ELDORET TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE

BUILDING SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

CERTIFICATE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE IN ROAD AND BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING
ATOM: Definition

This is the smallest particle of an element. An atom is made up of 3 sub-atomic particles namely:

a) Neutrons (No charge)

b) Protons ( positively charged)
c) Electrons (Negatively charged)

The central part of an atom is called Nuclear and hosts protons and neutrons. Electrons are found on the
parts that surround the nuclear called Energy levels. Electrons are represented by either across (x) or a
dot (•).

Fig 1(a)
Atomic number and mass number

Atomic Number: The number of protons in the nucleus ofan atom.

: Can also be defined as the number of electronsin aneutral atom.

Atomic number is written on the left side of the element and as a subscript.

Example

Sodium has 11 electrons and is indicated as 11Na

Mass Number: This is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom e.g. Sodium has 11
protons and 12 neutrons, thus has a mass number of 23.

Isotopes

These are the atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass number.

The change in mass number is brought up by increase of neutrons by one(1) but not the change of
number of proton.

Element Atomic no No. of protons No of neutrons Mass no Isotope

Hydrogen 1 1 0 1 1
1𝐻𝐻

1 1 1 2 2
1𝐻𝐻

1 1 2 3 3
1𝐻𝐻

Carbon 6 6 6 12 12
6𝐶𝐶

carbon 6 6 7 13 13
6𝐶𝐶

Oxygen 8 8 8 16 16
8𝑂𝑂

Oxygen 17
8 8 9 17 8𝑂𝑂

Oxygen 18
8 8 10 18 8𝑂𝑂

Chloride 17 17 18 35 35
17𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Chloride 17 17 20 37 37
17𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Energy level and electron configuration

Energy levels host the electron around the nucleus of an atom. Each energy level is assigned to the
number of electrons that it can host.

Energy levels are numbered in atomic form 1, 2, 3….. starting from the internal enrgy level.

The number of electrons in which an energy level can host is determined by the formulae 2n2.

Electron configuration

Electron configuration is the ratio of numbers representing the number of electrons in each energy level
of an atom separated by a colon e.g. Sodium has 11 electrons thus the electron configuration is 2:8:1

Sulphur has 16 electrons thus electron configuration is 2:8:6

Relative atomic mass (RAM)

Is the average mass of an element with isotopes.

Relative atomic mass only apply to those elements which form isotopes and is given by the formulae:
(𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒙𝒙 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝟐𝟐) + (𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝟐𝟐 𝑿𝑿 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝟐𝟐)
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 =
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

In a carbon element there are 2 isotopes of mass number 12 and 13 and the relative abundance of 70%
and 30% respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of the element

(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏) + (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
(𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖) + (𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑) 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

The periodic table

In the periodic table elements are arranged in groups and periods. Groups are the vertical columns of
elements in the periodic table.

Elements in the same group have the same number on electrons on it’s outermost energy level.

e.g.: Group I, IV, VII have 1, 4 and 7 electrons in the outermost energy level respectively

periods are horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table. Elements in the same periods have the
same number of energy level but electrons increase by one number to the next from left to right of the
periodic table.

In a periodic table there is a separation of group II and group II elements which is caused by elements
with atomic number from 21 to 30.
These elements are called transition metals.These elements have similar behaviour and accupy a very
special position in the periodic table.

Fig 1(b)

General Properties of elements

Atomic radius decreases with increase in group

Ionisation energy increases with increase in group

Electron affinity decreases with increase in group

Electronegativity increase with increase in group

Metallic property decreases with increase in group

 STRUCTURE AND BONDING
Bonding

This is the union of atoms to produce new structure. Elements in the outermost energy level are the one
involved bonding.

The outermost electrons maybe transferred from an atom to another

The atoms involved in binding may also contribute electrons to be shared. When this happens, atoms
become stable by acquiring inner gas configuration.

Types of bonds

1. Ionic/electrovalent bond

Ionic bonds are formed when a complete transfer of electrons from atom to another

The atom that donate electron becomes positively changed while the ones receiving an electron
becomes negatively charged.

String electrostatic forces of attraction are created between the two charged particles. Thsesforce make
ionic substances very stable

Example

Sodium + Oxygen Sodium Oxide

2Na + O  2Na+ + O-2

2.8.1 + 2.8.8 2.8

Sodium + Chloride  Sodium Chloride

2Na + ClNa+Cl+

Fig 1©
Properties of Ionic bonds are:

1. Crystal of ionic solid are hold and brittle

2. Have high melting points and boiling points
3. Good conductors of electricity when molten or an solution but non-conductors when solid

2. Covalent bonds

Have two or more atoms of the same electronegativity combines each atom donates electrons which
are shared by the atoms involved. The atoms there is acquire the noble ga structure by sharing the
electrons

A bond formed in their manner is called a covalent bond. This type of bond leads to formation of
molecular

Examples

H2HxxH

Fig 1(d)
 Fig 1(d)

Properties of covalent bond

- They are mostly gases of low melting poing or boiling popint

- The vaporize ready
- Do not conduct electricity
- Generally soluble in non-polar solvent but insoluble in polar solution

NB: Covalent bonds are strong resulting in the formation of molecular the attractive forces between the
molecular are weak this intermolecular forces are called Vander forces.

3. co-ordinate/Dative Bonds

After atoms have combined by way of ionic or covalent bond. Their combining power on unshared or
loose pair of electrons

Electrons may be used to form a bond with another atom

A co-ordinate bond is thus formed between the two atoms where both electrons ate provided by the
one atom

NH3 + H → NH4
 Fig 1(e)

4. Metallic Bonds

Each atom in a metal is bonded to several neighboring atom. The bonding electrons are free to move
the lattice.

The outer electrons each atom are loosely held hence their freedom to move.

The resulting ions which are now evenly charged due to lose of valence electrons tend to repel each
other both are held together by moving around electrons.

Metallic binds are strong in such metals or ions but weak in other such as sodium.

Properties of metallic bonds

1. Have high melting and boiling point

2. Have high thermal conductivity
3. Good conductors of electricity
4. They are malleable
5. They are ductile

Fig 1(f)
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acids

Acids are ionic compounds (A compound with a positive or negative charge) that break a part in
water to form hydrogen ion (H+).

The strength of an acid is based on the concentration of H+ ions in the solution. i.e. the more the
H+ the stringer the acid.

Characteristics of acids

• Acids taste sour

• Acids strongly with metals (Zn + HCl)
• React with bases forming Salt and Water
• Turns Blue litmus paper red and red remains red
• They are rough
• Strong acids are dangerous and can burn of human being.

Examples of acids

 Vinegar
 Stomach acids
 Citrus fruits etc

When this reaction occur salt and H2O are formed

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 → 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑙𝑙(𝑔𝑔) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙

Acid – Base Reaction

An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. An acid-
base reaction is thus removal of hydrogen ion from the acid and its addition to the base; the
hydrogen ion from an acid produces its conjugate base with the acid with a hydrogen ion
removed.

The reception of a proton by a base produces its conjugate acid, which is the base with a
hydrogen ion added. The general formula fro acids base reaction is

HA + B  BH++ A

Where AH is Acid; B is Base

BH+is conjugate acid

A-is conjugate base of HA

Eg

HCl + H2O  H3O+ + Cl+

NB: The reaction of a strong acid with a strong base is essentially a quantitative reaction.

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 → 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑙𝑙(𝑔𝑔) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
This is the study of chemical reaction which takes place at the interface of an electrode, usually
a solid metal or a semi-conductor and the ionic conductor; the electrolyte.

