Individual Differences

UNIT 3 INTELLIGENCE AND APTITUDE

Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Nature of Intelligence
3.2.1 Two Factor Theory (Spearman)
3.2.2 Multifactor Theories (Thrustone and Guilford)
3.2.3 Process Oriented Theories
3.2.4 Information Processing Theories
3.2.5 Other Theories
3.3 Growth of Intelligence
3.3.1 Measuring Intelligence
3.3.2 Stability of IQ
3.4 Determinants of Intelligence
3.4.1 Heredity
3.4.2 Environment
3.5 Assessment of Intelligence
3.6 Extremes of Intelligence
3.6.1 Mental Subnormality
3.6.2 The Mentally Gifted Children
3.7 Applications of Intelligence
3.8 Aptitudes
3.8.1 Concept and Types
3.8.2 Assessment of Aptitudes
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• define intelligence, ability and aptitude;
• list factors of intelligence;
• describe the growth of intelligence;
• explain stability of IQ scores;
• compare the role of heredity and environment on intelligence;
• state methods of assessment of intelligence;
• explain clinical features of Mental Retardation; and
• describe problems of gifted children.
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Educational Psychology
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2 you have already seen that individual differences are important in understanding
human behaviour. In this unit, you will study about intelligence.
Intelligence as a concept is used very commonly in our day to day life. We often make
comments that this person seems to be very intelligent or seems to be dull. Because of
this intelligence we human beings are considered superior to animals. But what is this
intelligence? Different people would give different meaning of Intelligence. Similarly,
psychologists have attributed a variety of factors to the concept of intelligence.
A distinction has to be made between intelligence and the aptitude tests. Intelligence
test is the assessment of the capacity or the potentiality that a person has, whereas the
aptitude tests measure capacity that predicts what one can accomplish with training.
An aptitude is a combination of characteristics indicative of an individual’s capacity to
acquire some specific knowledge, or skill. Aptitude means an individual’s aptitude for
a given type of activity, the capacity to acquire proficiency under appropriate conditions,
that is his potentialities at present as revealed by his performance on selected tests
having predictive value. It reveals an individual’s promise or essential teachability in a
given area.
Definition
Intelligence is the ability to master the information and skills needed to succeed within
a particular culture (Lolurto 1991).
Most commonly accepted view is that intelligence is a general capacity for comprehension
and reasoning that manifests itself in various ways. The most widely accepted definition is
“Intelligence is the global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally
and to deal effectively with his environment. It includes the power of adaptation of an
individual to his milieu and his ability to learn and abstract thinking.”

Check Your Progress 1

Define Intelligence and differentiate it from aptitude.

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3.2 NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE

Nature of intelligence can be understood by the different theories presented in the
following sub-sections.

3.2.1 Two Factor Theory (Spearman)

Charles Spearman proposed that individuals possess general intelligence factor (G) in
394 varying (degree) amount. This determines the individual’s overall ability. In addition to
G, individuals also possess specific abilities (S). ‘G’ is universal inborn ability, it is Intelligence and Aptitude

general mental energy. The amount of ‘G’differs from individual to individual. Higher
the ‘G’ in an individual, greater is the success in life. ‘S’ is learned and acquired in the
environment, it varies from activity to activity even in the same individual; the individuals
themselves differ in the amount of 'S’ ability. Refer Fig 3.1

Fig. 3.1: Two factor theory

Two individuals in a class may be comparable on their G factor, yet one may be very
good with numbers while the other possesses higher musical ability.

3.2.2 Multifactor Theories (Thurstone and Guilford)

a) Thurstone (1936) felt that intelligence could be broken down into a number
of primary abilities. He had derived, primary abilities on the basis of factor
analyses. These abilities, as shown in the following Table 3.1 are represented
in items in test construction.

Table : 3.1 Primary abilities forming intelligence as per Thurstone

Ability Description
Verbal comprehension Understanding of meaning of words
Word fluency Ability to think rapidly
Number Perform calculations
Space Visualize space form relationship
Memory Recall verbal stimuli
Perceptual speed Grasp of visual details
Reasoning Ability to find a general rule, logical thinking

b) Guilford has broadened the concept of intelligence. According to him there

are two types of thinking: i) convergent thinking — solving a problem that has
a defined correct answer; and ii) divergent thinking — arriving at many possible
solutions to a problem. This is predominantly creative thinking. He had
proposed a three dimensional theory represented in a cubical model. Guilford
maintained that intelligence test items should distinguish interms of the
Operations performed upon the Content and the Product that results. This
model provides for 120 factors of intelligence which is a combination yield of
4 contents, 5 operations and 6 products. Assume that a subject is asked to
rearrange jumble of words e.g. CEIV, NERTE, to form familiar words (VICE,
ENTER). The content is symbolic; since the test involves a set of letter
symbols; the operation is ‘cognition’ because it requires recognition of
information and the product unit is a word. 395
Educational Psychology 3.2.3 Process Oriented Theories
These theories have focussed on intellectual processes ---- the pattern of thinking that
people use when they reason and solve problems. These theorists prefer to use the
term cognitive processes, in place of intelligence. They are often more interested in
how people solve problems and how many get the right solution. They have focussed
on the development of cognitive abilities. Piaget’s work is a significant contribution in
this area. He viewed intelligence as an adaptive process that involves an interplay of
biological maturation and interaction with the environment. Bruner’s theory (1973)
suggests that intelligence is a growing dependence on internal representation of situations
or objects. This growing dependence is influenced by the environment, rewards and
punishments people receive for various ways of using their skills.

