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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2014

UNESCO-IHE
MSc Programme Land and Water Development for Food Security

Main Drainage Systems1

Dr. ir. Henk Ritzema

Wageningen University
Wageningen, The Netherlands
February 2014

1 These lecture notes were prepared for teaching purposes only. The author does not assume
responsibility for the accuracy or the completeness of the information enclosed herein. These notes or
any part of thereof may not be reproduced or translated without the written permission of the author.
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Summary
Course Hydraulic Engineering – Land and Water Development

Module Aspects of Irrigation and Drainage

Subject Main Drainage Systems

Lecturer Dr.Ir. Henk Ritzema, Alterra-ILRI, Wageningen University and Research

Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands, Email:
[email protected]

Study load Study load: 16 hours

Contact hours (Lectures): 8 hours

Lecture notes This workbook

Suggested literature:
 ILRI Publication 16 “Drainage Principles and Applications”, Chapter 19
 ILRI Publication 60 “Subsurface Drainage Practices: Guidelines for the
implementation, operation and maintenance of subsurface pipe drainage
systems”

Learning method  Lectures

 Individual assignments and exercises
 Self-study

Learning Knowledge Understand the need for drainage and the components out of
Objectives which a drainage system is built up.

Skills Application of the knowledge in design exercises and/or MSc

thesis.

Attitude Awareness that the design of a drainage system needs a

systematic approach and should not be done merely from
handbooks.

Brief description The need for drainage will be discussed: (i) in humid regions, drainage is a
of subject tool to combat waterlogging and waterponding and; (ii) in arid and semi-arid
regions, drainage is a tool to combat waterlogging and salinization. An
overview of the systems that are available to drain agricultural lands is
presented and the soil and hydrological factors which influence drainage are
discussed.

Contents  The Need for drainage

 Drainage systems
 Examples of drainage systems in various climatic regions

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Contents

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1

2 Need for drainage .......................................................................................................... 2

2.1 Drainage for agriculture ............................................................................................ 2
2.2 Drainage to control water ponding .............................................................................. 4
2.3 Drainage to control waterlogging ................................................................................ 5
2.4 Drainage to control salinisation .................................................................................. 5

3 Drainage systems .......................................................................................................... 8

3.1 Components of a Drainage System ............................................................................ 8
3.2 Outlet ..................................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Main Drainage ....................................................................................................... 10

4 Examples of drainage systems....................................................................................... 20

4.1 Rainfed lands in the temperate regions – example from The Netherlands ...................... 20
4.2 Irrigated lands in arid and semi-arid regions - example from Egypt ............................. 23
4.3 Drained lands in the humid tropics - example from Malaysia ....................................... 25

Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 28

Glossary ........................................................................................................................... 35

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

1 Introduction

This series of In this series of lectures “Main Drainage Systems” we shall discuss the
lectures procedure to design a main drainage system. After a brief introduction into
the need for drainage in agricultural lands (Chapter 2), the components of a
drainage system are discussed, with special emphasis on the main drainage
system (Chapter 3). Finally in Chapter 4, examples of drainage practices are
presented: from the Netherlands (representing the temperate humid region),
from Egypt (representing the arid and semi-arid regions) and Malaysia
(representing the humid tropics).

Field drainage systems will be further elaborated in the lectures “Subsurface

drainage” in Module 11 “Advanced methods and Equipment” (WSE-HELWD11).

Purpose of The purpose of this workbook is to guide you through the relevant theories
this workbook presented in the following publications:
 ILRI Publication 16 “Drainage Principles and Applications”, Chapter 19
 ILRI Publication 60 “Subsurface Drainage Practices: Guidelines for the
implementation, operation and maintenance of subsurface pipe
drainage systems”.

These publications can be downloaded from:

http://www.alterra.wur.nl/NL/publicaties+Alterra/ILRI-
publicaties/Downloadable+publications/.

For each subject the relevant sections in these two publications are indicated
and, where necessary, specific points are highlighted.

Glossary For the definitions of the technical terms and expressions used in this
workbook, please refer to the glossaries of the two ILRI publications.

Exercises When appropriate, exercises are included.

Follow-up You can use the theories discussed in this series of lectures to design a main
drainage system for a situation resembling the conditions in your own
country.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

2 Need for drainage

 Self study ILRI Publication 16 - Chapter 17.3

Context In this chapter, the need for drainage is discussed.

2.1 Drainage for agriculture

Objectives of The four main objectives of drainage in agricultural land are:

drainage  Drainage to prevent or reduce waterlogging
 Drainage to control salinity, or
 Drainage to make new land available for agriculture
 Drainage to sustain the land and water resources

Water Agriculture depends on the availability of water (Figure 1). In humid regions,
balance the main source of water is rainfall (9), in arid or semi-arid regions
supplemented by irrigation. To apply irrigation water to a crop, water has to be
diverted from a river or lake (1) or from the groundwater reservoir (2). The
amount of water diverted has to be greater that the quantity required by the
crops because the diverted water will leave the area not only as
evapotranspiration by the irrigated crop (3), but also as evaporation (4),
seepage (5) and operational spills (6) from the irrigation canal system, as
tailwater runoff from irrigated fields (7), and as deep percolation (8). In the
field, irrigation water together with any rainfall (9), will be partly stored on the
soil surface (10) and partly infiltrate in the soil (11).

Figure 1 The water balance in an irrigated area

Water When rain or irrigation continues, pools may form on the soil surface, and this
ponding excess water needs to be removed. This standing water on the soil surface is
called ponding water.

Ponding is the accumulation of excess water on the soil surface

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Water- Part of the water that infiltrates the soil will be stored in the pores and used by
logging the crop (3) and part of the water will be lost as deep percolation (8). When the
percolating water reaches that part of the soil which is saturated with water, the
watertable will rise (12). If the watertable reaches the root zone, the plants may
suffer (Figure 2). The soil has become waterlogged.