This reaction involves electric charges moving between the electrode and the electrolyte.

Bases

A base is a substance that can accept a hydrogen ion from another substance.

Characteristics of Bases

• Tastes bitter
• They are slippery
• React with bases forming Salt and Water
• Turns Blue litmus paper red and red remains red
• Strong bases are very dangerous and can burn the sin of a human being

Examples of bases

 Sodium Hydroxide

pH scale and indicators

the strength of acid/base in a solution is measured on a scale called pH scale. The pH scale is the
measure of the hydrogen ion concentration. It starts from 0-14 with the middle point (7) being
neutral.
Any pH number greater than 7 is considered a base and any pP less than 7 is considered to be
acid.

0 is the strongest acid and 14 is the strangest base.

Indicators

AN indicator is a special type of compound that change color as the pH of a solution changes
thus telling us the pH of the solution.

Neutralization Reaction

When acids and bases reaction there is equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions that the
reaction is neutralized.

Electrochemical reaction

This is a chemical reaction caused by electrical cure from external source.

Oxidation Redox

This is a chemical reaction to involve direct transfer of electrons between molecules. This
reaction can occur through application of an external voltage or through release of chemical
energy.
 Physical and Chemical Changes
There are several differences between a physical and chemical change in matter or
substances.

A physical change in a substance doesn't change what the substance is. In a chemical
change where there is a chemical reaction, a new substance is formed and energy is either
given off or absorbed.

For example, if a piece of paper is cut up into small pieces it still is paper. This would be a
physical change in the shape and size of the paper. If the same piece of paper is burned, it is
broken up into different substances that are not paper.

Physical changes can be reversed; chemical changes cannot be reversed with the substance
changed back without extraordinary means, if at all. For example, a cup of water can be
frozen when cooled and then can be returned to a liquid form when heated.

If one decided to mix sugar into water to make sugar water, this would be a physical
change as the water could be left out to evaporate and the sugar crystals would remain.
However, if one made a recipe for a cake with flour, water, sugar and other ingredients and
baked them together, it would take extraordinary means to separate the various
ingredients out to their original form.

When heat is given off in a chemical change or reaction, it is called an exothermic reaction.
When heat is absorbed in a chemical change or reaction, it is called an endothermic
reaction. The speed at which chemical reactions take place depend on the temperature
pressure and how concentrated the substances involved in the chemical reaction are.
Sometimes substances called catalysts are used to speed up or help along a chemical
reaction. Light is helpful in the processing of film.
Examples of Physical Changes and Chemical
Changes
A chemical change produces a new substance, while a physical change does not. A material
may change shapes or forms while undergoing a physical change, but no chemical reactions
occur and no new compounds are produced.

Examples of Chemical Changes

A new compound (product) results from a chemical change as the atoms rearrange themselves to
form new chemical bonds.

• Burning wood
• Souring milk
• Mixing acid and base
• Digesting food
• Cooking an egg
• Heating sugar to form caramel
• Baking a cake
• Rusting of iron

Examples of Physical Changes

No new chemical species forms in a physical change. Changing the state of a pure substance
between solid, liquid, and gas phases of matter are all physical changes since the identity of the
matter does not change.

• crumpling a sheet of aluminum foil

• melting an ice cube
• casting silver in a mold
• breaking a bottle
• boiling water
• evaporating alcohol
• shredding paper
• sublimation of dry ice into carbon dioxide vapor
The Phases of Matter
Introduction

Matter can exist in several distinct forms which we call phases. We are all familiar with solids,
liquids and gases. Whether a substance is a solid, liquid or gas depends on the potential energy in
the atomic forces holding the particles together and the thermal energy of the particle motions.
The pressure on the substance also has an effect on the phase.

Solids
Crystalline Solids

Crystalline solids are characterized by a long-range order. The atoms are closely packed on
lattice points held in in place by atomic bonds. The internal energy of the atoms is not sufficient
to allow the atoms to break away from their lattice positions. Examples of crystalline solids
include semiconductors, quartz, salt, etc.

Amorphous Solids

Amorphous Solids are still closely packed together but lack the translational symmetry of
crystalline solids. However, even amorphous solids have relatively good spatial ordering,
especially over small distances, (10-100 molecules)

Liquids

As the material is heated, the internal energy is increased and the atoms are no longer tied to
their lattice positions but can move relative to each other although the atoms are still closely
packed together.

Gases

A gas is matter in which the molecules are widely separated, move around freely, and move at
high speeds. Examples of solids include the gases we breathe (nitrogen, oxygen, and others), the
helium in balloons, and steam (water vapor).
Figure 1.The solid, liquid and gas phases of matter.

Plasmas

Eventually, given enough heat, the electrons and nucleus become separated and into positively,
charged ions and negatively charged electrons. This soup of ions and electrons is known as a
plasma

High Pressures

Change in states are caused by changing the internal energy of the material, however under
extremely high pressure, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series of exotic states of
matter collectively known as degenerate matter. These are of great interest to astrophysics,
because these high-pressure conditions are believed to exist inside stars that have used up their
nuclear fusion "fuel", such as white dwarves and neutron stars.

Phase Diagrams

The phases of the material can be recorded for many different pressures and temperatures.
Plotting the phases, whether the material is solid, liquid or gas for many different pressures and
temperatures we can build up a phase diagram for the substance. As shown in figure below:
 Phase Diagram for water

The phase diagram shows that at the interfaces between solid and liquid, liquid and gas and solid
and gas it is possible for more than one phase to exist in equilibrium. The point at which all three
phases come together is the triple point and represents the temperature and pressure for which all
three states of matter can exist.
 Mixtures & Compounds
The Basics - Molecules, Mixtures, & Compounds

The universe is made up of atoms, the tiny building blocks of matter. This computer screen is
made up of atoms and so are your eyes and the rest of your body.

Scientists have discovered that atoms themselves are made up of even smaller particles: an atom has a
central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons, and surrounded by electrons. These parts are so
incredibly small that scientists can only believe that they are there, based on the behaviors that atoms
display.

Elements:

Elements are the simplest substances in nature that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by
physical or chemical means.

They consist of only one kind of atom and they can exist as either atoms (e.g., argon, calcium,
aluminium) or molecules (oxygen, nitrogen).

Compounds:

A compound is formed when two or more elements chemically combine together.

The elements react chemically and form chemical bonds between the atoms of the elements. In
compounds the constituent elements are always present in fixed proportions and therefore a compound
has a definite chemical composition.

The components of a compound may be separated only by chemical means.Compounds are

homogeneous in nature and have fixed melting points and boiling points.

Examples: water (H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl), ammonia (NH3), ethanol (C2H5OH)

Mixtures:

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances which are not chemically the same.

The composition of a mixture is variable. In a mixture, the components are present in any proportion
and they can be identified visually within the mixture. In a mixture, the individual components retain
their own identities.

The properties of a mixture are the same as the properties of individual compounds. Individual
components of a mixture may be separated by physical methods. For example, a magnet can be used to
separate iron from a mixture of iron and sulphur.

Note: Mixtures can be homogeneous mixtures or heterogeneous mixtures.

Homogeneous mixtures: Homogeneous mixtures have uniform composition and appearance
throughout. A homogeneous mixture is also called a true solution.

Example: sugar solution, ocean water, soft drinks, etc.

Heterogeneous mixtures: Heterogeneous mixtures consist of different substances.

Examples: mixture of iron and sulphur, mixture of sand and table salt, etc

Separation of Components of a Mixture

Matter
Matter is a substance that has a mass and a volume. Matter is made up of small particles. Consider the
following diagram.

