moderately difficult.
For testing purpose, the highest level at which all items are passed by a given child is that
child‟s basal age.
Starting from that age, the tester adds additional credit for each item the child passes until the
reaches a ceiling age –that is the lowest level at which all items within the level are failed.
Individual‟s score can be expressed as a mental age(MA). Mental age could be expressed in
relation to CA (chronological age). The MA/CA ratio yields INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT
(IQ). This concept is proposed by psychologist WILLIAM STERN in 1912.
IQ = MA/CAX100
Where
MA= mental age
CA = Chronological age and
100 is used to eliminate decimals.
The following are some of the items from the Stanford – binet scale.
AgeType of item
1 3 hole form board,
Block building – tower.
2Block building – Bridge.
Pure vocabulary.
3 Naming objects from memory.
Picture identification.
WECHSLER TESTS
David wechsler developed a family of tests for people at various age level. The tests include
WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE (WAIS)
WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN (WISC)
WECHSLER PRESCHOOL AND PRIMARY SCALE OF INTELLIGENCE
(WPPSI)
These tests contain several subtests. The subtests can be grouped into two categories.
1. VERBAL SUBTESTS They are information memory span, arithmetic,
comprehension, similarities, vocabulary.
2. PERFORMANCE SUBJECTS they are picture arrangement, picture completion, block
design object assembly, digit symbol.
PROCESS- ORIENTED ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE DEVELOPMENT
INA UZGIRIS and J. McV . HUNT (1975) developed a set of six developmentalscales to
measure “progressivelevel of cognitive organization” in the first 2 years of life.
These scales are rooted in cognitive development theory, particularly PIAGET‟S THEORY.
They are designed to indicate whether a particular baby is at a given point of time within a
particular sequence of development stages.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
Differences in intelligence greatly affect people‟s ability to cope with the demands of society.
Low intelligence creates enormously difficult barriers to full participation in society and the
attainment of a high standard of living.
MENTAL SUBNORMALITY
People are appropriately regarded as mentally retarded if
1. They attain IQs below 70 on an appropriate intelligence test
2. Their adaptive skills are inadequate to cope with ordinary daily tasks.
LEVELS OF MENTAL RETARDATION
American Association on Mental Deficiency has recommended a category of mental
retardation
IQ DESCRIPTION
130 and above Very superior
120-129 Superior
110-119 Bright Normal
85-109 Average
70-84 Borderline
55-69 Mildly mentally retarded
40-54 Moderately mentally retarded
25-39 Severely Mentally retarded
Below 25 Profoundly mentally retarded
CAUSES OF MENTAL RETARTATION
There are two general causes of mental retardation
1. Cultural-familial, or sociocultural causes.
2. Genetic or a chromosomal defect. Down syndrome, for example, might be a genetic or
a chromosomal defect.
Other physiological causes of retardation are environmental, pregnant women who contract
rubella, scarlet fever, syphilis, or even mumps may give birth to infants who have suffered
brain damage as a result. Also, insult or injury to the brain or nervous system before or after
birth may result in retardation. Such damage may be done by
x-rays, by inappropriate drugs, by severe pressure on the infant‟s head during birth, by
oxygen shortages during or after birth, and even by severe maternal malnutrition.
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE MENTALLY RETARDED
Cultural-familial retarded persons are developing intellectually, they pass through the major
stages of cognitive development as described by Piaget much the same way as the non-
retarded population, the only major differences seem to be that retarded people pass through
the stages at a slower pace and cease developing cognitively at a lower stage level than do
most of us.
Retarded youngsters are often passive and dependent on others when they are asked to solve
problems.
Retarded children have been described as outer-directed meaning that they are overly
dependent on cues from other people.
EDUCATION AND TREATMENT FOR MENTAL RETARDATION
Once serious retardation has been identified, there is usually no way to undo it. However,
special training can sometimes produce modest changes in IQ and adaptive behaviour.
Training can also enhance the retarded person‟s all-important social skills.
A friendly style and an endearing smile can be major assets for a Down-syndrome child.
Social and self-help skills can be taught for the mentally retarded.
THE MENTALLY GIFTED
Intellectually gifted is a which is not so clearly defined as the mentally retarded. IQ s of 120
and up to be sufficient evidence of exceptionality.
A child who is moderately bright is likely to be one of the class “stars”. But they may often
be a misfit, misunderstood by peers and teachers and often regarded by both as impudent.
One problem seems to be that such extremely bright children are trapped in a world with few
real peers, they are “out of synch” intellectually with children their own age. They are “out
of synch” physically and socially with the older people who are their intellectual equals.
AGE CHANGES IN INTELLIGENCE
Process influencing intelligence develop with years. Mental ability for a bright child would
grow more rapidly than for a dull one. So that some degree of consistency would be found
for the ratio of MA to CA.
STABILITY OF IQ
The rate of intellectual growth is relatively stable for most people. In school age IQ does not
seem to change. Knowing the IQ at age seven, have a very accurate predictor of IQ at age 18
in one study.
IQ is more stable for most people after about age seven. However if there are major changes
in environmental conditions and in the opportunities for learning, there may be marked
changes in intelligence. Individuals‟ emotions and motives also produce changes in
intelligence.
GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE
Gain in intellectual ability is generally rapid in childhood and slows down in teens.
In one study, mental ability increased up to age 26, after which it leveled off and remained
unchanged through age 36.
Some individuals may show an increase in IQ after age 26 and some a decrease.
There is a steady decrease in intellectual ability after age 40 with a precipitous drop after 60.
Whether ability declines or not depends both on the person and the type of ability.
Individuals who remain physically well and continue to engage in stimulating activities show
little decrease in intellectual ability up to age 70.
Mental abilities that require speed and extensive use of short-term memory tend to reach their
peak between age 30 and 40 and decline thereafter.
Tests that tap general knowledge show little decline with age.
The rate of decline of specific abilities is related to one‟s occupation. People in intellectually
demanding occupations do not decline in mental ability as early as others.
However, with accumulated knowledge and experience, the older person may more than
compensate for diminishing speed and efficiency of intellectual functioning. In some
situations, older individuals may be more competent than a brighter younger person who
lacks experience.
GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE
GENETIC INFLUENCE IN INTELLIGENCE
Many studies have been conducted with fraternal twins and identical twins to know the IQ
differences among them. The results show that identical twins are more similar in IQs. This
supports the notion that is a considerable genetic influence on IQ.
Some researches conducted experiments with identical twins who had been separated in
childhood and reared in different environment. The aim was to assess how similar the twin‟s
IQs were despite their environmental difference. The result showed that IQ similarity exists
among the twins. Hence it can be concluded that genetic similarity leads to similarity in
intelligence.
Many other studies have been conducted in which the children‟s IQ scores were correlated
with their biological parents and adoptive parents. Most of this research has shown that
children‟s IQs correlate more strongly with those of their biological parents. This also
suggests the genetic influence on intelligence.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE
In studies of identical twins, and pairs of sibling, it is generally found that the pairs reared
together correspond more closely in IQ, than do the pairs reared apart.
Studies show that extremely poor rearing conditions are associated with low IQ‟s and that
enriched rearing and educational conditions are associated with higher IQ‟s.
These research finding shows that environmental conditions influences intelligence.
GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE
Virtually there is no evidence that nature alone or environmental alone completely determines
the development of intelligence. Psychologists today agree that intelligence is shaped by the
integration of the environment and heredity.
RUBBER- BAND – ANALOGY
Curt stern compared the genetic endowment to the amount of “stretch” that is possible in a
rubber band. Some rubber bands have a great deal of potential stretch built into them. Others
have relatively little. The amount of stretch a particular rubber band actually shows will
depend upon both its native endowment – stretchability – and the amount of pressure or pull
exerted by the people in the environment. Similarly a person‟s intelligence depends upon
genetic endowment and environment.
REACTION TIME
It is believed that our genes endow us with a reaction range. That is a range of possible
intellectual levels that we may attain depending in part on the genetics and quality of
environment into which we are born and within which we mature.
Our genetic endowment may set limits on what we can attain. Our environment may have a
major influence on how much of our potential we actually realize.
TESTING FOR SPECIAL APTITUDES
Individuals differ widely in intelligence, knowledge and skill. Many tests have been devised
to measure these individual differences. These include aptitude, interest, and achievement
tests.
WHAT IS ACHIEVEMENT TEST?
Tests that tell what one can do now are achievement tests. These tests measure accomplished
skills. Examinations given at the end of a course to see how much you have learned are
achievement tests.
APTITUDE TEST- MEANING
Tests that predict what one can accomplish with training are called aptitude tests. They
identify a capacity to learn.
SCHOLASTIC APTITUDES
One‟s capacity to succeed in academic activities is called scholastic aptitude.
The best known test of this type is the SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST (SAT).
Similar tests are used for schools of medicine, dentistry, nursing, law and several other
professions. Each is focused on specific abilities thought to be important to the profession.
The GRADUATE RECORD EXAMINATION (GRE) and MILLER ANALOGIES TEST
(MAT) are some of the other scholastic aptitude tests.
VOCATIONAL APTITUDES AND INTERESTS
NON – COGNITIVE ABILITIES
In many occupations they requires skills – such as reading x rays, Judging the color of the
throats, using surgical instruments- that have large perceptual – motor components. Such
physical and perceptual skills are known as non-cognitive abilities. Tests have been
developed to measure these abilities.
MECHANICAL – ABILITY TESTS
Many tests are intended for specific jobs. For example, test for machines, machine operators
and assembly line workers. These tests measure mechanical knowledge or ability to
manipulate objects.
PSYCHOMOTOR TESTS
Psychomotor tests are a second general class of vocational aptitude tests. They involve such
psychomotor tests as manual dexterity, steadiness, muscular strength, speed of response to a
signal and coordination of many movements into a unified whole.
USES OF VOCATIONAL APTITUDE AND INTEREST TESTS
1. employers use these tests to select employees.
2. Vocational counsellors use these tests to help people assess their aptitude for different
types of work.
EXAMPLES OF APTITUDE AND INTEREST TESTS
1. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT) – It is test battery that is combinations of tests
covering a wide spectrum of abilities.