Figure 2 After rainfall or irrigation the watertable may rise and reach the root
zone

Waterlogging is the accumulation of excess water in the root zone of the soil.

Salinisation Drainage is needed to remove the excess water and to control the rise of the
watertable. Even in irrigation water of very good quality there are salts, thus
bringing irrigation water to a field means also bringing salts to the same field.
The irrigation water is used by the crop or evaporates directly from the soil. The
salts, however, are left behind (Figure 3). This process is called salinisation.

Salinisation is the accumulation of soluble salts at the surface, or at some

point below the surface of the soil profile, to levels at which they have negative
effects on plant growth and/or soils.

Figure 3 Irrigation water brings alts into the soil

If these salts accumulate in the soil, they will hamper crop production. Some

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

crops are more tolerant to salts than others. The highly tolerant crops can
withstand a salt concentration in the root zone up to 10 dS/m, the moderately
tolerant crops up to 5 dS/m and the sensitive crops up to 2.5 dS/m (Lecture
Notes Field Irrigation and Drainage - Part 1). To grow more sensitive crops,
drainage is needed to remove these salts.

Thus drainage is used to control ponding at the surface, to control waterlogging

in the soil and to avoid salinisation, and may be defined as:

Definition of Drainage is the removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the land
drainage to enhance crop growth, including the removal of dissolved salts from the soil.

Drainage is necessary for successful irrigated agriculture because it controls

ponding, waterlogging and/or salinity. Drainage can be either natural or
artificial. Most areas have some natural drainage; this means that excess water
flows from the farmer's fields to swamps or to lakes and rivers. However, the
natural drainage is often inadequate to remove excess rainfall during extreme
rainfall conditions or to remove the extra water or salts brought in by irrigation.
Under these conditions, an artificial or man-made drainage system is required.

Definition of A drainage system is an artificial system of land forming, surface and/or

a drainage subsurface drains, related structures, and pumps (if any), by which excess
system water is removed from an area.

2.2 Drainage to control water ponding

Surface To remove excess (ponding) water from the surface of the land we use surface
drainage drainage. This is normally accomplished by shallow open field drains. In order to
facilitate the flow of excess water towards these open drains, the field is usually
given an artificial slope by means of land shaping or grading (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Surface drainage to remove excess water from the land surface

Surface drainage is the diversion or orderly removal of excess water from the
surface of the land by means of improved natural or constructed drains,
supplemented when necessary by the shaping and grading of land surfaces to
such drains.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

2.3 Drainage to control waterlogging

Subsurface To remove excess water from the root zone we use subsurface drainage (Figure
drainage 5). By subsurface drainage we control the watertable, and excess water is
removed from the underground by gravity through open or pipe drains installed
at depths varying from 1 to 3 m.

Figure 5 Field drains for subsurface drainage may be open (A) or pipe (B)

Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts from
soils via groundwater flow to the drains, so that the watertable and root zone
salinity are controlled.

Tubewell Tubewell drainage is a special type of subsurface drainage where excess water
drainage is removed by pumping from a series of wells drilled into the ground to a depth
of several tens of metres (Figure 6). The pumped water is then discharged into
open surface drains.

Figure 6 Tubewell drainage is a technique of controlling the watertable by

removing the excess water from the (more permeable) underground

Tubewell drainage is the control of an existing or potential high watertable, or

of artesian groundwater, through a group of adequately-spaced wells.

2.4 Drainage to control salinisation

Leaching To remove salts from the soil, water is used as a vehicle: more irrigation water
is applied to the field than is required for crop growth. This additional water
infiltrates into the soil and percolates through the root zone. During percolation

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

the water takes up part of the salts from the soil and removes these through the
subsurface drains (Figure 7). This process, in which the water washes the salts
out of the root zone, is called leaching.

Figure 7 Extra irrigation water is applied to remove salts from the rootzone

Leaching is the removal of soluble salts by the passage of water through soil.

The additional water required for leaching must be removed from the root zone
by means of drainage, otherwise the watertable will rise and this will bring the
salts back into the root zone. Thus salinity control is achieved by a combination
of irrigation and drainage measures.
The different types of drainage systems, which can be used for the control of
the watertable and/or the soil salinity, are discussed in Chapter 3.

Example Example: Drainage to sustain irrigated agriculture in Egypt

Agriculture in the Nile Delta in Egypt depends almost entirely on irrigation from
the River Nile. The total amount of irrigation water applied to the crops is about
1200 mm/year. Although this irrigation water is of good quality (0.3 dS/m) it
brings a lot of salts into the soils:

Total volume of irrigation water :

Vi = 1200 mm/year = 1200 x 10-3 x 104 m3/ha/year = 12 x 103 m3/ha/year

Salinity of irrigation water:

ECi = 0.3 dS/m = 0.3 x 640 mg/l = 192 mg/l = 1.92 x 10-4 ton/m3

Total salts brought into the soil:

S = Vi x ECi = 12 x 103 m3/ha/year x 1.92 x 10-4 ton/m3 = 2.3 ton/ha/year

Thus every year about 2.4 tons of salts are added to the soil profile and leaching
is required to maintain a favorable salt balance.

Exercise 1 The need for drainage in your own country

Describe a common drainage problem in your own home country. Elaborate

whether it is a water ponding, waterlogging and salinity problem or a
combination?

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Exercise 2 Drainage: from problem to solution.

In exercise no.1 you have described a common drainage problem in your own
home country. Briefly discuss how this problem is solved. Mention 3 good points
of this approach and three weak points.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

3 Drainage systems

 Self study ILRI Publication 16 - Chapter 17.2 and 19.2

ILRI Publication 60 – Chapter I.3

In this chapter, we shall discuss the components of a drainage system.