Matter commonly exists in three different states: (i) Solid

(ii) Liquid

(iii) Gas.

These states of matter arise due to the variation in the characteristics of the particles of matter.

(i) Solid State

Solids have definite shape and volume. They are structurally rigid and resist the change of shape or
volume.

They have a tendency to maintain their shape when subjected to outside force and does not flow to
take on the shape of its container. The atoms, molecules or ions which make up a solid may be arranged
in an orderly repeating pattern (crystalline solid) or irregularly (amorphous solid).
 (ii) Liquid State
Liquids have no definite shape, but have a definite volume. They take up the shape of a container in
which they are kept.

As liquids flow, they change shape and they are not rigid. In liquid, particles move freely and the space
between each particle is greater than that in solid state.

Density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, and much higher than that of a gas. At a temperature
below the boiling point, any matter in liquid form will evaporate, and at a temperature below the
freezing point, a liquid will tend to crystallize, changing to its solid form.

(iii) Gaseous State

In the gaseous state, particles have no order of arrangement and gases have no definite shape. In the
gaseous state, particles move randomly and hit the walls of the vessel and exert pressure on the walls of
the container.

Gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and liquids. Due to its high compressibility, large
volumes of gas can be compressed into a small cylinder and transported easily.
Changes in states of a matter
Matter will change from one state to another at specific conditions of temperature and pressure.

1. Fusion and Solidification

Fusion is the process by which a solid change to liquid while Solidification

the process where Solid change to liquid.

2. Vaporization and Condensation

The process by which liquid changes to vapour is called vaporization and the reverse process is called
condensation.

3. Sublimation
This is the process where Solids on heating change directly to vapour, and vapour on cooling changes to
solid.
Separation of Components of a Mixture
Changes in states of a matter
Matter will change from one state to another at specific conditions of temperature and pressure.
Following are the interconversions of the three states of matter.

• Fusion and Solidification

• The process by which a solid changes to liquid is called fusion and the reverse process is called
solidification.
• Vaporization and Condensation
• The process by which liquid changes to vapour is called vaporization and the reverse process is
called condensation.
• Sublimation
• Some solids, on heating, directly change into vapour, and vapour on cooling changes to solid.

The inter-conversion of three states of matter is explained using the picture given right.

Mixture
Most of the matter in our surroundings exists as mixtures of two or more components. Examples:
milk, soil, sea water, etc. A mixture shows the properties of its constituent elements. The
components of a mixture can be separated by physical methods like handpicking, filtration and
so on. Sometimes special techniques have to be used for the separation of the components of a
mixture.
Separation of components from a mixture of sand, ammonium chloride and
salt

Separation of mixtures can be done by use of the following methods

(i) Sublimation

Sublimation is the process of transition of a substance from the solid to the gaseous state without
passing through the liquid state. To separate mixtures that contain a sublimate with volatile
component from a non-sublimate impurity, the sublimation process is used. Ammonium chloride
changes directly from solid to gaseous state on heating. The gaseous form of ammonium chloride
can be cooled easily to get a pure solid. Other examples of solids which sublime are camphor,
naphthalene, anthracene, iodine, etc.

The remaining components of the mixture are salt and sand. Salt is soluble in water and sand is a
non-water soluble substance that can be separated by the process of filtration. The insoluble sand
remains in the filter paper while the filtrate contains the dissolved salt.

(ii) Evaporation Technique

Evaporation technique is used to separate salt from the filtrate. Common salt does not
decompose during evaporation. As the water evaporates, fewer and fewer water molecules are
present to keep the salt particles apart. The salt therefore recrystallizes and can be collected.
 (iii) Filtration

This is a method where the separation is done by use of a sieve which allows the
solvent to flow and holds the solute

(iv) Picking

This is the traditional method of separation where one element is collected by use of
hands thus leaving the other element pure.

N/B: Bonds join different atoms or molecules together. Atoms have "shells" of electrons
around them, which attract other atoms - when the outer shell has an incomplete number of
electrons, it will attract another incomplete atom.

A covalent bond occurs when atoms share electrons. Water (H2O) has very strong covalent
bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms. A compound with covalent bonds will typically not
conduct electricity when dissolved in water. (100% pure water does not conduct electricity.)

Ionic bonds typically form between metal and nonmetal compounds. A cation is an atom that has
lost an electron and has a positive charge; an anion is an atom that has gained an electron and has
a negative charge. When an ionic compound is dissolved in water, the water will conduct
electricity.

In a reaction, the original bonds between atoms break down and the atoms form new bonds.
Energy is used to break the old bonds and energy (usually in the form of heat) is given off or
absorbed as the new bonds are formed.

Exothermicreactions are chemical reactions that release heat while Endothermicreactions are
chemicals that take heat in.

Oxidation reactions occur when a chemical substance loses electrons to another substance while
reduction reaction occur when substance gains electrons from another substance.
Units of measurement
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by
law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind of quantity

For example, a length is a physical quantity. The metre is a unit of length that represents a definite
predetermined length. When we say 10 metres (or 10 m), we actually mean 10 times the definite
predetermined length called "metre".

Measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical quantity is as compared to a

basic reference quantity of the same kind.

A multitude of systems of units used to be very common. Now there is a global standard,
the International System of Units (SI), the modern form of the metric system.

Metrology

This is the science of developing nationally and internationally accepted units of measurement.

In physics and metrology, units are standards for measurement of physical quantities that need clear
definitions to be useful.

Base and derived units

The most widely used system of units is the International System of Units, or SI. There are seven SI base
units. All other SI units can be derived from these base units.

SI derived units are units of measurement derived from the seven base units specified by the
International System of Units (SI).

They are either dimensionless or can be expressed as a product of one or more of the base units,
possibly scaled by an appropriate power of exponentiation.

The SI has special names for 22 of these derived units (for example, hertz, the SI unit of
measurement of frequency), but the rest merely reflect their derivation: for example, the square
metre (m2), the SI derived unit of area; and the kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3 or kg m−3), the
SI derived unit of density.
 FORCE
A force is a push or pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction with another object.
There are a variety of types of forces.

There are different types of forces as discussed below:

Type of Force
(i) Applied Force

An applied force is a force that is exerted to an object by a person or another object. If a person is
pushing a desk across the room, then there is an applied force acting upon the object.

(ii) Gravity Force (also known as Weight)

The force of gravity is the force which pull the object the center of the earth.

By definition, this is the weight of the object. All objects upon earth experience a force of gravity that is
directed "downward" towards the center of the earth. The force of gravity on earth is always equal to the
weight of the object as found by the equation:

Fgrav = m * g
where g = 9.8 N/kg (on Earth)

and m = mass (in kg)

(iii) Normal Force

Fnorm
The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another stable
object.

For example, if a book is resting upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an upward force
upon the book in order to support the weight of the book.

On occasions, a normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects that are in contact with each
other. For instance, if a person leans against a wall, the wall pushes horizontally on the person.
 (iv) Friction Force

Ffrict
The friction force is the force that resists movement of an object.

There are at least two types of friction force - sliding and static friction.

Though it is not always the case, the friction force often opposes the motion of an object. For
example, if a book slides across the surface of a desk, then the desk exerts a friction force in the
opposite direction of its motion.

Friction results from the two surfaces being pressed together closely, causing intermolecular
attractive forces between molecules of different surfaces.

As such, friction depends upon the nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they
are pressed together. The maximum amount of friction force that a surface can exert upon an
object can be calculated using the formula below:

Ffrict = µ • Fnorm

(v) Air Resistance Force

Fair
The air resistance is a special type of frictional force that acts upon objects as they travel through
the air.