2. The strong Campbell vocational interest inventory.
3. Kuder Occupational Interest Survey.
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
OBJECTIVES OF PERSONALITY TESTS
1. Personality test tries to understand what the person is usually like in thought, feelings and
behaviour patterns.
2. Personality testing aims typically for a representative picture of individuals as they usually
are.
PAPER AND PENCIL TESTS
Paper and Pencil Tests are in the form of a questionnaire or inventory. Such test can be given
cheaply and quickly to large groups of people.
QUESTIONAIRES
Questionnaires ask questions or give simple statements to be marked yes or no, true or false.
The questions are usually more reasonable and their purpose may not be self-evident.
This type of paper of paper-pencil tests were first used widely during world war-I to reed out
emotionally unstable draftees. The items may predict future emotional break- downs.
Some of the personality Questionnaires are briefed below-
MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI)
MMPI consists of 566 items for people to answer about themselves. The items can be
answered as “true” “false” or “cannot say”. In MMPI there are 10 basic clinical scales. In
addition, MMPI also has several validity scales designed to assess a test taker‟s frankness and
throughness in answering the items. The test results are plotted on a profile, which shows the
nature of person‟s problem.
THE 16 PERSONALITY FACTOR QUESTIONNAIRE(16 PF)
16 PF – has been devised by Raymond cattle and his associates. Cattell used factor analysis
to identify these 16 factors. These factors reflect key characteristic or source traits of the
human personality. A score sheet, which has 16 bipolar traits is used to show the 16 PF test
profile.
A number of other objectives personality inventories are used. Some of them are
1. The California Psychological Inventory (CPI)
2. The Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI)
3. The Comfrey Personality Scales (CPS)
4. The Jackson Personality Inventory (JPI)
5. The Guilford – Zimmerson TemperamentSurvey (GZTS)
6. The Myers – Briggs Type indicator (MBTI)
7. Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI).
PROJECTIVE METHODS
Projective methods are based on the projective hypothesis, derived from Freud‟s personality
theory. The basic idea is the way people respond to a vague or ambiguous situation is often a
projection of their underlying feelings and motives. A related assumption is that the test taker
responds to the relatively unstructured test stimuli in ways that gives meaning to the stimuli.
Much of that meaning comes from within the person responding. Thus projective methods
are intended to provide access to unconscious impulses and other aspects of personality of
which the test takers themselves may not be aware. Some of the most frequently used
projective tests are
1. RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST (Hermann Rorschach)
There is a set of 10 ink blots. The blots, some black and white some multi colored, appear on
separate cards. Subjects are presented with the cards, one at a time and asked questions such
as “what might this be”?or “what does this remind you of?”After writing the responses, the
tester asks the subject‟s response. The first phases of the test is called the free- association
phase, the second phase is called the inquiry.
Several methods, most combine subjective and objectives procedures, for scoring the
Rorschach have been proposed. The content and style of responses is important in the
subjective aspects of scoring.
2. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) (Morgan and Murray)
The TAT is based on Murray‟s theory of needs. TAT includes a „standard set of 30 pictures.
The tester selects pictures involving themes of special significance to the test taker. The
tester presents a serious of pictures and asks the subject to make up a story about “what is
happening”, what went before? What is going to happen? And what the people involved are
thinking and feeling?
The stories are closely related to the personality of the story-teller. The tester usually looks for themes that
surface several times in response to several different pictures and they make personality inference.
Other popularly used projective tests are
1. The sentence completion technique
2. Draw –a – person expressive technique
3. The Bender visual motor Gestalt test.
BEHAVIOURAL ASSESSMENT
Behavioral assessment methods have two main characteristics
1. They are designed to reveal the stimulus conditions associated with the specifictarget behaviors.
For example what circumstances lead to outbursts of temper?
2. They involve direct scrutiny- observing. The person‟s behaviour as it unfolds or at least seeking a specific
description of the behaviour and the situations in which it happens.
PROBLEM CHECKLISTS
Some checklists ask for specific details of a person‟s difficulties in one particular problem area. Behaviour
therapists ask the patients to fill out checklists of this sort just prior to therapy in order to help the therapists
decide which specific problem behaviors need to be treated on in which order.
Other checklists surveying problem behaviors of many different types one advantage of such broadly – cast
measures is that they are likely to include more clinically significant problems than psychologists, clients, or the
relatives of clients might ordinarily think to mention during an interview. Another advantages is that the
problems can be listed in explicit, observable terms that make them well suited to behavioral therapies.
Checklists may be structured to provide for members of clients, or from significant others such teachers or
therapists.
e. g
Fear checklists
Child behaviour checklists
Assertion inventory by Gambrills and Richey
Friedman‟s Action Situation Inventory
Kohn Social Complete Scale.
Benter Sexual activities checklist.
BEHAVIOR SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
It is important to observe a person‟s naturally accruing behaviour in real – life settings
psychologists sometimes arrange to observe behaviour in laboratory situation designed to be
experimental analogues of real life. Observation of a person‟s behaviour adds so much to the
assessment process that is considered almost indispensable by many behaviorally oriented
psychologists.