3.1 Components of a Drainage System

Components A drainage system can be divided into three components (Figure 8):
of a drainage  Field drainage system
system  Main drainage system and
 Outlet.

A field drainage system is used to avoid ponding water and/or to control the
watertable in the field. The main drainage system is used to convey the water
away from the farm area. And the outlet is the point of safe disposal of the
drainage water. In the following we will briefly discuss these three components.

Figure 8 Schematic lay-out of a drainage system

Field drainage For farmers, the field drainage system is the most important part of a drainage
system system. It controls water ponding and/or waterlogging in his field. It can be a
surface drainage system (to remove ponding water from the surface of the
land), a subsurface drainage system (to control the watertable in the soil) or a
combination of these two. Field drainage systems will be discussed in more
detail during the lectures “Subsurface drainage” in Module 11 “Advanced
methods and Equipment” (WSE-HELWD11).

The field drainage system is a network that gathers the excess water from
the land by means of field drains, possibly supplemented by measures to
promote the flow of excess water to these drains.

Main drainage The main drainage system consists of collector drains and a main drain. A
system collector drain is a drain that collects water from the field drains and carries it to
the main drain for disposal. As field drains, collector drains may be either open
or pipe drains. The main drain is the principal drain of an area, it receives water

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

from collector drains, diversion drains, or interceptor drains (= drains

intercepting surface or groundwater flow from outside the area), and conveys
this water to an outlet for disposal outside the area. The main drain is often a
canalized stream which runs through the lowest parts of the agricultural area.

The main drainage system is a water conveyance system that receives water
from the field drainage systems, surface runoff, and groundwater flow, and
transports it to the outlet point.

Outlet When agricultural lands are located along rivers, lakes, estuaries, or coastal
areas, dikes can protect them from being flooded. To enable the drainage of
excess water from the protected area, the dikes are provided with outlet
structures. These can be sluices with doors, gated culverts, siphons, and/or
pumping stations. The water levels of the canals, rivers, lakes, or seas that
receive this water may vary, because of tides, for instance. When the outer
water levels are high, drainage might be temporarily restricted. This means that
the drainage water accumulating inside the protected area has to be stored - in
the soil, in ditches, in canals, and/or in ponding areas.

The outlet is the terminal point of the entire drainage system, from where it
discharges into a river, lake, or sea.

3.2 Outlet

Gravity outlet The outlet can be a gravity outlet structure or a pumping station. A gravity
or pumping outlet structure is a drainage structure in an area with variable outer water
station levels, where drainage can take place by gravity when outside water levels are
low. In delta areas, drainage by gravity is often restricted to a few hours per
day during low tide. In the upstream regions of a river, drainage by gravity can
be restricted for several weeks, during periods of high river discharges. A
pumping station is needed in areas where the required water levels in the
drainage system are lower than the water level of the river, lake or sea.

Outlet The location of the outlet, where drainage water is discharged into a river, lake,
or sea, influences the layout and functioning of the drainage system. To ensure
the uninterrupted discharge of water throughout the drainage season, the outlet
should not be blocked by a sand bank or vegetated flats, nor should it be at the
inner curve of a river, where sedimentation occurs. At the outlet, the main
drainage canal usually cuts through the natural river embankment or the dike.
To prevent flooding of the agricultural area, the outlet is usually fitted with a
sluice, which can be closed when the outside water level is too high. The sluice
should be near the lowest part of the area to be drained. Soil conditions at such
a location, however, may cause foundation problems, and the sluice may have
to be moved to a higher, more suitable, location.

To avoid damage if there is a change in the course of the river or coast line,
Location sluices are built at a certain distance from the river or sea. The entire length of
the main canal reach downstream of the sluice and part of the river
embankment or coast must be protected against erosion.

To operate and maintain the gates properly, it is essential that the sluice is
Access accessible throughout the year. The cost of constructing and maintaining an
all-weather access road may influence the choice of a site for the drainage
outlet.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

If the hydraulic gradient over the outlet sluice is insufficient to discharge all
drainage water within a selected period (3 or 5 days), a pumping station may be
added to the outlet. In such a case also the cost of power supply to the pumping
station influences its location.

Exercise 3: Outlets

Describe a common outlet used in your own home country. Elaborate the
following points:
 Is it a gravity or pumped outlet?
 What are the problems associated with this type of outlet?
 What are the main advantages of using this type of outlet?
 What are the main disadvantages using this type of outlet?
 Recommend three measures to improve the performance of the outlet.

3.3 Main Drainage

Main drainage Systems of drainage canals and their related structures collect and convey
system excess water to prevent damage to crops and/or to allow farm machinery to
work the land. Besides these agricultural functions, a drainage canal system
may have to supply water for irrigation in the dry season, act as a means of
transport for shipping, etc. In this chapter, we shall concentrate on the
agricultural functions of the system. A main drainage system is, in principle, a
mirror-image of a main irrigation system. The main function of both systems is
to convey the water. The difference is that in an irrigation system the source is
the inlet point in a river, lake or reservoir from where the water is distribute to
all fields in the project area and the sources of the drainage system are all these
fields from where the excess water is evacuate back to wards the (same) river,
lake or sea. The design principles are the same: either a steady-state approach
(e.g. Manning) or an unsteady-state approach (e.g. Duflow) is used to calculate
the dimension of the irrigation or drainage canel. A major difference is the
design capacity. For irrigation canals, the design capacity is based on the crop
water requirements, a flow conditions that regularly occurs (depending on the
irrigation efficiencies). For drainage canals, the design capacity is based on the
excess rainfall, based on a certain frequency of occurrence, e.g. once every 1, 5
or 10 years. Thus the design flow conditions in drainage canals only sporadically
occur (with a frequency of once every 1, 5 or 10 years), most of the time the
system operated below the design conditions.