The force of air resistance is often observed to oppose the motion of an object. It is most
noticeable for objects that travel at high speeds or for objects with large surface areas.

(v) Tension Force

Ftens
The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends.

The tension force is directed along the length of the wire and pulls equally on the objects on the
opposite ends of the wire
 (vi) Spring Force

Fspring

The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any object that is
attached to it

Mass and Weight

Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in a body. Mass is denoted using m or M.

Weight is the measure of the amount of force acting on a mass due to the acceleration due to
gravity.

Weight usually is denoted by W. Weight is mass multiplied by the acceleration of gravity.

W=m*g

Comparison of Mass and Weight

Mass is a property of matter. The mass of Weight depends on the effect of gravity. Weight varies
an object is the same everywhere, according to location.
Mass can never be zero. Weight can be zero if no gravity acts upon an object, as in
space.
Mass does not change according to Weight increases or decreases with higher or lower gravity.
location.
Mass is a scalar quantity. It has magnitude. Weight is a vector quantity. It has magnitude and is
directed toward the center of the Earth or other gravity
well.
Mass may be measured using an ordinary Weight is measured using a spring balance.
balance.
Mass usually is measured in grams and Weight often is measured in newtons, a unit of force.
kilograms.
The Effects of Forces
A force acting on an object may cause the object to change shape, to start moving, to stop
moving, to accelerate or decelerate.

When two objects interact with each other they exert a force on each other, the forces are equal
in size but opposite in direction.

Resultant force

The forces acting on an object can be replaced with a single force that causes the object to
behave in the same way as all the separate forces acting together did, this one overall force is
called the resultant force. All forces (F) are measured in newtons (N).

If the resultant force acting on an object is ZERO then;

• the object will remain stationary if it was stationary when the resultant force became zero
• move at a constant (steady) speed in a straight line if it was moving when the resultant
force became zero
If the resultant force acting on an object is NOT ZERO then;

• the object will accelerate or decelerate (speed up or slow down)

Moment

The turning effect of a force is known as the moment. It is the product of the force multiplied by
the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot or point where the
object will turn.

When undoing a nut fastened to a screw by hand one realises that the amount of force required is
a lot greater than when undoing the same nut using a spanner. The spanner increases the distance
between the fulcrum and the line of action of the force, thus for the same force a greater moment
is obtained.

SMALL MOMENT LARGE MOMENT

The distance from the fulcrum to the line of The distance from the fulcrum to the line of
action of force is very small action of force is large
Principle of Moments

The principle of moments states that when in equilibrium the total sum of the anti clockwise
moment is equal to the total sum of the clockwise moment.

When a system is stable or balance it is said to be in equilibrium as all the forces acting on the
system cancel each other out.

In equilibrium

Total Anticlockwise Moment = Total Clockwise Moment

This principle can be explained by considering two people on a seesaw.

Moments Acting On A Seesaw

Both people exert a downward force on the seesaw due to their weights.

Person A’s weight is trying to turn the seesaw anticlockwise whilst person B’s weight is trying to
turn the seesaw clockwise.

Person A’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum

1000 x 1 = 1000 Nm
Person B’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum

500 x 2 = 1000 Nm

Persons A’s moment = Persons B’s Moment

Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment

Therefore seesaw is in equilibrium.

Stability
The position of the centre of gravity of an object affects its stability. The lower the centre of
gravity (G) is, the more stable the object. The higher it is the more likely the object is to topple
over if it is pushed. Racing cars have really low centres of gravity so that they can corner rapidly
without turning over.

Increasing the area of the base will also increase the stability of an object, the bigger the area the
more stable the object. Rugby players will stand with their feet well apart if they are standing and
expect to be tackled.

If an object is tilted it will topple over if a vertical line from its centre of gravity
falls outside its base.

The following diagrams show that the position of the centre of gravity is important in toppling. The
higher the centre of gravity the more likely an object is to topple over if it is tilted.
Buses must be tested to see that they do not tip over even if the bottom deck is empty and the top deck
is full of people.

The next set of diagrams (Figure 4) shows a car tilting at ever increasing angles until eventually it will
topple!
In Figure 4(a) the car is flat on the road. In Figure 4(b) the car is tilted but because the vertical
line through the centre of gravity is inside the case of the car and so the car falls back to the level
again. But in Figure 4(c) the vertical line from the centre of gravity falls outside the base and so
the car topples over.

The effect of size of the base is shown by the three stools in Figure 5. The centres of gravity of
all the stools are the same height above the ground but because stool (c) has a much smaller base
it topples over if they are all tilted to the same angle while the other two stools return to a level
position. Notice that the centre of gravity is not inside the material of the stool.
Which do you think is the safest stool to use in a laboratory?

Balancing and equilibrium

If an object is in equilibrium, i.e., if it is balanced, then if a force is applied to the object it will
either tilt, tip over or roll.
These three conditions are known as:
(a) stable equilibrium (it tilts and then falls back to the original position)
(b) unstable equilibrium (it tilts and then falls over)
(c) neutral equilibrium (it rolls)
Stable – the centre of gravity is raised as it is tilted
Unstable – the centre of gravity is lowered as it is tilted
Neutral - the centre of gravity stays at the same level if it is pushed

Couple
In mechanics, a couple is a system of forces with a resultant moment but no resultant force. A
better term is force couple or pure moment. Its effect is to create rotation without translation, or
more generally without any acceleration of the centre of mass.

Simple couple

A couple is a pair of forces of equal magnitude but oppositely directed.

The simplest kind of couple consists of two equal and opposite forces whose lines of action do
not coincide. This is called a "simple couple".

The forces have a turning effect or moment called a torque about an axis which is normal
(perpendicular) to the plane of the forces. The SI unit for the torque of the couple is newton
metre.(NM)

If the two forces are F and −F, then the magnitude of the torque is given by the following
formula:

T = Fd

Where T =is the torque

F is the magnitude of one of the forces

 d is the perpendicular distance between the forces, sometimes called the arm of the couple

Forces and couples

A force F applied to a rigid body at a distance d from the center of mass has the same effect as
the same force applied directly to the center of mass and a couple Cℓ = Fd.

The couple produces an angular acceleration of the rigid body at right angles to the plane of the
couple. The force at the center of mass accelerates the body in the direction of the force without
change in orientation. The general theorems are:

A single force acting at any point O′ of a rigid body can be replaced by an equal and parallel
force F acting at any given point O and a couple with forces parallel to F whose moment is M =
Fd, d being the separation of O and O′. Conversely, a couple and a force in the plane of the
couple can be replaced by a single force, appropriately located.

Any couple can be replaced by another in the same plane of the same direction and moment,
having any desired force or any desired arm.[4]
Applications

Couples are very important in mechanical engineering and the physical sciences. A few
examples are:

• The forces exerted by one's hand on a screw-driver

• The forces exerted by the tip of a screw-driver on the head of a screw
• Drag forces acting on a spinning propeller
• Forces on an electric dipole in a uniform electric field.
• The reaction control system on a spacecraft.
• Force exerted by hands on steering wheel.

In a liquid crystal it is the rotation of an optic axis called the director that produces the
functionality of these compounds. As Jerald Ericksen explained

At first glance, it may seem that it is optics or electronics which is involved, rather than
mechanics. Actually, the changes in optical behavior, etc. are associated with changes in
orientation. In turn, these are produced by couples. Very roughly, it is similar to bending a wire,
by applying couples.
 FRICTION
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other.

