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M2794.001800 M A T E R I A L A N D M A N U F A C T U R I N G P R O C E S S E S

Chapter 6. Bulk Deformation

Processes

Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon ( )

School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Seoul National University

© Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon

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Classification of Deformation Processes

 Temperature
 Hot working(열간가공) T  0.6Tm
 Warm working(온간가공) T  0.3 ~ 0.5Tm
 Cold working(냉간가공) T  0.3T
m

 Types of operation
 Primary working(1차가공) : solid piece of metal(금속괴) → slabs(슬래브),
plates(후판), billets(빌랫).
 Secondary working(2차가공) : products from primary working(1차가공품) →
bolts(볼트), sheet metal parts(금속판재품), wire(선재) etc.

 Size and shape of the workpiece

 Bulk deformation(부피성형가공) : thickness or cross section of the work-
piece changes (forging(단조), rolling(압연), extrusion(압출), drawing(인발)).
 Sheet forming(판재성형가공) : generally shape changes, thickness changes
are undesirable.

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Forging (단조) (1)

Bellows / Blower(풀무)

Anvil(모루)

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Forging (단조) (2)

 Plastic deformation of the workpiece is carried out by compressive
forces.

 Crankshafts, connecting rods, turbine disks, gears, wheels, bolt

heads, hand tools, etc.

 The recrystallization temperature(재결정온도) for metals : T / Tm ~ 0.5

 Basic categories of forging

 Open die forging(자유단조)
 Impression die forging(형단조)
 Closed die forging(폐쇄단조)

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Open-die forging (자유단조)

 Reducing the height of workpiece between two flat dies by
compressing it.

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Forces and work of deformation

h0  h1
Reduction in height  100%
h0
h0  h1 h 
e1  ,  1  ln  0 
h0  h1 
v v Relative velocity
e1   , 1  
h0 h1 between the plates

A0 h0
F  YA1 , A1 
h1
1
Work  volume 
0
 d ,   K  n
F  Y f A1 , Work  ( volume) Y ( 1 ) 
1
K   n d K 1n
Y 0

1 n 1
(Yf : Flow stress, Y : Average flow stress)

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Methods of analysis - Slab method (1)

Horizontal forces : ( x  d x )h  2 y dx   x h  0

2 y
d x  dx  0 ⓐ
h
Using distortion-energy criterion for plane strain
2
 y  x  Y  Y : Average flow stress
3
d y  d x ⓑ

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Methods of analysis - Slab method (2)

ⓐ & ⓑ give
2 y
d y  dx  0
h
d y 2
   y  Ce  2 x / h
dx O.D.E
y h

Boundary conditions : x  a,  x  0 
  y  Y ' at the edges of the specimen

C  Y ' e 2 a / h
p   y  Y ' e2 (a x) / h
 x   y  Y '  Y '[e 2  ( a  x ) / h  1]
 a 
pav  Y ' 1   : Average pressure
 h 
F  ( pav )(2a)( width ) : Forging force

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Methods of analysis - Slab method (3)

Rectangular Specimen Die pressure

Question : What should be the shape before deformation to make a

rectangular part?
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Methods of analysis - others

 Slip-line analysis(미끄럼선 해석)
 Upper-bound technique(상계해법)
 Finite element method(유한요소법)

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Impression-die/closed-die forging(형단조)(1)
 Impression-die forging : the workpiece acquires the shape of the die cavities
(impressions) while it is being upset between the closing dies.
 Flash(플래쉬) : significant role in the flow of material.
 Forces in impression-die forging : depending on its position, F=KpYfA.
 Land(랜드부) : controlling the forging load not to be excessive.

h
ratio
L

Plane strain

F  ( K p )(Y f )( A)

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Impression-die/closed-die forging(형단조)(2)
 Closed-die forging(폐쇄단조) : no flash is formed and the workpiece is completely
surrounded by the dies.
 Precision forging(정밀단조), flashless forging(밀폐단조) : the part formed is close to the final
dimensions, high forging load & capacity equipment needed.
 Isothermal forging(등온단조), hot-die forging(가열금형단조) : the dies are heated to the same
temperature as the hot blank.