Question What are the consequences of the sporadic occurrence of the design flow
conditions for the O & M of a main drainage system? Compare these O&M
requirements with the requirements for the O&M of main irrigation systems.

Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of drainage canal systems:

 A system to intercept, collect, and carry away water from sloping agricultural
Sloping lands lands, both agricultural and nature areas. Most of the water in this system
originates from surface runoff. It will be discharged for brief periods only,
causing high flow rates and sediment transport;
 A system to collect and carry away water from a relatively flat agricultural
Flat area. Here, the main source of water is precipitation on the area or irrigation.
agricultural Because of surface detention and groundwater storage, water is discharged
plains over a longer period than above. Furthermore, the flat gradient canals have
little or no sediment transport capacity.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

3.3.1 Sloping Lands

Sloping lands If a flat agricultural area is partly surrounded by sloping lands, the surface
runoff from these lands should be intercepted and discharged to prevent
inundation of the agricultural area. The extent to which drainage problems in
the agricultural area are caused by this surface runoff should be determined by
making a water balance of the area.

Runoff from sloping lands causes two major problems in the downstream areas;
High (i) rainfall causes high discharges of short duration, (ii) the surface runoff
discharges causes erosion, and the related sediment transport down the steep gradient of
and erosion the canals causes sedimentation in the flatter canal sections.

Both problems can be eased by a combination of the following measures:

 Planting trees and encouraging the growth of natural vegetation on
steep slopes;
 Contour ploughing and terracing intermediate slopes (up to 10%).
Terracing is the levelling of the slopes along the contour lines in
combination with the planting of crops;
 Encouraging the growth of crops that give a soil cover during the rainy
season;
 Constructing retention reservoirs in the streams to temporarily store
peak runoff.

These techniques are a form of erosion control; their application greatly eases
the downstream drainage problems.

In sloping areas, the main drainage system usually will be limited to the
reconstruction of channel reaches and to the construction of energy dissipators.

Streams originating in sloping areas can be connected to a major river, lake, or

Routing sea along two alternative routes; (i) via an interceptor canal, which channels the
water around the agricultural area to a suitable outlet, or (ii) via a canalized
stream through the agricultural area.

The major advantage of the interceptor canal is that peak discharges and
sediments from the sloping lands do not disturb the functioning of the drainage
system in the flatter agricultural area.

It is possible to limit the required discharge capacity of a channel that transports

Limiting water from sloping lands to a suitable outlet if the channel discharges from one
discharge of the following two structures:
rates  A retention reservoir that is filled by the peak stream flow, which is then
released through a bottom outlet. As a result, the discharge peak is
lower, but of longer duration;
 A regulating structure that consists of a weir of limited discharge
capacity in the stream and a side weir immediately upstream of it. If the
stream flow exceeds a predetermined rate, it overtops the crest of the
side weir. Most of the additional stream flow then discharges over the
side weir into an area where inundation or overland flow causes little
damage.

Which of these two lay-outs (or an intermediate lay-out) is the best solution can
usually only be decided after a reconnaissance study.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

3.3.2 Flat Agricultural Areas

The agricultural areas that require drainage are usually coastal plains, river
valleys, or plains where excess rainfall and/or the inefficient use of irrigation
water has caused waterlogging. In coastal plains, the drainage problems are
exacerbated by several hydrological features, typical of such plains, being:
Problems  Gentle hydraulic gradient of the rivers in the coastal plain, which leads
related to to low flow velocities and the deposition of sediments;
drainage  Tidal levels in river water levels near the sea and of saline water
intrusion;
 A complicated network of river branches and ramifications, which can
cause natural drains to disappear in coastal swamps giving the river or
stream what is known a "bad outlet";
 Rapid changes in channel configuration that can occur after each major
flood;
 Low elevation of the coastal lands with respect to the level of rivers and
the sea. To prevent the inundation of the coastal plain, dikes along the
rivers and the sea shore are essential.

Examples of To illustrate alternative lay-outs for a drainage canal system, let us consider an
lay-outs irrigated coastal plain that lies between sloping lands (hills) and the sea. The
plain is intersected by parallel rivers and streams and by an irrigation canal
system. Depending on factors such as run-off from the sloping land,
construction and maintenance cost of canals, quality of drainage outlets, etc.,
alternative lay-outs can be considered:
 Combined system: the sloping land and coastal plain are drained by one
combined system
 Separate system for sloping lands: the sloping land and coastal plain are
drained by three separate systems
 Two drainage systems in a coastal plain: the sloping land and coastal
plain are drained by four separate systems.

Combined Drainage System

Figure 9 shows a drainage canal layout that combines the drainage system of
the sloping land with that in the plain. All run-off from the sloping land is
Combined
intercepted and carried away by canalized streams. These streams, and the
drainage
lateral drains along the river dikes, flow into a main drainage canal that runs
system
parallel to the sea dike. One drainage sluice with a well-defined, stable
(suitable) outlet has been planned on that drain. The other streams are
dammed by the sea dike. Concentrating all the drainage water discharge
through one sluice eases sedimentation problems in the outlet canal.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Figure 9 Combined system: the sloping land and coastal plain are drained by
one combined system

Separate System for Sloping Land

If relatively high discharges come from the sloping lands, or if the plain is wide,
Separate
intercepting and diverting streams into the nearest river is a sound alternative
system for
to the lay-out of the combined system. The streams are dammed and the
sloping
interceptor drains discharge all water from the sloping lands through two sluices
lands
into the rivers (Figure 10). As a result, the coastal plain has a separate drainage
system that discharges precipitation, unused irrigation water, and groundwater
inflow. Drainage has been decentralized into three independent systems: two for
the sloping land and one for the coastal agricultural area.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Figure 10 Separate system for sloping lands: the sloping land and coastal
plain are drained by three separate systems.