There are several types of friction:

• Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in
contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static friction ("stiction") between non-moving
surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces. With the exception of atomic or
molecular friction, dry friction generally arises from the interaction of surface features,
known as asperities
• Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving
relative to each other.
• Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid
surfaces.
• Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the
surface of a body.

• Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid
material while it undergoes deformation.

Laws of dry friction

The following laws illustrate laws of dry friction:

• Amontons' First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.
• Amontons' Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of
contact.
• Coulomb's Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.

Dry friction
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of
dry friction are 'static friction' ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction
(sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces.
Coefficient of friction

The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter µ, is a

dimensionlessscalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies
and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used;
for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high
coefficient of friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one. It is an
axiom of the nature of friction between metal surfaces that it is greater between two surfaces of
similar metals than between two surfaces of different metals— hence, brass will have a higher
coefficient of friction when moved against brass, but less if moved against steel or aluminum.[24]

For surfaces at rest relative to each other , where is the coefficient of static friction.
This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart. The coefficient of static friction exhibited by a
pair of contacting surfaces depends upon the combined effects of material deformation
characteristics and surface roughness, both of which have their origins in the chemical bonding
between atoms in each of the bulk materials and between the material surfaces and any adsorbed
material. The fractality of surfaces, a parameter describing the scaling behavior of surface
asperities, is known to play an important role in determining the magnitude of the static
friction.[1]

For surfaces in relative motion , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The

Coulomb friction is equal to , and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the
direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface.

Angle of friction, θ, when block just starts to slide.

Angle of friction

For the maximum angle of static friction between granular materials, see Angle of repose.

For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle
before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the angle of friction or friction
angle. It is defined as:
whereθ is the angle from horizontal and µs is the static coefficient of friction between the objects.
This formula can also be used to calculate µs from empirical measurements of the friction angle.

Fluid friction
Fluid friction occurs between fluid layers that are moving relative to each other. This internal
resistance to flow is named viscosity. In everyday terms, the viscosity of a fluid is described as
its "thickness". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a
higher viscosity. The less viscous the fluid, the greater its ease of deformation or movement.

All real fluids (except superfluids) offer some resistance to shearing and therefore are viscous.
For teaching and explanatory purposes it is helpful to use the concept of an inviscid fluid or an
ideal fluid which offers no resistance to shearing and so is not viscous.

Lubricated friction
Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.
Lubrication is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity
moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the
surfaces.

In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the
frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate
lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without
excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other
components can rub destructively over each other, causing heat and possibly damage or failure.

Skin friction
Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is directly
related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction follows
the drag equation and rises with the square of the velocity.

Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. There are two
ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is
possible, like an airfoil. The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the
moving object as much as is practicable.

Internal friction
Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material
while it undergoes deformation.

Plastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an

object. This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in temperature.
The change of an object's shape is called strain. The force causing it is called stress.

Elastic deformation in solids is reversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object.
Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs, internal forces
oppose the applied force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may
completely resist the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to
return to its original shape when the force is removed. This is known as elastic deformation or
elasticity.

Radiation friction
As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein[62] in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation
friction" which would oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, “radiation will exert pressure
on both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is
at rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead
during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backwardacting force of pressure
exerted on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as
the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and
that increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in
brief.”

Other types of friction

Rolling resistance

Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a
surface caused by deformations in the object or surface. Generally the force of rolling resistance
is less than that associated with kinetic friction.

Typical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance are 0.001. One of the most common
examples of rolling resistance is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road, a process which
generates heat and sound as by-products.

Braking friction

Any wheel equipped with a brake is capable of generating a large retarding force, usually for the
purpose of slowing and stopping a vehicle or piece of rotating machinery. Braking friction
differs from rolling friction because the coefficient of friction for rolling friction is small whereas
the coefficient of friction for braking friction is designed to be large by choice of materials for
brake pads.
Triboelectric effect

Rubbing dissimilar materials against one another can cause a build-up of electrostatic charge,
which can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static build-up
discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture.

Belt friction

Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a
pulley, when one end is being pulled. The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the belt,
can be modeled by the belt friction equation.

In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction
equation can be compared to the maximum tension the belt can support. This helps a designer of
such a rig to know how many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to
prevent it from slipping. Mountain climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard knowledge
of belt friction when accomplishing basic tasks.

Reducing friction
Devices

Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid
bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction.

Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low
friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with
increasing imposed load.[citation needed] For improved wear resistance, very high molecular weight
grades are usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.

Lubricants

A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is
placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The
science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants
are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.

Superlubricity, a recently discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial
decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount
of frictional energy would still be dissipated.

Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such
as graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.
Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one
of the parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration
noise, known as dither.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction

Disadvantages
The force of friction acts in the opposite direction that the object is moving, so friction slows down the
motion of moving objects.
Friction also produces unnecessary heat. For example, car engines become hotter because of friction.
Extra friction makes it difficult to move an object, such as sliding a box across the floor or walking in
deep snow.
Any device that has moving parts can wear out rapidly because of friction. An example of friction
wearing out an object is an eraser.
Friction can create heat energy, but this could overheat and damage an object, such as a car. An
example could be a car spinning its wheels so much it causes the tires to smoke.
Cited Sources
Advantages
Friction makes many types of motion possible.
If you are walking or running, you use the friction with the ground to move your body forward, to turn
left or right, or to stop.
Brakes on a car use friction to stop the vehicles.
Since friction is a resistance force that slows down or prevents motion, it is necessary in many
applications to prevent slipping or sliding.
Friction between the sole of a shoe and the surface of the ground prevents us from slipping.
Our furniture does not move because there is friction between the base and the floor surface.

DENSITY
 Density

Common symbols ρ

SI unit kg/m3

The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The
symbol most often used for density is ρ (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter D can also
be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:

𝑚𝑚
ρ=
𝑣𝑣
where ρ is the density,
m is the mass, and
V is the volume.

For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration. Different
materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy,
The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically small for solids
and liquids but much greater for gases.
Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density.
Increasing the temperature of a substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by increasing its
volume.
In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the
top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid. This causes it to rise relative to more dense
unheated material.
From the equation for density (ρ = m/V), mass density has units of mass divided by volume. As there are
many units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for
mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3) and the cgs unit of gram per cubic
centimetre (g/cm3) are probably the most commonly used units for density.
1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3

Measurement of density
A number of techniques as well as standards exist for the measurement of density of materials. Such
techniques include the use of a hydrometer (a buoyancy method for liquids), Hydrostatic balance (a
 buoyancy method for liquids and solids), immersed body method (a buoyancy method for liquids),
pycnometer (liquids and solids).
Homogeneous materials
The density at all points of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume. The
mass is normally measured with a scale or balance; the volume may be measured directly (from the
geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid. To determine the density of a liquid or a gas,
a hydrometer, a dasymeter or a Coriolis flow meter may be used, respectively. Similarly, hydrostatic
weighing uses the displacement of water due to a submerged.

PRESSURE

Pressure

Common symbols p, P

SI unit Pascal [Pa]

In SI base units 1 N/m2, 1 kg/(m·s2), or 1 J/m3

Derivations from p=F/A

other quantities

Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over
which that force is distributed.
Gauge pressure (also spelled gage pressure) is the pressure relative to the ambient pressure.
Various units are used to express pressure. Some of these derive from a unit of force divided by a unit of area;
the SI unit of pressure, the pascal (Pa), for example, is one newton per square metre; similarly, the pound-
force per square inch (psi) is the traditional unit of pressure in the imperial and US customary systems.
Pressure may also be expressed in terms of standard atmospheric pressure; the atmosphere(atm) is equal to this
pressure.