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Closed-die forging (폐쇄단조)

 Orbital forging(궤도단조)

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Miscellaneous forging operations (1)

 Coining(코이닝)
 an example of closed-die forging
 minting of coins.
 Heading(헤딩) – Fig 6.17
 Piercing(천공) – Fig 6.18
 Hubbing(허빙)
 Cogging(코깅)
 Fullering and edging(풀러링, 에징)
 Roll forging(압연단조)
 Skew-rolling(강구전조작업)

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Miscellaneous forging operations (2)

Cogging Roll forging(Cross rolling)

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Miscellaneous forging operations (3)

Steel balls by
skew-rolling

Steel balls by
upsetting

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Defects in forging (1)

 Caused by the material flow patterns in the die cavity.
 Cold shut.
 Grain flow pattern, end grain.

Buckling

Over sized billet

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Defects in forging (2)

Grain flow pattern

(단류선 영향)

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Die design (1)

 The most important rule in die design : the workpiece material flow in the
direction of least resistance.
 Considerations
 Strength and ductility of the
workpiece material.
 Strain rate and temperature.
 Frictional characteristics.
 Die distortion under high forging
loads.

 Die design parameters

 Flash clearance between the
dies : 3% of the max. thickness.
 Length of the land : 5 times of the
flash clearance.
 Proper radii for corners and fillets.

 Die materials
 Tool and die steel(공구강 및 다이
강) containing Cr, Ni, Mo and V.
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Die design (2)

 Draft angles : Internal angles(7~10°) > External angles(3~5°)

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Forging equipment
 Hydraulic presses(유압프레스)
 Mechanical presses(기계프레스)
 Screw presses(나사프레스) : for parts requiring precision(turbine blades) and
control of ram speed.
 Hammers(해머) : potential energy of the ram is converted to kinetic energy.
 Counterblow hammers(카운터블로해머)

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Rolling (압연)
 The process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross-section of a long
workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.
 Plate(후판) : t ≥6mm / sheet (박판) : t ≤ 6mm

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Changes in the grain structure

Wrought structure
(단련 구조)

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Mechanics of flat rolling

 The velocity of strip must increase as it moves
through the roll gap.
 Sliding occurs between the roll and the strip due to
the surface speed of the roll is constant.
 Neutral point or no slip point(중립점)
 Left of neutral point : workpiece velocity < roll velocity
 Right of neutral point : workpiece velocity > roll velocity
 The frictional forces oppose each other at the neutral
point. (Ffriction_left > Ffriction_right)
→ yielding a net frictional force to the right.

V f  Vr
Forward slip 
Vr

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Roll pressure distribution (1)

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Roll pressure distribution (2)

( x  d x )(h  dh)  2 pRd sin    x h  2 pRd cos   0 h  h f  2 R(1  cos  )
d ( x h) h  h f  R 2
 2 pR(sin    cos  )
d
d ( x h) p h R R
 2 pR(   ) , ( sin    , cos   1) ln  ln  2  tan 1   ln C
d Y f R hf hf
2 h  H
p  x  Y f  Y f p  CY f e
3 R
d [( p  Y f )h]  R 
 2 pR(   ) R 1 
d H 2 tan 
hf  
 hf 
d   p  
Y f   1h   2 pR(   ) R
d   Y f   In the entry zone : C  e H i
hf
d  p   p  d h  ( Ho H )
Y f h   1 Y f h  2 pR(   ) p  Y f e
d  Y f   Y f  d ho
d  p 
R
d  Y f  2 R In the exit zone : C 
 (   ) hf
p / Y f h
h H
p  Y f e
hf

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Neutral point / front and back tension

ho e H o
 2 H n  e  ( H o  2 H n )
hf e
1 1 h 
H n   H o  ln o 
2   h f 
hf  hf H 
n  tan  n
R  R 2 
 
h  ( Ho H )
Entry zone : p  (Y f   b ) e
ho
h
Exit zone : p  (Y f   f ) e H
hf

Exmple 6.3 Back tension required to cause roll slip

hf
p 0  (Y f   b ) e H o
ho
  ho   H 
 b  Y f 1   (e o ) 

  hf  

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Defects in rolling
 Surface defects
 Structural defects
 Residual stresses
 In the case of small-diameter rolls or
small reductions, plastic deformation
occurs on the surfaces.
→ compressive stresses(surfaces),
tensile stresses(bulk).
 In the case of large-diameter rolls or
high reduction, plastic deformation
of the bulk is greater than the
surfaces.
→ tensile stresses(surfaces),
compressive stresses(bulk)

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Flat-rolling practice (평판 압연 작업)

 Hot rolling : converts the coarse-grained, brittle and porous cast
structure to wrought structure(finer grains and enhanced ductility).