Two Drainage Systems in a Coastal Plain

The transport of mud and sand along a coastline often blocks the outlets of all
Two drainage
minor streams into the sea, and dredging may be needed to maintain a
systems in a
sufficient depth at the river mouths. Under such circumstances, none of the
coastal plain
stream mouths is suitable as a drainage outlet. Water that is collected by the
main drain along the coastal dike is then discharged into the nearest river.
Figure 11 shows four separate drainage canal sub-systems: two for the sloping
lands and two for the coastal plain.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Figure 11 Two drainage systems in a coastal plain: the sloping land and
coastal plain are drained by four separate systems

Exercise no. 4 Design options for main drainage systems

In this section three alternative options for the layout of a main drainage system
have been discussed. These options depends on, among others, the
topography, the climate, the location in the catchment, size of the area, etc.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these design options. Similar to
the other exercises try to relate the discussion to the conditions in your own
country.

3.3.4 Planning the layout of a main drainage system

Location of To determine the location, hydraulic properties, visual characteristics, and

drainage condition of existing channels, planned canals, and related structures, one
channels and needs a 1:10 000 scale topographical map with a contour interval of 0.50 m or
related less, and a 1:10 000 controlled photo mosaic. Maps, especially in flat
structures topography, should be field checked. This step should be done in the earliest
planning stage to avoid the need for major revisions later. The following
information is needed to plan a canal system (adapted from U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture 1977):

1. Layout of the drained area and the junctions of existing streams and all
flow control points. Drainage areas should also be delineated for the
"land level units";
2. Approximate profiles in existing channels, showing the elevation of the
channel bottom, low bank, points of natural low ground away from but
subject to drainage into the channel, and elevation and dimensions of all
structures in or over the channel. The condition and serviceability of all
structures should be recorded. Adequate survey data are needed for all

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

structures to compute the discharge capacity for each;

3. Representative channel and valley cross sections for each hydraulic or
economic reach. Additional cross sections should be taken as needed for
a reliable estimate of: quantities of excavation and land clearance,
damage evaluation in the plain or valley because of high water levels,
and to permit the computation of storage in flood plains, ponds and
marshes;
4. Manning's roughness coefficient 'n' for each existing channel. Even if
channel elements are very uniform, the n value should be estimated for
each 1-km reach;
5. Location and elevation of all soil investigation sites along the proposed
canals. To determine the maximum permissible velocities and bank
slopes, soil investigations should extend to a depth of at least 3 m below
the anticipated future canal bottom (Figure 12). Use the Unified Soil
Classification of Section 19.3.4;
6. Landscape character and use patterns along major existing and
anticipated drains. Data must include: scenic views, area and density of
brush and trees, and isolated but valuable trees;
7. Location and ownership of boundary lines in the vicinity of all probable
canals and structures;
8. Other significant features that will be affected such as roads, pipelines,
power and telephone lines, buildings, wells, cemeteries, and fences.

Field
investigations
for canal
alignment

Figure 12 Depth of preliminary exploratory holes for canal alignment (after

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1973)

Preparing a Based on the above information, the center line of all the canal system is drawn
preliminary in pencil on the photo mosaic, showing curves, intersecting angles, and so on.
design Mark the stationing on these center lines with a short dash at each 100-m point.

After this preliminary design phase at the office, the canal location should be
field-checked. For this check, one should walk the full length of the canal's
center line, noting the following on the preliminary design drawing:
 Probable realignment of the center line;

16
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

 Points of significant breaks in the grade;

 Location of all rock outcrops or critical soil conditions;
 Approximate locations of points where more cross sections could be
obtained;
 Location of significant canal junctions and places where side inlets may
be needed;
 If not already visible on the aerial photo, note the location of all
buildings, utilities and structures that may be affected by the drainage
canal works. These include, but are not limited to, facilities that are
within 100 m of the alignment and 1 m below the future canal bottom;
 Location of valuable landscapes and large individual trees adjacent to
the alignment.

Following the field check, one should accurately establish the revised center line
on the photo mosaic. The final alignment should be based on the previous cross
sections, and geological and environmental data. Indicate on the photo mosaic
where the cross sections and soil surveys were made.

3.3.5 Schematic Map of the Main Drainage System

Schematic Maps showing the layout of a drainage canal system must give detailed
map of main information on the location of canal reaches and related structures. Normally,
drainage this information is given on the same map that shows the irrigation canal
system system, roads, and the boundaries of irrigation units. To keep such maps
legible, standard symbols must be used to indicate the center line of the canals
and related structures. The schematic map in Figure 13 uses these symbols. It
shows:
 Location of the center lines of drains and irrigation canals, numbered for
each reach;
 Radii of the center lines;
 Reserve boundaries of canals and boundaries of any adjacent
obstructions, roads, and land level units. The area of land level units
must be shown also;
 Boundaries and number of irrigation units (if applicable);
 All structures, numbered and with position dimensioned with respect to
center lines or boundaries;
 North point and scale.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Example of a
schematic
map

Figure 13 Example of a schematic map

18
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Longitudinal A schematic map must be supplemented by longitudinal profiles of all main and
profiles lateral canals. On both the map and longitudinal profile, a certain notation has
been used to identify a canal reach and its related structure. After the system
has been constructed, this notation must also appear on the structure. The
notation consists of two parts: (i) the number of the canal and (ii) the number
of the canal reach or the structure identification number. It is presented in the
following table.