Definition
Pressure is the amount of force applied at right angles to the surface of an object per unit area. The symbol for
it is p or P. The IUPAC recommendation for pressure is a lower-case p. However, upper-case P is widely used.
The usage of P vs p depends upon the field in which one is working, on the nearby presence of other symbols
for quantities such as power and momentum, and on writing style.
Formula[edit]

𝐹𝐹
Mathematically:𝑝𝑝 =
𝐴𝐴

[3]

where:
p = pressure,
F = magnitude of the normal force,
A = area of the surface on contact.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. It relates the vector surface element (a vector normal to the surface) with the
normal force acting on it. The pressure is the scalar proportionality constant that relates the two normal
vectors:
The minus sign comes from the fact that the force is considered towards the surface element, while the normal
vector points outward.
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N/m2, or kg·m−1·s−2). This
name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per square
metre.
Presently or formerly popular pressure units include the following:

• Atmosphere (atm)
• Manometric units:
• centimetre, inch, millimetre (torr) and micrometre (mTorr, micron) of
mercury,
• height of equivalent column of water,
including millimetre (mm H2O), centimetre (cm H2O), metre, inch, and
foot of water;
• Imperial and customary units:
• Kip, short ton-force, long ton-force, pound-force, ounce-force,
and poundal per square inch,
• Short ton-force and long ton-force per square inch,
• fsw (feet sea water) used in underwater diving, particularly in connection
with diving pressure exposure and decompression;
 • non-SI metric units:
• bar, decibar, millibar,
• msw (metres sea water), used in underwater diving, particularly in
connection with diving pressure exposure and decompression,
• kilogram-force, or kilopond, per square centimetre (technical atmosphere),
• gram-force and tonne-force (metric ton-force) per square centimetre,
• barye (dyne per square centimetre),
• kilogram-force and tonne-force per square metre,
• sthene per square metre (pieze).

Types of Pressure
Fluid pressure
Fluid pressure is most often the compressive stress at some point within a fluid. (The term fluid refers to both
liquids and gases – for more information specifically about liquid pressure,
Fluid pressure occurs in one of two situations:

1. An open condition, called "open channel flow", e.g. the ocean, a swimming pool, or the atmosphere.
2. A closed condition, called "closed conduit", e.g. a water line or gas line.
Pressure in open conditions usually can be approximated as the pressure in "static" or non-moving conditions
(even in the ocean where there are waves and currents), because the motions create only negligible changes in
the pressure. Such conditions conform with principles of fluid statics. The pressure at any given point of a non-
moving (static) fluid is called the hydrostatic pressure.

Explosion or deflagration pressures

Explosion or deflagration pressures are the result of the ignition of explosive gases, mists, dust/air suspensions,
in unconfined and confined spaces.

Negative pressures
While pressures are, in general, positive, there are several situations in which negative pressures may be
encountered:

• When dealing in relative (gauge) pressures. For instance, an absolute

pressure of 80 kPa may be described as a gauge pressure of −21 kPa
(i.e., 21 kPa below an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa).
 • When attractive intermolecular forces (e.g., van der Waals
forces or hydrogen bonds) between the particles of a fluid exceed
repulsive forces due to thermal motion. These forces explain ascent of
sap in tall plants. A negative pressure acts on water molecules at the
top of any tree taller than 10 m, which is the pressure head of water
that balances the atmospheric pressure. Intermolecular forces
maintain cohesion of columns of sap that run continuously
in xylem from the roots to the top leaves.[12]
• The Casimir effect can create a small attractive force due to
interactions with vacuum energy; this force is sometimes termed
"vacuum pressure" (not to be confused with the negative gauge
pressure of a vacuum).
• For non-isotropic stresses in rigid bodies, depending on how the
orientation of a surface is chosen, the same distribution of forces may
have a component of positive pressure along one surface normal, with
a component of negative pressure acting along another surface
normal.
• The stresses in an electromagnetic field are generally non-
isotropic, with the pressure normal to one surface element
(the normal stress) being negative, and positive for surface
elements perpendicular to this.
• In the cosmological constant.
Stagnation pressure
Stagnation pressure is the pressure a fluid exerts when it is forced to stop moving. Consequently, although a
fluid moving at higher speed will have a lower static pressure, it may have a higher stagnation pressure when
forced to a standstill. Static pressure and stagnation pressure are related by:
𝑝𝑝0 = 1𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 2 +𝑝𝑝
2

where
𝑝𝑝0 = stagnation pressure
v = flow velocity
p = static pressure.
𝜌𝜌 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Surface pressure and surface tension

There is a two-dimensional analog of pressure – the lateral force per unit length applied on a line perpendicular
to the force.

Pressure of an ideal gas

In an ideal gas, molecules have no volume and do not interact. According to the ideal gas law, pressure varies

linearly with temperature and quantity, and inversely with volume:

Vapour pressure
Vapour pressure is the pressure of a vapour in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases in a
closed system. All liquids and solids have a tendency to evaporate into a gaseous form, and all gases have a
tendency

Liquid pressure
When a person swims under the water, water pressure is felt acting on the person's eardrums. The deeper that
person swims, the greater the pressure. The pressure felt is due to the weight of the water above the person. As
someone swims deeper, there is more water above the person and therefore greater pressure. The pressure a
liquid exerts depends on its depth.
Liquid pressure also depends on the density of the liquid. If someone was submerged in a liquid more dense
than water, the pressure would be correspondingly greater. thus we can say that the depth, density and liquid
pressure are directly proportionate. The pressure due to a liquid in liquid columns of constant density or at a
depth within a substance is represented by the following formula:
𝑝𝑝 = ℎ𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
where:
p = liquid pressure,
g = gravity at the surface of overlaying material,
ρ = density of liquid,
h = height of liquid column or depth within a substance.

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Questions to make you think

1. A (spinning) cricket ball often moves faster after pitching on a smooth wicket.
What do you think is the reason?
2. It is estimated that €1 in every €4 spent on energy in Ireland disappears out of poorly-insulated
windows, doors and roofs.
What happens to the other €3?
3. In the summer, why does leaving the fridge door open not cool the kitchen down?
Work is defined as the product of force and displacement.

Work = Force × displacement* W=F×s

The unit of work is the Joule (J).

Energyis the ability to do work.

The amount of energy something has is also the amount of work it can do.
Because work is a form of energy it follows that the unit of energy is also the Joule.

Work-Energy Principle

The change in the energy of an object is equal to the work done on the object

Different Forms of Energy

Kinetic energy is energy an object has due to its motion.

Formula for kinetic energy: EK = ½ mv2

Potential energy is the energy an object has due to its position in a force field.

The formula for potential energy: EP = mgh

N/B: Any time work is done energy is transferred

The Principle of Conservation of Energy

It states that “Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only be converted from one form to another.”

Loss in Potential Energy = Gain in Kinetic Energy for a freely falling object

The Solar Constant is the average amount of the Sun’s energy falling normally on one metre squared of
the Earth’s atmosphereper second.

Collisions: Kinetic Energy and Momentum

When two objects collide, momentum is conservedprovided no external forces act on the system.Kinetic
energy however is not conserved.
This is because some of the kinetic energy gets converted to sound and heat energy.
 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done.
Or
Power is the rate at which energy is converted from one form to another.