3.2.4 Information Processing Theories

These theories break intelligence down into various basic skills that people employ to
take in information, process it, and then use it to reason and solve problems. These
basic skills may be simple or complex. Robert Sternberg (1984) distinguishes between
information processing “components” and “metacomponents”. Components are the
steps to solve a problem and metacomponents are the basics of knowledge that one
has to know to solve the problem. The information processing theory has often been
compared with computers in which attention and memory have been designated as the
intellectual hardware whereas the action schemes (Piaget’s notion) are similar to specific,
repeatable intellectual sequences, and executive schemes, similar to plans and strategies.
The neo Piagetians are of the opinion that people’s software grows more sophisticated
as they mature, with their schemes expanding in complexity and their amount of available
mental energy increasing. Such changes in their view, promote the growth of intelligence.
Other approaches focus on the rules involved in intelligent behaviour or the skills required
for various tasks.

3.2.5 Other Theories

Cattell (1971) on the basis of factor analysis, has divided general factor of intelligence
(G) into two parts ---- fluid intelligence (GF) and crystalized intelligence (GC) ----
The former being innate, biologically or genetically determined and the latter acquired
based on cultural and education experience.
Eysenek (1973) distinguishes between speed and power components of intelligence.
Speed is measured by the time required to complete the task and power is measured
through untimed test of reasoning.
Jensen splits intelligence into two levels: associative ability being the capacity to learn,
remember and recall information. It represents the lower level of continuum. Cognitive
ability is concerned with reasoning and is located at the higher level. Cognitive ability
depends upon associated ability but not the vice versa.
Hebb (1966) has distinguished two meanings of intelligence on neurological basis.
Intelligence A is the innate potential based on the development process. This type of
intelligence is dependent upon the possession of a "good brain and a good neutral
metabolism”. Intelligence B involves the functioning of the brain, and is observable
indirectly from the individual’s behaviour. Intelligence A is not observable and cannot
be measured, whereas intelligence B is measured through tests.
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 Intelligence and Aptitude
Check Your Progress 2

List theories of intelligence.

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3.3 GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE

3.3.1 Measuring Intelligence
Intelligence test scores provide mental age level. If the child has an average mental age,
then a correlation of his mental age (MA) and the chronological age (CA) will form a
straight line. In case the individual’s mental age (MA) is higher than the chronological
age (CA) then the curve will be different.
Generally the growth of intelligence is rapid during early childhood and then slows
down in teens. Longitudinal studies using Wechsler’s tests have shown that mental
ability increases up to the age of twenty-six, after which it leveled off and remains
unchanged till late thirties.
There is a gradual decrease in the intellectual ability after forty with a sharp decline
after sixty. But it must be noted that decline in ability depends both on the person and
the type of ability tested. Individuals engaged in active stimulating working environments
with good physical health show little decrease in intellectual ability up to age seventy.
Physical disabilities, particularly those resulting from strokes or progressive reduction
of blood circulation to the brain usually result in a significant decrease in intellectual
ability. Growth of intelligence is represented in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2: Growth of intelligence

Mental abilities that require speed and short term memory decline earlier than general
knowledge. The rate of decline of specific abilities is related to one’s occupation like
people in literary work or professionals do not decline in mental ability as early as
others. Experience and accumulated knowledge compensates for diminished speed in
old age. 397
Educational Psychology 3.3.2 Stability of IQ
The stability of IQ has received a great deal of attention from the educational psychologists
because of its usefulness in education. There are two opinions, one holds that the IQ
remains relatively stable over the years changing only very slowly. Another opinion
holds that if determined effort is made, a change in IQ can be obtained. There is a
considerable evidence to indicate that a stability in IQ is not absolute but only a small
range of scores would change.
An extensive body of data accumulated, shows that intelligence test performance is
quite stable. Studies have reported high correlations ranging from 0.72 to 0.83 on
retest of intelligence scales. Bradway, Thompon and Cravens (1958) conducted a
follow up on children originally tested between the age of 2 and 5.5 years as part of the
1937 Stanford Binet standardization sample. Initial IQs correlated .65 with 10 years
retests and 0.59 with 25 years retests. The correlation between 10 year retest mean
age 14 years and mean age 29 years (25 year retests) was 0.85. If the initial assessment
is done in late childhood or after that, then the co-relations are found to be very high.
The instability of IQ may occur as a result of drastic environmental changes. IQcan
increase with stimulation and training but can decrease due to prolonged or severe
illness, head injury, brain damage, high fevers, epilepsy, meningitis and adverse
environmental factors like conflict at home, death of parent, malnutrition. Instability of
scores could also be due to fast or slow development of the child than that of the non-
native sample population. Generally children in continually disadvantaged environments
tend to lose and those in stimulating environments gain in IQ with age. The relationship
between IQ, educational attainment, and later occupational achievement is positive.
Many highly intelligent people perform disappointingly, while many with average IQ
may do remarkably well. This is because factors other than intelligence, such as drive,
persistence, attention, useful social contacts, and highly developed social skills, are of
major importance in the achievement in later life.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Describe the growth of intelligence.

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2) Explain the stability of IQ scores.

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3.4 DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE

The question of relative importance of ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’ as a determinant of
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intelligence has been controversial. The role of genetics, of heritability and environment Intelligence and Aptitude
has been extensively studied. Their comparative roles in determining intelligence are as
follows:

3.4.1 Heredity
Evidence pointing to the influence of heredity on intelligence comes mainly from family
and the twin studies. A heritability index shows the proportional contribution of genetic
or heredity factors of a particular trait in a given population under existing conditions. A
frequent procedure to compute heritability index is to utilize intelligence test correlations
of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins. Correlations between
monozygotic twins reared together and between monozygotic twins reared apart in the
foster homes have also been used. The following table summarises the results of a
large number of studies indicating that closer the genetic relationship, the more similar
is the tested intelligence.
Table 3.2 : Results of Studies for correction of Intelligence with Heredity
Correlation of Intelligence with Heredity
Relationship Correlation
Parents and natural child 0.50
Parents and adopted children 0.25
Dizygotic twin 0.55
Monozygotic twins 0.90
Reared together 0.75
Reared apart 24

Heritability estimates for intelligence have ranged from 0.45 to 0.87 (Jennsen, 1973).
The lower estimate is based on the assumption that a sizeable portion of variation in IQ
scores can be attributed to a genetic environmental covariation. Parents can influence
their offspring both by direct genetic transmission and by the kind of environment they
provide.