Notation for Notation for canals and related structures

canals and Type of canal or First part of Second part of notation
related structure notation (ii)
structures (i)
Drainage canal:
main MD
lateral D9 Number only; assigned
sub-lateral D9B } consecutively from
Irrigation canal: upstream end of canal
main MS or drain
lateral S6
sub-lateral S6C
Discharge regulator C Plus number;
Water-level check CH assigned
Drop structure DR } consecutively
Check-and-drop structure CD from upstream
Wasteway W end of canal or
Bridge, culvert, or syphon S drain
On-line pumping plant P
Turnout (measures TO Number of
flow) DO } structure;
Drainage outlet (farm) SW identical to farm
Irrigation well DW block number
Drainage well AB or number
Farm access bridge of irrigation
unit served or
adjacent
Drain or relief outlet OL } No number
Non-return gate NG
Drainage outlet sluice
Drainage outlet }
pumping station Proper name only
River diversion dam
Storage dam

Exercise no. 5 A common main drainage system in your own country

Describe the main features of a common main drainage system in your own
country, discussing details as:
 Topography
 Land type: coastal plain or upstream area
 Functions of the main system
 Main constraints
 Options for improvement

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

4 Examples of drainage systems

 Self study ILRI Publication 16 – Chapter 17.5

ILRI Publication 60 – Part III – Case studies

Role of drainage The role of drainage varies between the different agroclimatic zones.
varies between In the temperate zone, mainly located in the northern hemisphere,
the different the role of drainage is to prevent waterlogging by removing excess
agroclimatic surface and subsurface water resulting from excess rainfall. In the
zones arid and semi-arid zone, the role of drainage is to prevent irrigation-
induced waterlogging and salinity, not only by removing excess
surface and subsurface water but also by removing soluble salt
brought in by the irrigation water. In the humid and semi-humid
zone, the role of drainage is to prevent waterlogging and salinization
to various degrees. About 64% of the drainage is located in the
temperate zone, 24% in the arid and semi-arid zone and 12% in the
humid and semi-humid zone.

4.1 Rainfed lands in the temperate regions –

example from The Netherlands

Historical developments
Example from In the Netherlands, 25% of the land is below sea level and about 65%
the Netherlands of it would be flooded where it not for the dikes (Figure 14).

Figure 14 Land periodically flooded by sea and river

Climate The climate is relatively mild with an average annual rainfall of about
725 mm and an annual evaporation of about 475 mm (Figure 15).
The removal of excess rainfall in combination with the low elevation,
the lowest area is 6.5 m below mean sea level, requires an intensive
drainage system to keep one’s feet dry, both man and crops. The
expansion of agriculture in the Netherlands started some 1000 years

20
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Agricultural ago with a gradual change from shifting cultivation towards a more
development permanent development and occupation of the land. Farmers had to
since 1000 AD learn to organise themselves to mobilise enough labour and capital
under evolving authorities: abbeys (1000-1200 AD), feudal rulers
(1200-1500), locally organised groups (1300-1500) and water boards
(1300-present). Moreover the water management was influenced by
private or municipal land reclamation companies and peat mining
companies (1500-1700), companies to drain and reclaim lakes (1500-
1900), and governmental services to reclaim lakes, swamps and
heath lands (1900-2000). Field drainage has always been the
responsibility of the land user and the main drainage systems the
responsibility of the above-mentioned institutions. Exceptions are the
large-scale, government-supported, land reclamation and land
consolidation projects in the second half of the 20 th century: in these
projects, both the field and main drainage systems were implemented
by a Government agency.

Figure 15 Monthly values of rainfall, evaporation, storage and

drainage surplus in The Netherlands

Large-scale reclamations in the 20th century

Large scale The generally felt need for better agricultural production conditions
reclamations in the 20th century resulted in a number of government-financed,
long-term programmes in which the construction of subsurface
drainage systems was a significant part. Important programmes
were the land reclamation programme in the former Zuiderzee area
and the rural development programmes on the “old lands”, the so-
called land consolidation projects. The public organisations involved
in these programmes were the IJsselmeerpolders Development
IJsselmeerpolders Authority for the newly reclaimed areas and the Government
Development Service for Land and Water Use for the “old lands”. Both
Authority organisations were multi-purpose organisations whose tasks
included drainage installation. The IJsselmeerpolders Development

21
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Authority carried out most of the works themselves in forced

account. The construction of drainage systems in the land
consolidation projects was carried out by consultants and
contractors under contract with Government Service for Land and
Water.

Commonly used subsurface drainage system

In the Netherlands, subsurface drainage systems are used in almost
all agricultural lands, except in the peat areas, where a high
groundwater table is require to reduce subsidence and only shallow
open drainage systems are used. The most commonly installed
subsurface drainage system is a singular system with piped field
Singular pipe drains discharging into open collector drains (Figure 16). The main
field drains, function of the field drains is to control the watertable level. The
open collector corrugated plastic field drains (Ø 60 mm) are installed at a depth of
and main drains 1.0 to 1.3 m. In fine or reduced (risk of ochre formation) soil layers,
and a pumped voluminous organic (coconut fibres) envelopes were used in the past,
outlet but they have been replaced by synthetic pre-wrapped envelopes.
Depending on the drain depth and soil texture, installation is done by
either trencher or trenchless drainage machines. The discharge from
the subsurface field drains and the surface runoff is removed by
gravity through a system of open collector drains.

Figure 16 The single subsurface drainage system in the

Netherlands consists of pipe field drains, open collector,
secondary and primary drains and a pumping station.

The design criteria for the open collector drains are based on two
criteria (Figure 17): a high water-level criterion (HW) and a normal
water-level criterion (NW). The HW criterion specifies that the water
level in the collector may exceed a level of 0.5 m below the soil
surface only 1 day a year. The NW criterion specifies that the water
Design criteria level in the collector may exceed the outfall level of the field drains
for the open (i.e. 1.0 to 1.1 m below soil surface) no more than 15 days a year.
collectors For collectors serving small areas, the second criterion is the most
critical and will therefore be adopted for the design, whereas for
collectors serving large areas, the first criterion is the appropriate
one.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

free board high water level

q= 15mm/d

normal water level

q= 3mm/d

proposed control structure

with fixed crest level

Figure 17 High water-level (HW) and normal water-level (NW) criteria

used in the Netherlands for the design of collectors.