 Products of the first hot-rolling operation

 Bloom : square cross-section(정사각형), at least 150mm side, structural
shapes by shape rolling(e.g. I-beam and railroad rails).
 Slab : rectangular in cross-section(직사각형), plates and sheet.
 Billet : square cross-section(정사각형) smaller than bloom, various shapes
(e.g. round rods(환봉강) and bars)

 Rolling equipment
 Small-diameter rolls are preferable, because the smaller the roll radius the
lower the roll force. However, small rolls deflect under roll forces and have to
be supported by other rolls. The cluster mill, or Sendzimir(다단압연기), is
particularly suitable for cold rolling thin strips of high-strength metals.

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Rolling equipment

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Miscellaneous rolling operations (1)

 Shape rolling(형상압연) : H-section part, I-Beam and channels.
 Ring rolling(링압연) : rings for rocket, turbines and gearwheel rims.
 Thread and gear rolling(나사 및 기어전조) : high production rates, great strength,
improved fatigue life.
 Rotary tube piercing(회전천공) : hot-working process to make long, thick-walled
seamless tubing.

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Miscellaneous rolling operations (2)

 Ring rolling

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Miscellaneous rolling operations (3)

 Thread and gear rolling

Grain flow lines (단류선)

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Miscellaneous rolling operations (4)

 Rotary tube piercing
 Thick-walled seamless tube.

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Extrusion (압출)

Direct extrusion(직접압출) : high friction between billet Indirect extrusion(간접압출) : no friction between
and wall billet and wall, die moves to the billet.

Impact extrusion(충격압출) : form of indirect

extrusion, suitable for hollow shapes.
Hydrostatic extrusion(정수압압출) : no friction
along the container walls. © Prof. Ahn, Sung-Hoon
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Mechanics of extrusion (1)

Ao
Extrusion ratio, R 
Af
 Ao  L 
 1  ln    ln  f
 L   ln R
 Af   o 
Energy dissipated in
plastic deformation per u  Y 1
unit volume
Work  ( Ao )( Lo )(u )
Work  FLo  pAo Lo
 Ao 
p  u  Y ln    (Y )(ln R )
A 
 f 

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Mechanics of extrusion (2)

When friction is included
 tan  
p  Y 1  [( R)  cot  1]
  
Ptotal  Pplastic  Pfriction
Ptotal  pVo (D02 / 4)
Pplastic  Vo (D02 / 4)(Y )[ln( Do / D f ) 2 ]
Pfriction  (Vo )(D02 / 2 )(Y / 2) ln( Do / D f )

p / Y  3.41 ln( Do / D f )  1.7[ln( Do / D f ) 2 ]

p  1.7Y ln R
 D02 
( p friction )   Do kL
 4 
4L 2L
p friction  k Y
Do Do
 2L 
p  Y 1.7 ln R   Actual forces : p  Y (a  b ln R)
 Do 
( Emperical formula)
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Defects in extrusion
 Surface cracking(표면균열)
 Too high extrusion temperature, friction, or extrusion speed.
 Periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die land.

 Extrusion defect(파이프결함)
 Surface oxides and impurities drawn toward the center of the billet.
 Reduced by modifying the flow pattern, machining the surface of the billet or using a dummy block.

 Internal cracking(내부균열) : due to hydrostatic tensile stress at the center line.

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Drawing (인발)
 The cross-sectional area of a bar or tube is reduced by pulling it through a converging die.
 Rod and wire drawing are usually finishing process.

 Ao 
 d  Y ln  

 Af 
  K n
K 1n
Y 
n 1
 Ao 
F  Y A f ln  
A 
 f 

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Defects in drawing
 Similar to defects in extrusion.
 Seams(솔기결함) : longitudinal scratches or folds in the material.

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Swaging (스웨이징) (1)

 The metal flows in to the dies
which apply compressive force
or impact to the metal at room
temperature.
 Rotary swaging(회전 스웨이징) :
a solid rod or a tube is reduced
in diameter by reciprocating
radial movement of dies.
 The Internal diameter and
thickness or shape of the tube
can be controlled with or without
mandrels(맨드릴).

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Swaging (스웨이징) (2)

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Case study (Space shuttle)

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Solid rocket casing

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Forging processes for solid rocket casing

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