The unit of power isthe Watt (W). 𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖_𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃

𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 =
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓_𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓

To estimate the power developed by a person running up a flight of stairs

1. Calculate the work done in going up the stairs.

This will be the same as your potential energy at the top (mgh), where m
is your mass(you will need a bathroom scales).
2. Time how long it takes to run up a flight of stairs.
3. Divide the work by the time taken.

How does your power (kept up for a few seconds) compare with that of a
horse over a working day (550 W)?

Did you know that the average brain uses 12 Watts of power (less than a laptop)?
For some of you this may be a bit optimistic.

Percentage Efficiency

No machine is 100% efficient – some energy is always ‘lost’ in the process.

This is why we can never have a ‘Perpetual Motion’ machine.

Formula to calculate how efficient a machine is:

𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = ×
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝟏𝟏

Questions to make you think

1. Why is a microwave oven much more efficient at cooking than using a regular oven or gas cooker?
 The Solar Constant
The solar constant represents theaverage amount of energy falling normally on each square metre of the
earth’s atmosphere in one second.
Its value for the planet as a whole is approximately 1350 W m-2 but this can change from one place to
another.
Can you think why?

[2006]
The average value for the solar constant in Ireland is 120 W m–2.
What is the average energy falling normally on an area of 5 m2 of ground in Ireland in 1 minute?

Energy per minute on 5 m2 = energy per second on 1 m2 multiplied by the number of seconds, multiplied by the
number of m2.
NOTE:

*Work = Force × Displacement

The Force and Displacement must be in the same direction; if they are not they you have calculate and
use thecomponent of the force which is in the same direction as the displacement.

* E = ½ mv2
This means that the Energy a car has (and therefore its driver) is proportional to the square of the velocity.
If your speed increases by a factor of two (say from 20 mph to 40 mph), the energy increases by a factor
of four.
If your speed increases by a factor of three (say from 20 mph to 60 mph), the energy increases by a factor
of nine!

*Anytime work is done energy is transferred

This is a very important concept but is often overlooked by students. We will come across it again when
dealing with an electron getting accelerated between two points. By which time you will all have
forgotten about this.
When a body does work it loses energy.
For example if you carry a block upstairs, you do work and the chemical energy in your muscles
decreases.
If work is done on an object it gains energy.
The block gains energy as it moves up.

*The Principle of Conservation of Energy

This means that all the energy all around us could only have come from the Big Bang 15 billion years ago
– imagine that!
Every sound you hear, every movement you make, all that energy originally came from something the
size of a pin-head. Personally I think that’s mind-blowing.
If you don’t then maybe it’s not too late to give up Physics and switch to Accounting.
Now while this energy can’t disappear (you can’t actually waste energy), it can only change form.
This is what an Energy Conversion is.
Energy conversions are going on all around us all the time.
The problem with these energy conversions is that either they are taking a less useful form (lightbulb
giving out heat) or the useful energy going out is less than the energy taken in (power stations).
The technical term is that the energy is ‘less ordered’, or ‘more chaotic’.

*Loss in Potential Energy = Gain in Kinetic Energy for a freely falling object
This means that the total energy of the object is the same at any point in its trajectory (‘freely falling’
means no external forces).
Note that when an object is thrown up the opposite holds, i.e. gain in potential energy = loss in kinetic
energy.
You could check this for yourself by looking at a mass of say 10 kg, thrown up with an initial velocity of
100 m/s.
Find how far up it goes (how? – hint; use equations of motion), and then find its potential and kinetic
energies at the bottom, half way up and at the top.
In each case they will have the same total (potential + kinetic) at each point.
A couple of very important problems are shown on page 129; Problems 10, 11 and 12.

Newton’s Cradle
When two balls go in, two go out at (almost) the same speed: Momentum is conserved, although Kinetic
Energy is not.
So why, if two go in, can't one go out at twice the velocity?
Turns out momentum would be conserved, but Kinetic Energy wouldn't.
Try working it out by letting the mass of each sphere be m, and the initial velocity be v.

Demonstrating Energy
Wave a magnet in and out of a coil of wire.
Connect the coil to an l.e.d. or to a galvanometer.
Note that current is produced by relative motion between the two.
This in fact is where almost all our electricity comes from.
All the various generating stations do is come up with different ways of heating water to produce steam to
move a magnet in and out of a coil of wire.

Some generating stations e.g. windmills, can get the magnet to move directly without needing to heat
anything.
Wave a bar magnet around a magnetic compass and talk about the moving flux causing the needle to
move. "You are producing radio waves".
If you have a hand cranked dynamo it gets harder to turn as more light bulbs are powered by it - you have
to supply the extra energy somehow!
 Exam Questions
Work
1. [2007 OL]Define work and give the unit of measurement.

2. [2006 OL]A person pushed a car a distance of 15 m with a force of 500 N. Calculate the work done
by the person.

3. [2002 OL]
The force T exerted by the engine in an aircraft is 20 000 N. Calculate the work done by the engines
while the aircraft travels a distance of 500 km.

Energy
4. [2005 OL]Define energy.

5. [2009 OL]Which of the following is the unit of energy; kilogram, watt, joule, ampere?

6. [2008][2005]State the principle of conservation of energy.

7. [2010 OL] Define kinetic energy

8. [2005 OL]Name one method of producing electricity.

9. [2005 OL]What type of energy is associated with wind, waves and moving water?

10. [2007 OL]Which of the following is not a renewable source of energy: wind, nuclear, solar,
hydroelectric?

11. [2005 OL]Give one disadvantage of non-renewable energy sources.

12. [2005 OL]How does the sun produce heat and light?

13. [2003 OL]State one energy conversion that takes place in an electrical generator.

14. [2005 OL]What energy conversion takes place when a fuel is burnt?

15. [2004 OL]

What energy conversion takes place in a solar panel?

16. [2008]Why is a fluorescent tube an efficient source of light?

17. [2007]Why is a filament light bulb not an efficient source of light?

18. [2007 OL]What is the difference between potential energy and kinetic energy?

19. [2005 OL]Give one factor on which the potential energy of a body depends.
 Energy: Maths questions
20. [2004 OL]
A student holds a metal ball 2 m above the ground. The mass of the ball is 5 kg.
Calculate the potential energy of the ball.

21. [2002 OL]A car of mass 800 kg is travelling at 10 m s-1. What is its kinetic energy?

22. [2009 OL]

A train of mass 30000 kg can reached a top speed of 50 m s−1.
As the train approached the next station the driver applied the brakes uniformly to bring the train to a
stop.
(i) Calculate the kinetic energy lost by the train in stopping.
(ii) What happened to the kinetic energy lost by the train?

23. [2010 OL]

(i) An ice skater of mass 50 kg was moving with a speed of 6 m s−1 then she collides with
another skater of mass 70 kg who was standing still. The two skaters then moved off together
at a speed of 2.5 m s−1.
Calculate the kinetic energy of each skater before the collision.
(ii) Calculate the kinetic energy of the pair of skaters after the collision.
(iii)Comment on the total kinetic energy values before and after the collision.

24. [2008]
In a pole-vaulting competition an athlete, whose centre of gravity is 1.1 m above the ground, sprints
from rest and reaches a maximum velocity of 9.2 ms–1.
What is the maximum height above the ground that the athlete can raise his centre of gravity?

25. [2004]
A pendulum bob was raised to a height of 20 cm and allowed to swing so that it collided
with a block at rest on a bench, as shown.
Calculate the velocity of the bob just before the collision.

Hint
To find the velocity of the object at the bottom we note that potential energy at the top
equals kinetic energy at the bottom, i.e. mgh = ½ mv2, but we could also have used equations of
motion,
i.e. v2 = u2 +2as, and that too would have given us the velocity.
Therefore the velocity a pendulum has at the bottom of a swing is the same as that which it would
have if it were falling straight down (freefall)!