3.4.2 Environment
Even though intelligence has a significant genetic component, environmental conditions
can also be crucially important. The influence of the environment begins from the moment
of conception. The development of the foetus, especially at critical times, may be
affected by various physical factors including mother’s diet, smoking, disease such as
rubella and certain drugs. Subsequent environment, especially during childhood, socio-
economic status, nutrition, health, and educational influences of the family are very
important determinants of IQ.
It has been recognised that children from lower social class families generally perform
less well on intelligence tests than those from higher social classes. Studies of family
influences suggest that greater parental attention received by children of smaller families
and the first borns may result in higher IQ scores. The use of media and the educational
toys provide the right environment for an intellectual stimulation. Similarly urban and
rural set up, type of school attended lead to differential stimulation and type of experience
which in turn effects the intelligence scores. Effect of education not only influences the
399
Educational Psychology test scores, but teacher’s expectation may speed up or slow down the development of
individual child.
One of the most convincing evidence for the influence of the environment comes from
successful attempts, through intensive stimulation and education, to improve the IQs in
high risk children and mentally handicapped. Similarly IQ scores have been found to
increase when children are transferred from poor institutions to good foster homes.
To sum up, both heredity and environment play an important role in determining
intelligence. These can be compared to land and seeds used to grow crop. Seed is
like heredity and the land is like environment. If the land is not fertile, then even
with good seed, one cannot have a good crop. Similarly with a fertile land if poor
quality seeds are used, the crop will not achieve good results. Thus like fertile land and
good quality seeds are required for good crop, similarly both heredity and stimulating
environments are required for higher intelligence.

Check Your Progress 4

Compare the influence of Heredity and Environment on intelligence.

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3.5 ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

It was through psychological test of intelligence, that psychology has come to attention
of the masses.
A group of psychologists believe that human intelligence is an ability to adjust or adapt
to total environment. According to them an intelligent person can deal in greater number
and to a great variety of situations than the less intelligent. Another group of psychologists
believe that intelligence is the ability to learn. Intelligent individual can readily and
extensively learn. According to this group, a person’s intelligence is a matter of the
extent to which he is educable in the broadest sense.
Still another group feels intelligence is the ability to carry on abstract thinking. This
means the effective use of the concepts and symbols in dealing with the situation
especially those presenting a problem to be solved, through the use of verbal and
numerical symbols.
E.L. Thorndike has divided intelligent activity into three types:
1) Social Intelligence, or ability to understand and deal with persons;
2) Concrete intelligence or ability to understand and deal with things;
3) Abstract intelligence ability or to understand and deal with verbal and
mathematical symbols.
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There are separate tests available to measure how effectively persons are functioning Intelligence and Aptitude
in each sphere. Two most important and age-old tests used for children and adults
are:
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Besides these tests, there are group tests for primary level, elementary level, high school
children and adults. There are performance tests and non-language test to evaluate the
concrete and abstract intelligence. There are non-language group tests for foreign
language speaking and illiterate group. There are tests for infant and preschool age
group to judge the development of a child. There are cetain clinical tests used as an aid
in psychiatric diagnosis and tests to assess intellectual impairment. There are several
tests described as indices of organicity or brain damage. All these tests can be grouped
in the following categories:
1) Binet Scales
2) Wechsler Scales
3) Perfomance and Non-Verbal Scales.
4) Scales for Infants and Preschool Children.
1. Binet Scale (1960)
Alfred Binet (1875-19 II) was the first psychologist to devise concept of intelligence
(1904) aimed at measuring the ability to judge well, to comprehend well, to reason
well. Subsequently it was revised several times. Binet in collaboration with Simon
devised the test by age levels with items of increasing difficulty, with which ‘he could
measure a child’s intellectual level.’ He tested a large group of children of different
ages with tests of varying difficulty. This helped in finding which items could be completed
by majority of the children.
The Binet Scale was first devised in year 1905 primarily for children in school and to
identify mentally deficient. It consisted of 30 short tests arranged in difficulty. Very
soon ascending order of scale was improved and made as per age scale. By 1911, the
revision was done and age range was extended from 3 years to adult level. At present
grouped into the tests are age levels ranging from age 2 years to adults. Between the
ages of 2 and 5, the list proceeds by half-year intervals. Between 5 and 16, the age
level proceeds yearly basis. Those on remaining levels are designated as an average
adult and superior adult levels I, II and III. Each age level contains six tests, with the
exception of the average adult level, which contains eight tests. The tests within anyone
age level are of uniform difficulty.
For testing, each child’s based or basal age is derived, i.e. highest level at which all
items are passed. Terminal age specifies the lowest level where all the items are failed.
Between based or basal age and terminal age all the items are given additional scores.
The sum of this total score is converted into mental age. The ratio between chronological
age and mental age is intelligence quotient (IQ). The formula of calculating IQ is