4.2 Irrigated lands in arid and semi-arid regions -

example from Egypt

Climate Egypt’s Nile Valley and Delta, one of the oldest agricultural areas in
the world, has been under continuous cultivation for at least 5000
years. Egypt has an arid climate, characterised by high evaporation
rates (1500-2400 mm/year) and little rainfall (5-200 mm/year), thus
agriculture depends almost entirely on irrigation from the river Nile
(Figure 18). From ancient times onwards, irrigated agriculture in the
Aswam high Nile Valley and Delta depended on the annual floods of the River Nile.
dam The receding floods also drained and leached the cultivated areas.
The construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1964 ended the annual
flooding but made irrigation water available throughout the year.
Since then, two to three crops can be grown each year, resulting in a
practical continuous growing season.

These developments had as a secondary effect that the natural

annual drainage and leaching ceased to exist. The absence of this
Need for natural drainage and leaching, in combination with the intensification
drainage of agriculture, made it necessary to provide the Nile Valley and Delta
with an artificial drainage system to control water logging and salinity.
Although the quality of the water from the River Nile is good (EC =
0.3 dS/m), salinity control is needed; otherwise over the years salt
will be accumulated in the root zone. Therefore, in the 1960’s, the
Egyptian Government started an ambitious programme to drain all of
Egypt’s agricultural land (approximately 2.5 million ha). This
programme is expected to be completed around 2012. Since the
1960, organisational reforms, the local production of drainage
materials, mechanisation of the installation together with the
necessary basic and operational research has resulted in a drainage
organisation and drainage industry that has an annual implementation
capacity of about 75 000 ha.

23
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Figure 18 Agricultural land in Egypt

Composite field The drainage systems in Egypt consist of a network of piped field
drainage drainage systems and open main drains (Figure 19). The field
system, open drainage system consists of subsurface field (lateral) and collector
main drainage pipes that runs by gravity. The piped collectors discharge into open
system a main drains from where the drainage water is pumped into large open
pumped outlet gravity drains which eventually discharge into the River Nile or the
sea. Pumping is necessary almost everywhere in the Delta and the
Valley, expect in some areas in Upper Egypt, where there is enough
gradient to dispose of the effluent freely by gravity.

The main function of the field drains is to control salinity; the

corresponding design discharge rate is 1.0 mm/d. The corrugated
plastic field drains (Ø 80 mm) are installed at a depth of 1.2 to 1.5 m,
a spacing of 40 to 80 m and a length of 200m. The collector drains
are also pipes, this is possible because the design discharge rates are
Implementation small: 4 mm/d for rice areas and 3 mm/d for non-rice areas. These
process rates are slightly higher than the rate used for the field drains,
because it is assumed that the collectors also evacuate some excess
irrigation water. Collectors are nowadays also made of plastic pipes
(in the past concrete pipes were used), the depth varies between 1.5
and 2.5 m, the spacing is about 400 m (twice the length of the field
drains). The diameter increases from the upstream end (Ø 100 mm)
to maximum 500 mm near the outlet.

The implementation of drainage systems involves the following steps:

 Construction of open main drains or the remodelling of the
existing main drains;
 Construction of drainage pumping stations to keep the water

24
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

level in the open main drainage system at 2.5 m below field

level so that the piped systems can discharge by gravity in
these main drains;
 Construction of piped field drainage systems consisting of field
drains (named laterals in Egypt) and piped collector drains.

Figure 19 Schematic representation of the drainage system used in

Egypt

4.3 Drained lands in the humid tropics - example

from Malaysia

The climate in Malaysia is characterised by its uniform temperature,

Climate high humidity, and high rainfall intensity. It is influenced by two
monsoon winds, namely the Northeast Monsoon from November to
February and the Southwest Monsoon from April to September. The
mean monthly temperature is stable, varying between 24C and 27C.
The rainfall is higher than the annual evaporation (Figure 20). The
evaporation is fairly constant. The rainfall, however, is much more
irregular, both in time and space. There are significant, and often
consistent, differences between the different regions; for example the
rainfall in Pontian in the south western part of Peninsular Malaysia is
around 2500 mm/yr compared to 3600 mm/yr in Mukah, in Central
Sarawak. These differences are linked closely to the average rainfall
intensity and not so much to the number of days of rainfall.

mm
800

rainfall Mukah
rainfall Pontian
600
evaporation Mukah
evaporation Pontian

400

200

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Okt Nov Dec

Figure 20 Long-term average monthly rainfall (P) and evaporation

(ET) in Pontian (Western Johore) and Mukah (Sarawak)

25
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Two seasons can be distinguished: the rainy or monsoon season and

the dry season. As rainfall exceeds evaporation in the monsoon (or
Open drains rainy) season drainage is needed to remove excess rainfall and to
control the water levels in the field. In the dry season, when
evaporation is more or less equal to the rainfall, control structures are
used to reduce drainage in order to avoid water stress in the root
zone (Figure 21).

Figure 21 In the rainy (or monsoon) season drainage is needed to

remove excess rainfall, in the dry season control
structures are needed to conserve the water.