26. [2005]
A basketball of mass 600 g which was resting on a hoop falls to the ground 3.05 m below.
(i) What is the maximum kinetic energy of the ball as it falls?
(ii) On bouncing from the ground the ball loses 6 joules of energy.
What happens to the energy lost by the ball?
(iii) Calculate the height of the first bounce of the ball.
 Power
27. [2002][2006][2007 OL]Define power.

28. [2005 OL][2007 OL]What is the unit of power?

29. [2008]A toaster has a power rating of 1050 W when it is connected to the mains supply.
Calculate the heat generated by the toaster in 2 minutes if it has an efficiency of 96%.

30. [2002 OL] A kettle uses 532 950 J to boil water. If it takes 4 minutes calculate the power of the kettle.

31. [2006 OL]

During a ten-hour period the energy gained by the bricks in a storage heater is 34.2 MJ.
Calculate the power of the heating coil.

32. [2007 OL]

An empty lift has a weight of 7200 N and is powered by an electric motor. The lift takes a person up
25 m in 40 seconds. The person weighs 800 N.
(i) Calculate the total weight raised by the lift’s motor.
(ii) Calculate the work done by the lift’s motor.
(iii) Calculate the power output of the motor.
(iv) Calculate the energy gained by the person in taking the lift.
(v) If instead the person climbed the stairs to the same height in 2 minutes, calculate the power generated
by the person in climbing the stairs.
(vi) Give two disadvantages of using a lift.

33. [2003]
A person in a wheelchair is moving up a ramp. The force required to keep the wheelchair moving at a
constant speed up the ramp is 156.3 N. The ramp is 5 m long. Calculate the power exerted by the
person in the wheelchair if it takes her 10 s to travel up the ramp.

The Solar Constant

34. [2006]
The average value for the solar constant in Ireland is 1.2 × 102 W m–2.
What is the average energy falling normally on an area of 5 m2 of ground in Ireland in 1 minute?

35. [2002]
The solar constant is 1.35 kW m-2.
What is the average amount of energy falling normally on each square metre of the earth’s
atmosphere in one year? (one year = 3.16 × 107s)

36. [2009]What is the max energy that can fall on an area of 8 m2 in one hour if the solar constant is
1350 W m–2?

37. [2007]
A large number of solar cells are joined together in series and cover an
area of 20 m2.
The efficiency of the solar cells is 20%. If the solar constant is 1400 W
m–2, what is the maximum power generated by the solar cells?
38. [2007]
Nuclear power generates three hundred gigawatts of energy worldwide.
How much energy is generated worldwide every minute by nuclear power today?
39. [2008 OL]
(a) State two uses of energy in the home.
(b) Give two ways to reduce energy needs in the home.
(c) List the main sources of renewable energy.
(d) What are the main parts of a solar heating system?
(e) Why does a solar panel need to face south?
(f) What is the function of the backup heater?
(g) Why are parts of the solar panel painted black?
(h) What is the name given to the tendency of water to circulate as it is heated?
 Exam Solutions
Work
1. Work is the product of force by displacement (distance).
Unit: joule
2. Work = Force × distance = 500 × 15 = 7,500 J.
3. Work = Force × displacement ⇒ 20000 × 500 000 = 1 × 1010 (J)

Energy
4. Energy is defined as the ability to do work.
5. The joule
6. The Principle of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can
only be converted from one form to another.
7. Kinetic energy is energy an object has due to its motion.
8. Solar, wind, wave, tidal, biomass, coal, oil, gas, hydroelectricity, geothermal, nuclear, uranium, turf.
9. Renewable energy.
10. Nuclear
11. They will run out.
12. Through nuclear reactions.
13. Kinetic to electric.
14. Chemical to heat.
15. Light to electricity, light to heat.
16. Mostof the (electrical) energy is converted to light (energy)
17. Almost all of the energy is given off as heat.
18. Potential energy is energy a body has due to its position; kinetic energy is energy a body has due to its
motion.
19. Mass, height, acceleration due to gravity (g).

Energy: Maths questions

20. Ep = mgh = 5 × 9.8 × 2 = 98 J.

21. Ek = ½mv2 ⇒ E = ½ 800 × 102 ⇒ E = 40,000 J

22.
(i) Ek= ½mv2
Ek= ½ (30000)(50)2 = 37500000 J = 37.5 MJ
(ii) It was converted to other forms of energy such as heat, sound and light (from sparks).
23.
(i) Ek= ½mv2
Ek = ½ 50 × 62 = 900 J
Ek = ½ 70 × 0 = 0 J
(ii) Ek = ½ 120 × (2.5)2 = 375 (J)
(iii)Kinetic energy not conserved in collision because some of the energy was given off as heat
and sound.
24. K.E. = P.E.
½ mv2 = mgh
h = v2/2g = (9.2)2/2(9.8) = 4.32
Max height above the ground = 4.32 + 1.1 = 5.42 m.
25. Loss in P.E = gain in K.E
mgh= ½ mv2
v2 = 2gh = 2(9.8)(0.2)
⇒ v = 1.98 m s-1
26.
(i) KE = PE (at height of 3.05 m)
½mv2 = mgh
mgh = (0.6)(9.8)(3.05) = 17.9 J
Ek= 17.9 J
(ii) It changes into sound and heat.
(iii) [retained energy = 17.9 – 6] ⇒ E = 11.9 J
E = mgh ⇒h= E / mg⇒h = 11.9 /(0.600)(9.8) ⇒ h = 2.02 m
 Power
27. Power is the rate at which work is done.
28. The watt.
29. Heat generated = power × time
Heat = 1050 × 120 = 1.26 × 105 J
96% = 1.21 × 105 J
30. P=W/t ⇒ P = 532 950/240 ⇒ P = 2221 W.
31. P = W/ t ⇒ P = 34 200 000 / (10×60×60) = 950 W
32.
(i) 7200 + 800 = 8000 (N)
(ii) Work = Force × distance = 8000 × 25 = 200,000 J (200 kJ)
(iii) Power = work/time =200,000/40 = 5000 W
(iv) Energy = Force × distance = 800 × 25 = 20,000 J
(v) Power = work/time = (800 × 25)/120 = 166.6 W
(vi) Needs more energy / uses energy / no exercise so not good for health /cost involved / can be
dangerous, etc.

33. Power = work/time

Work = Force × displacement = 156.3 × 5 = 780 J
Power = 780/10 = 78 W

The Solar Constant

34. Energy per minute on 5 m2 = (1.2 × 102)(5)(60) = 36,000 J or 3.60 x 104 J
35. Solar constant by time = (1.35 × 103)(3.16 × 107) = 4.27 ×1010J
(Note that the solar constant for Ireland is less than 10% of what it is for the planet Earth as a whole.)
36. 1350 × 8 × 3600
Emax= 3.9 × 107 J
37. (1400 × 20 × 1/5) W or 5600 J s-1or 5600 W
38. (300 x 109)(60) J or 18,000 gigajoule (per minute) or 1.8 x 1013 J
39.
(a) Heating, cooking, lighting, TV etc
(b) Insulate, double glaze, reduce usage, use low energy appliances, turn off
unused lights, etc.
(c) Solar, wind, wave, tidal, geothermal, biomass
(d) Solar panel, hot water storage cylinder.
(e) To get the most sunlight.
(f) For use at night or in poor sunlight.
(g) Black is a good absorber of heat
(h) Convection