Mental Age
IQ = x 100
Chronological
401
Educational Psychology It is multiplied by 100 to eliminate decimals. For example, if the child is 8 years old, his
mental age also falls at 8 year then he will have IQ of 8/8 x 100 = 100. Supposing this 8
years old child scores mental age of 10 years then his IQ would be 10/8 x 100 = 125.
The concept of IQ has become very popular, but it has a number of problems. One that
it has nothing to do for adults say a mental age of 2 or 45 is meaningless. Secondly it
tends to suggest that intelligence is fixed in childhood, whereas several studies have shown
that intelligence scores quite unduly. The new tests are based on deviation from IQ.
The material needed for administering the Stanford Binet includes a box of standard
toy objects for use with younger age group, a set of printed cards, a record booklet for
recording responses and a test manual. The tests at the earliest age level include the
manipulation of objects and a certain amount of eye-hand coordination. Further tests
include block building, stringing the beads, arranging and inserting pieces into the
appropriate spaces. There are tests involving drawing tests, which require the child to
copy a circle, a square, or a diamond. There are certain tests that include comparing
the length of sticks and matching geometrical forms.
For age group II level, a child is asked to point to the different parts of the body. This
involves observation and identification of common objects. Other tests require the
subject to name objects or picture of objects, completion of picture or identification of
missing parts, identify the similarity or differences between two sets of objects. There
are certain practical judgment or common sense tests. There are series of comprehensive
questions for age group 3½ to 8. In this series. the question mainly includes ‘What he
should do?”. In the higher age group, the questions are Why? based. A number of tests
for interpretation of a picture or a kind of make and story from the picture are also
included. Scales to evaluate memory are included in different tests. Tests to evaluate
the spatial orientation include maze tracing, paper folding, paper cutting, rearrangement
of geometrical figures and directional orientation. Numerical tests from simple arithmetic
to arithmetic reasoning are included to evaluate subject’s abstract mental ability.
Tests for the upper age levels includes, tests of vocabulary, sentence completion, defining
abstract items. This is to assess verbal and abstract ability of the subject. Administration
and Scoring these tests requires highly trained examiner as both administration and
scoring are complicated and need thorough understanding of the tests. It requires good
amount of familiarity and experience with the scale to observe and record the responses.
In taking the tests, no one subject takes all the tests. Each subject is given a test from
the age range considered appropriate to his age. The standard procedure is to begin
testing at a level slightly below the expected mental age of the subject. If the subject
fails any test within the age level, the next lower level is given. Such a procedure
continues until a level is reached at which all the tests are passed by the subject. This
level is known as the ‘Basal Age’. Testing is then continued upward to a level at which
all tests are failed. This is called ‘Ceiling Age’ or ‘terminal age’.
Testing usually takes 30-40 minutes with younger children and 1-1½ hour with older
subjects. The scoring is done on the basis of the tests passed between the Basal Age
and the Ceiling Age. This helps in computing the mental age and IQ score of the
subject. It is a widely used test by clinicians, educators, psychologists and professionals,
associated with this field. It’s a test to assess the general ability. It gives a fair
understanding about sort of development expected at each age group.
Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (4th edition, 1986)
This is altogether a new test comprising fifteen sub-tests organized into 4 areas Verbal,
402 abstract/visual, quantitative and short term memory. The test is designed for ages 2½
years and up. Whole test is usually not administered and up to 8 to 10 subtests are Intelligence and Aptitude
used for a subject that yields 8-10 subject scores and composite scores.
2. Weshsler tests
The other type of tests have been devised by David Wechsler. There are two intelligence
scales by Wechsler-one for adults (WAIS) and one for the children (WISC). Both
these tests are extensively used with adults and children. These scales include both
verbal and performance subtests. In performance tests, the use of language is eliminated
from test content and response. Performance tests are useful with deaf, illiterate or
non-english speaking subjects. It is useful with children who have or are suspected of
having reading difficulties, with those who have attended school irregularly and might
have been handicapped in developing verbal ability. Combination of both verbal and
nonverbal material within a single instrument is useful to obtain the advantages,
comparisons and contrasts provided by both types of test items. All items of a given
type are grouped into subtests and arranged in increasing order of difficulty. Besides
the general intelligence measurement tests, the Wechsler Scales have been investigated
as a possible aid in psychiatric diagnosis. Certain subtests help in diagnosing brain
damage, psychiatric disorientation and emotional difficulties
a) Weschsler Adult Intelligence Scale II (1997) (WAIS)
These are very popular tests and each has two sub scales or sub-tests i.e. verbal and
performance. Verbal scale is further divided into sub scales, details are given in the
following table 3.3.
Table 3.3 : Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Verbal Performance
1. Information i. Picture arrangement
2. Comprehension ii. Picture completion
3. Memory span iii. Block design
4. Arithmetic iv. Object assembly
5. Similarities v. Digit symbol
6. Vocabulary

The latest scale comprises 14 subtests instead of original 11 subtests. It consists of

four composites scores, namely, verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working
memory and processing speed apart from three traditional scores like Verbal IQ,
Performance IQ and full scale IQ. This test is suitable for ages 16-89 years.
As already elaborated, Verbal Scale includes questions on information, comprehension,
arithmetic, similarities, digit span and vocabulary. These questions are designed to
evaluate general information expected to be known by the subject: questions on what
should be done under certain circumstances ,why certain practices are followed;
arithmetic questions ranging from rudimentary school arithmetic to mental math questions:
questions requiring the Subject to compare and identify similarities and differences;
oral reproduction of three to nine digits, both forward and backward: and finally
questions to check the word meaning (vocabulary). The performance scale includes
activities like pairing symbols with digits, picture completion; tests with block design,
where the subject reproduces designs of increasing complexity requiring from four to 403
Educational Psychology nine cubes, picture arrangement and object assembly. Both speed and accuracy of
performance are taken into account in scoring arithmetic, digit symbol, block design,
picture arrangement and object assembly.
This is also a widely used scale to evaluate various functions of brain and general intelligence
of adult. Verbal scale is extensively used to study the factors like memory retention,
immediate recall, language development, concept formation, attention span, organization
of knowledge and abstract thinking. Performance test is used to study visual perception,
rate of motor activity, precision of motor activity, visual motor integration etc.
b) Weschsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
This scale is for children from 5-15 years of age. It is developed on the same principle
as WAIS. It has verbal subtests. performance subtests, a verbal IQ, a performance IQ
and a full scale IQ. The WISC consists of twelve subtests of which two are to be used
either as alternates or as supplementary tests. The verbal subtests include general
information, general comprehension, arithmetic similarities, vocabulary and digit span.
The performance tests include picture completion, picture arrangement, block design,
object assembly and coding (or maze).
Administration and Scoring
Like Stanford-Binet test, Wechsler Scales also need thorough understanding of test
and experience in administration and scoring. Scoring has a set of procedures. These
yield IQ with high reliability and accuracy.
Both these tests are used widely to investigate intellectual impairment or deterioration
resulting from psychotic disorders or damage from brain or other pathological conditions.
Indian adaptation of both the tests for adults and children are also available.
These tests have been modified according to Indian conditions and tested with Indian
population. These tests are developed on Indian population.
For example:
1) Group Test of intelligence by Pramila Ahuja.
2) Social Intelligence Test by Chadha and Ganesan.
3) Cognitive Style Inventory by Jha
4) Verbal Test of intelligence by Asthna and Verma
5) Battery for Assessment of mental efficiency in the elderly by Kohli Verma and
Parshad.
Besides this, another Indian test Bhatia Battery of performance test of intelligence is
widely used. This test has five sub-test namely Koh’s Block Design, Pass along tests,
Pattern drawing test, Picture construction test and Immediate memory for sounds.
3. Performance and Non-language Tests
These tests include both individual and group tests. These tests have been developed
to evaluate the subjects who cannot be administered Binet Scale or WAIS. These tests
are useful with subjects with retarded linguistic development, illiterate, reading disability,
foreign language background, shy and inarticulate children.
i) Performance Tests : These tests are used as supplements to scales already
404 existing. Here the subject has to do something manually and does not require
 to answer in any language. There are many well-known performance tests. It Intelligence and Aptitude
is not possible to include all, we will take up few most important ones:
a) Arthur point scale of performance tests: It includes a form developed by Seguin,
in which the examiner removes 10 pieces of different shapes and stacks them
together and asks the subjects to put them back as fast as they can.
b) The Pintner-Paterson Scale: This scale includes fifteen tests that do not require
the use of language. These tests are picture puzzles where sections of the
board are removed to begin with and the subject must replace them carefully.
Score is based on time required and number of wrong moves; geometrical
figures further cut into two and three parts need to be fixed into an appropriate
place; similar tests with varying complexity are given to the subjects.
Other important tests in this series include
• Cube Construction Test
• Kohs Block Design Test
• Cattell Intelligence Tests (Scale D and I are non verbal tests)
• The Porteus-Maze Test.
ii) Non-Language Tests
All the above tests are performance based and do not require linguistic knowledge.
There is another group of tests, which require paper and pencil but are otherwise
nonverbal. To list the few:
a) The Good enough Drawing Test: To evaluate a child’s intelligence by means
of his drawing of a man. It is used with children from age of 3½ -13½ years.
The child is instructed to make a picture of a man as best as he can. Scoring
is based not upon aesthetic quality but rather, upon the presence of essential
details and correctness of their relationships.
b) The Leiter International Performance scale: This test includes number of tests
requiring matching of design and color, completing block designs and form
completion.
c) Raven’s Standard Progressive matrices: This is a test of a person’s capacity at
the time of the test to comprehend meaningless figures presented for his
observation. The scale consists of 60 problems divided into 5 sets of 12 and all
the five sets provide five opportunities for grasping the method and five progressive
assessment of a person’s capacity for intellectual activity. It is designed to cover
the widest possible range of mental ability and to be equally useful with persons
of all ages, whatever their education, nationality or physical condition.
d) Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices: It has two components, one that
comprises a short set of 12 items covering all the intellectual processes, whereas
the 36 items in set II are identical in presentation and argument with those in
set 1. It is useful for college and university students and for candidates for
“management training programme”. It can be used from 12 years to 70 years
e) Coloured Progressive Matrices by Raven’s: It is used with people suffering
from physical disabilities, aphasia, cerebral palsy, deafness, intellectual sub-
normality and intellectual deterioration. It is designed to assess mental
development up to intellectual maturity. 405
Educational Psychology Similar tests by Indian authors include:
a) Bicycle drawing for measuring intelligence for 6-12 years children by Sharma.
b) Draw a man Test by Promila Pathak.
c) Human Figure Draw a Man Test by Misra.
d) Indian adaptation of culture free intelligence scale of Cattell and Cattell by
Kapoor, Rao and Singh.
e) Developmental screening test by Bharat Raj.
4. Scales for Infant and Pre-school Children
These are basically norms and inventories of development and behaviour derived from
observation of children’s behaviour and from experimentation. These scales are devised
to evaluate mental development of children ranging in the age from one month to six
years.
1) The Gessell Scale: This scale provides schedule to test at two age levels:
infant schedule and preschool schedule. Each level inventory is divided into
four categories namely motor, adaptive, language, personal and social. There
are certain motor development patterns expected at every age level. The
infant’s distinctive level of behaviour is found by observation. Responses
showing greater or lesser degree of maturity are counted. Finally a rating is
assigned to the infant in each of the categories, thus providing a profile of
development. Similar schedule with an expected set of behaviour is available
for age group from 15 months to 6 years. These schedules are not scored
quantitatively. These are clinical guides, intended, to use in estimating the
developmental status of a child in respect to the four designated categories
of behaviour.
2) Cattell Developmental and Intelligence Scale: It covers the age range from 2
months to 30 months. It is more or less mixture of Gessell’s test series and
Stanford Binet tests. This is also a widely used test and is of considerable
assistance to the clinician in appraising infants who are marked deviants from
the norm.
3) Minnesota Preschool Scale: It is designed to use with children from 18 months
to 6 years. The scale includes twenty-six tests. The test ranges from pointing
out parts in picture to copying a circle, to discrimination of geometrical forms,
to picture puzzle, to mutilated picture vocabulary and speech. It includes both
verbal and non-verbal test series.
There are tests by Indian authors developed on Indian population. To name a few:
1) Pandey’s cognitive development test for pre-schoolers.
2) Indian adaptation of Binet -Simon scale in hindi.
3) Malin’s Indian adaptation of Wechsler intelligence test for children.
4) Developmental Screening test by Bharat Raj.
Besides these tests, there are group scales of intelligence for elementary, secondary
and higher level, there are tests that are multifactor test batteries, there are tests to
406
evaluate a particular mental disability, reasoning ability, problem solving ability, concept Intelligence and Aptitude
formation ability, reading ability etc. This list is not exhaustive.
Some Intelligence tests can be administered individually. There are other tests to measure
intelligence in groups. These are specially used in selection tests by various organisations.
Intelligence scores are presumed to be distributed in normal distribution curve like
other biological variables. The IQs are classified as follows:
Genius 140 and above
Very superior 130-140
Superior 120-130
Above average 110-120
Average 90-110
Dull average 80-90
Borderline 70-80
Mild M.R. 50-70
Moderate 35-50
Severe 20-35
Profound 0-20

Nursing Responsbility
Since most of the tests need to be administered by a trained professional, the nurse can
initially observe and learn the procedure of administration of tests. She can develop
good rapport with the client to make the client comfortable and relaxed. Her keen
observation of individuals, helps getting good clues for the final assessment of test.
Explaining and clarifying doubts can be done with little training. She can start participating
by observing and can go on to independently administering the test and scoring it under
the initial guidance of an expert. In case of diagnosed mental disability. the nurse can
help child’s parents understand the problem and prepare them for their expected role
in rehabilitating the child.

Check Your Progress 5

Meena has physical age of 10 years, but on intelligence test her mental age falls at
7 years. Calculate her IQ and categorize its level according to IQ distribution.
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Educational Psychology
3. 6 EXTREMES OF INTELLIGE
3.6.1 Mental Subnormality
Mental Subnormality refers to sub average general intellectual functioning which
originates in the developmental period and is associated with impairment in adaptive
behaviour. A person is regarded as a mentally retarted if (i) the IQ attained is below 70
on standard psychological tests of intelligence; (ii) their adaptive skills are inadequate
to cope with the daily routines. Adaptation skills are those behaviours by which an
individual makes adjustments and independent living in the society. In childhood these
are the self help activities such as eating and dressing independently. Later on the
adaptive behaviours are concerned with basic academic skills and coping skill such as
telling time, using money and assuming social responsibilities. Slowness in development
may be widespread and affect all aspects of cognition. Only rarely will a child’s functioning
be retarded to the same degree over the entire range of skills, but where such skills are
almost all significantly impaired, it is reasonable to think that the child is showing general
mental retardation.
In our country the problem of mental subnormality is quite significant. The studies have
shown an incidence of 4-5 per 1000 individuals. Mental subnormality is categorized in
various levels ----persons of different age groups at these levels of severity:
Characteristics of Persons with Various Degrees of Mental Retardation

Severity Level
Age Group
Mild Moderate Severe

Preschool Can develop social and Can talk or learn to Poor motor
0.5 yrs. communication skills, communicate; poor social development. speech
minimal retardation in awareness; fair motor minimal; generally
sensori-motor areas, development, profits unable to profit from
often not distinguished from training: in self training in self-help;
from normal until late help; can be managed little or no
age. with moderate communication skills.
supervision,

School age Can learn academic Can profit by training Can talk or learn to
6-20 yrs. skills up to social and communicate; can be
Training and approximately 6th occupational skills; trained in elemental
Education grade level by late unlikely to progress health habits, profits
teens; can be guided beyond 2nd grade level from systematic habit
toward social in academic subjects; training.
confirmity. may learn to travel
alone in familiar area.

Adult 21 and Can usually achieve May achieve self May contribute
over social social and vocational maintenance in unskilled partially to self
and vocational skills adequate to or semi skilled work, maintenance under
adequacy minimum self support under sheltered complete supervision;
but may need guidance conditions; needs can develop self
and assistance when supervision and guidance protection skills to a
under unusual social or when under mild social minimal useful level in
economic stress. or economic stress. controlled environment.

Clinical Features
Mental subnormality may first be identified by delay in their motor milestones in the
408 first few months of life. The child will be slow to obtain head control, sit unsupported.
Large number of moderately retarded children however, show normal motor Intelligence and Aptitude
development and present for the first time with language delay. The child may be thought
to be deaf because he fails to take notice of sounds or shows lack of single words or
word combinations at the appropriate age. Mildly retarded children may not be detected
until they enter school when failure of educational progress may be found to be due to
a general slowness of development rather than to a specific learning disability. Usually,
however, it will be found that the early development of the mildly retarded especially
their early language development has been slow. Occasionally mental retardation arises
as a results of some postnatal event, such as a head injury or cerebral infection. In
these cases the time course of the condition will of course be different.
Once diagnosed, the clinical features of children with mental retardation will depend
more especially on:
1) The severity of the condition,
2) The presence of associated physical and psychiatric conditions;
3) The quality of care and education the child receives.
Causes of Mental Subnormality
Mild Retardation (IQ 50-70)
Polygenic influences and multiple deprivation: Most children with mild retardation
come from deprived family backgrounds in which the quality of parental care provided
has been poor. There is a strong link between mild retardation and low socio-economic
status, large family size, and overcrowded housing.
Parental intelligence is usually below average, though only a minority of parents of
mildly retarded children are retarded themselves. Family and twin studies suggest that
polygenic influences are also of importance in etiology.
Nutrition: The nutritional state of the mother during pregnancy affects foetal
development, including development of the fetal brain. After birth, malnutrition is
probably a very unusual cause of psychological deficit or abnormal behaviour in
developed countries. Malnutrition usually co-exists with severe environmental
deprivation. It probably affects mental functioning both directly and in an indirect way.
The malnourished infant and young child is often lethargic and slow to respond to
stimulation. He is prone to infection and therefore more likely to suffer cerebral damage
with effects on psychological functioning. Early malnutrition probably affects later
performance as a result of interaction between physical and environmental factors.
These are children with normal intellectual potential who have suffered a specific trauma
to brain function sufficient to impair intelligence to some degree, but not to such severity
to cause moderate or even more serious retardation. Thus some children with cerebral
palsy, post encephalitic states, or trauma to the head, fall into this category. Here the
question arises whether there has been hidden deprivation perhaps with the child being
neglected for long periods in an affluent household by the ayahs or servants or whether
there is a physical cause of unknown aetiology. Sensitive history taking is necessary in
these situations as the distinction is important for future management, but sometimes
uncertainty remains even after a careful assessment.
Moderate to Profound Retardation (IQ less than 50)
Although this level of retardation may be produced by gross deprivation, the great
majority of children functioning at this level of intelligence have organic brain pathology 409
Educational Psychology accounting for their retardation. Sometimes the effects of an organic lesion are
compounded by coexisting neglect.
Chromosomal defects account for about 40 per cent of the moderately or more
severely mentally retarded.
1) Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21): This syndrome accounts for about three
quarters of this (40 per cent) i.e. nearly one-third of all cases of moderate to
profound retardation.
2) Fragile X syndrome: This syndrome accounts for about 10 per cent of
moderate or more severe retardation in boys.
3) Sex chromosome abnormalities: Children with Turner’s syndrome (XO)
Klinefelters (XXV) and other abnormalities of the sex chromosomes although
usually of intelligence in the normal range, sometimes show general mild or
moderate mental retardation, or more commonly specific cognitive deficits.
4) Other autosomal abnormalities: These include disorders in which there is a
chromosomal deficit or excess.
Genetic defects: Single gene detects account for about 15 per cent of moderate
to profound retardation. These are mainly metabolic disorders such as
galactosaemia and Phenylketonuria exerting their effects by altering the metabolism
of amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and rarely, other bodily constituents. Some
endocrine disorders as well as a range of other rare genetic disorders are included
in this category.
Abnormalities of pregnancy and the perinatal period account for approximately
10 per cent of cases.
1) Infection in pregnancy e.g. rubella, toxoplasmosis, cytomegalo virus, Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
2) Alcohol or drug abuse in pregnancy.
3) Maternal phenylketonuria.
4) Perinatal abnormalities, including birth trauma and postnatal anoxia.
5) Neonatal disorders including infective and metabolic condition such as
hypoglycaernia.
Postnatal causes: These include head injury (accidental or non-accidental), infantile
spasms, and cerebral or meningeal infections and exposure to toxins, such as large
quantities of ingested lead producing encephalopathy. Mental retardation also very
occasionally follows prolonged anoxia of the brain caused by cardiac arrest or
obstruction to the respiratory tract.
Other causes: In about 25 per cent of cases of moderate to profound retardation no
cause is identifiable. In a proportion of such children the presence of other signs of
developmental abnormality such as deformities or organ malformations make it likely
that the mental retardation has arisen as a result either of a single gene or chromosomal
disorder, or as a failure of early fetal development. Some children do not show such
stigmata and indeed look perfectly normal. In the absence of a history of gross
deprivation or non-accidental injury it seems reasonable to assume that such children
410 are suffering from an unidentified organic disorder. Any unjustified assumption that
such cases might be caused by covert parental neglect is likely to increase the already Intelligence and Aptitude
serious emotional burden in the family.
Management
Retarded individuals take longer to learn new material and once they have learned
something new, they usually forget more easily than do the normal. Consequently they
need more support, and more systematic help from parents, teachers, and others in the
acquisition of skills. In particular, they often fail to learn by observation, and therefore
need more structured teaching. The help needs to be provided at an appropriate level
for the child. It is useless to try and teach skills too far ahead of the child’s present
mental age. Parents play an important role in training these children.
In the preschool period the main role for professionals such as professional teachers,
speech therapists, etc. is in helping parents to find ways to stimulate their child’s
development.

3.6.2 The Mentally Gifted Children

As you would recall from Unit 2, in distribution of intelligence, the right extreme of the
bell shaped curve represents the gifted or the genius. These are the individuals with
IQs of 140 or higher. About one out of every 100 children has an IQ of 140-160. Less
than one out of every 100 has an IQ above 160.
In the early childhood a gifted child is generally found to be a misfit in his class because
the level of teaching in normal class room is for an average child whereas the gifted
child is able to comprehend much faster. As a consequence they often indulge in
behavioural irregularities. They have been found to be gross under achievers and
extremely unhappy. One problem seems to be that such extremely bright children find
themselves intellectually misfit with children their own age and physically misfit with the
older people who are their intellectual equals. But things improve by adulthood and
they appear to be happier and better adjusted than most others of their age.
These days there are separate schools for the gifted children. With the right type of
training their superior potential is channelised in constructive tasks.

Check Your Progress 6

1) List different categories of mental subnormality.

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2) State level of learning ability of a 10 year old child with mild mental
subnormality.
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411
Educational Psychology
3.7 APPLICATIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
Assessment and understanding of intellectual functions is helpful in your clinical work
as with this knowledge, you can diagnose a patient with mental subnormality or with
very superior intelligence and guide parents according to IQ level. Your explanations
or guidance to the patient - would be according to his/her intellectual level. In some
diseases like neuropsychiatric disorders, epilepsy psychiatric disorders and in some of
the endocrinological disorders, assessment of intelligence is of great assistance in their
management.
Knowledge of intellectual functioning is also useful for you as a student and later as a
teacher. Teaching method, content of the subject matter and expectations from students
should he based on pupil’s intellectual functioning.

3.8 APTITUDES
Here we will study about Aptitudes, its types and its assessment.

3.8.1 Concept and types

Aptitude is defined as innate, acquired or developed component for doing a certain
kind of work at a certain level. Aptitude is a condition, a quality or a set of qualities of
a person by virtue of which they are capable of acquiring a particular training, knowledge,
skill.
Aptitudes may be physical or mental. However, many other types of aptitudes also
exist like linguistic (ability to speak different languages), artistic ( ability of being able
to do artistry), spatial (creating 3D images of relationships between objects) and so
on.

3.8.2 Assessment of Aptitudes

There are various tests which can assess the aptitudes, these are:
(i) Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT)
Also called SAT it helps in getting admission to various colleges and universities by
testing a student’s critical thinking skills and how does he/she analyze and solve
the problems. It involves reading, mathematics, writing and equations.
(ii) Vocational Aptitude Tests (VAT)
It is a test that helps to predict an individual’s potential for success. It assesses
abilities, personality interests, compares varied responses with a view to understand
the overall thought process of the individual. These tests are useful to both
employers and employees in a given occupation.
(iii) Professional Aptitude Tests
These are designed to be used for the purpose of managers, directors and
administrators. It involves testing of specific abilities like Perceptual ability to
perceive words, numbers with speed and accuracy, Intellectual ability to grasp
the meanings of words and symbols and Motor ability to use various types of
machines and tools.
412
(iv) Musical Aptitude Tests Intelligence and Aptitude

This test helps student to decide on unique abilities and characteristics towards
type of music and instrument to be followed.
(v) Aptitude for Graphic Art Tests
These tests help to find one’s talent in graphic art.
(vi) Mechanical Aptitude Test
This test is a combination of sensory and motor capacities plus perception of
spatial relation, for comprehending mechanical relationships.

3.9 LET US SUM UP

Intelligence is not a unitary concept, it is a global capacity of an individual to act
purposefully, comprehend and think rationally. Various theories have been put forth to
understand the nature of intelligence. Some theories define intelligence in terms of its
organisation like the factor theory ‘G’ factor and ‘S’ factor, and the multi factor theories
of Guildford. Other theories have defined intelligence in terms of cognitive processes.
Intelligence scores are more or less stable as the test scores of the early years have
been found to correlate highly with the scores obtained in late adolescence. Heredity
and environment both play an important role in determining the intelligence. Intelligence
can be assessed through verbal or performance test. Average IQ scores range from 90
to 110 (obtained on standard tests of intelligence). Those having an IQ below 70 are
considered as mentally subnormal, while those with an IQ above 160 are considered
as mentally gifted. Knowledge of intellectual functioning and its assessment is of a great
importance in clinical practice.

3.10 KEY WORDS

Ability : Demonstrable knowledge or skill
Achievement tests : Tests used to measure present knowledge or
skills
Adaptation : Refers to meeting the performance requirements
or the demands of one’s situation
Aptitude : Ability to profit by certain type of training and to
do the work required in a particular situation
Chronological Age : Age from birth, calendar age
Convergent thinking : Thinking in which the thinker gathers information
relevant to a problem and then proceeds by
reasoning to arrive at the one best solution;
involved in solving’ problems with a single correct
answer
Crystallized Intelligence : The type of intelligence involved in applying what
has been learned; reflects one’s cultural exposure
and is composed largely of knowledge and
skills 413
Educational Psychology Divergent thinking : A type of thinking in which a wide variety of
ideas or solutions come to mind

Fluid intelligence : A general relation-perceiving capacity which

represents one’s potential intelligence somewhat
independent of socialisation and education

Genes : The essential elements in the transmission of

heredity characteristics

Heretability : The proportion of the total variability of a trait in

a given population that is attributable to genetic
differences among individuals within that
population

Intelligence Quotient : The score obtained on an intelligence test. IQ is

a number obtained by dividing mental age by
chronological age and multiplied by 100

Mental age : A type of score expressing mental development

in term of age level at which a child is performing

Mentally gifted : An individual with an unusually high level of

intelligence commonly an IQ of 160 and above

Mentally retarded : A mentally subnormal individual whose problems

lie in a learning disability with no evident organic
damage.

3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

Refer to Section 3.1.

Check Your Progress 2

Read carefully the theories of intelligence in Section 3.2.

Check Your Progress 3

1) and 2) Refer to Section 3.3.

Check Your Progress 4

Describe about heredity and environment from Section 3.4.

Check Your Progress 5

IQ = 70, Border Line.

Check Your Progress 6

1) Refer Sub-section 3.6.1.

2) Refer Sub-section 3.6.1.

414