Because of the high rate of excess rainfall, drainage systems consist

of open field and main drains. The design criteria are based on an
extreme rainfall with a return period of 1 x 5 years. To minimize
costs, the design for the secondary drains follows the steepest
possible gradient, i.e. perpendicular to the contour lines. As an
example the main characteristics of the drainage system for the
Western Johor Integrated Agricultural Development Project, located in
the south western part of Peninsular Malaysia (Figure 22), are:

Secondary drains Tertiary Drains

Spacing (m) 800 200

Design depth (m) 1.6 0.9

Design discharge (mm/d) 52 - 86 52

Design discharge (l/s/ha) 6.0 - 10.0 6.0

Duration of flooding (hours):

- coconut, rubber, oil palm, orchards 72
- banana, cocoa, coffee, papaya 48
- maize, sorghum, and pineapple 24
- tobacco, vegetables 0

26
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Segamat

MALAYSIA

MALAYSIA
Kuala Lumpur

Muar
project area
Kluang

PHASE II

Batu Pahat

PHASE I

Pontian Johore Bahru

Singapore
0 25 50 km

Figure 22 Location of the Western Johor Integrated Agricultural

Development Project

Exercise 6: Comparison design criteria between the 3 regions

In the examples, drainage practices in three climatic regions were

discussed, i.e. The Netherlands as an example from a country in the
temperate zone, Egypt, an example from a (semi-)arid region and
Malaysia in the humid tropics.

Discuss the differences between the drainage systems in these three

regions.

27
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Bibliography
(Ref: ILRI Publication 60)

DRAINAGE OF CLAY SOILS

1995 Rycroft, D.W. and M.H. Amer. Prospects for the Drainage of Clay Soils. Irrigation and
Drainage Paper No. 51. FAO, Rome. 52 pp.

This bulletin discusses the drainage of clay soils. The book starts with a discussion of the
physical and chemical properties of clay soils, the movement of water and salts in these soils
and then reviews the techniques to drain and reclaim heavy clay soils. Case studies of drainage
of heavy clay soils in Yugoslavia, Portugal, Spain and Egypt are included.

DRAINAGE DESIGN

1984 Framji, K.K., B.C. Garg, and S.P. Kaushish. Design Practices of Open Drainage
Channels in an Agricultural Land Drainage System : A Worldwide Survey. ICID, New
Delhi. 343 pp.

This volume on open drainage channels consists of two parts: Part I is devoted to a general
review of the design aspects of open drainage channels: system lay-out, design capacity,
channel shape, roughness coefficient, permissible channel velocity, longitudinal channel slope,
side slope; Part II contains the country reports of Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, Colombia,
Czechoslovakia, Egypt, France, Federal Republic of Germany, German Democratic Republic,
Great Britain, Greece, India, Iraq, Ireland, Japan, Malaysia, Morocco, Portugal, Saudi Arabia,
Sudan, and the U.S.A.

1980 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Drainage Design Factors.
Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 38. 1980. FAO, Rome. 52 pp.

This manual, which is based on an expert consultation, gives 28 questions and answers
regarding drainage design factors.

1980 U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation. Drainage Manual – A guide
to integrated plant, soil, and water relationships for drainage of irrigated lands. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, 286 p.

The manual contains the engineering tools and concepts that have proven useful in planning,
constructing, and maintaining drainage systems for successful long-term irrigation projects.
Although the manual is not a textbook, it provides drainage engineering with a ready reference
and guide for making accurate estimates of drainage requirements. All the methods and
techniques covered in the manual have proven to be very satisfactory through observed field
conditions on irrigated lands in the USA but also in other parts of the world.

DRAINAGE GUIDELINES

1992 Ochs, Walter J. and Bishay G. Bishay. Drainage Guidelines. 1992. World Bank
Technical Paper Number 1995, The World Bank, Washington. 186 pp.

This paper provides research results for and experiences with agricultural drainage and related
subjects. It has been developed to guide Bank staff, consultants, and borrowing-country
technicians as they work through the project cycle, seeking to assist planners and designers, as
well as those responsible for implementation and follow-up, when projects involve drainage
measure.

1990 Schultz, B. Guidelines on the Construction of Horizontal Subsurface Drainage

28
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Systems. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi. 236 pp.

These guidelines give general criteria and recommendations for the construction of horizontal
subsurface drainage systems. The book starts with an inventory of subsurface drainage systems
and then briefly reviews design aspects. It gives attention to drainage materials and to
equipment to install the drains. It then recommends construction methods, and describes
operation and maintenance. Finally, it treats the cost-benefit analysis of projects. Includes a
glossary.

1983 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Guidelines for the
Preparation of Irrigation and Drainage Projects. Revised Edition. FAO, Rome. 31 pp.

Gives guidelines for the main text of a feasibility study, which provides the answers to questions
that might be raised in the course of project appraisal.

DRAINAGE MATERIALS

2001 Vlotman, W.F., L.S. Willardson, and W. Dierickx. 2001. Envelope Design for
Subsurface Drains. ILRI Publication 56, ILRI, Wageningen, 358 p.

The book is a compilation of the most recent information on how to design and select envelope
materials for agricultural drains. It is especially valuable for drainage engineers, contractors,
drainage-equipment manufacturers, students, teachers, and researchers who need to
understand soil-hydraulic conditions and how to prevent soil particles from moving into drains
so that they can design successful subsurface drainage systems. The publication consists of two
parts. In part one, guidelines for the design of envelopes for subsurface drains are presented, it
includes the following subjects: the needs for a drain envelope, material selection, design, cost,
implementation, maintenance and evaluation. Part two, the “resources” section, presents the
back-ground of drain envelope design, the theory and testing of existing design criteria and
experiences.

2000 Stuyt, L.C.P.M., W. Dierickx and J. M. Beltrán. Materials for subsurface land drainage
systems. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 60. FAO, Rome, 183 p.

This paper provides practical information to drainage engineers and contractors for the
selection, installation and maintenance of drainage materials as well as specifications and
standards for such materials. In addition, the manual also contains practical guidelines for the
implementation of laboratory and field investigations to evaluate the performance of drainage
materials.

1970 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Drainage Materials.
Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 9. FAO, Rome. 122 pp.

This manual gives an overview of the materials used in the construction of pipe drainage
systems.

DRAINAGE PLANNING, DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT

2004 Smedema, L.K., W.F. Vlotman and D.W. Rycroft. Modern Land Drainage: Planning,
Design and Management of Agricultural Drainage systems. 450pp.

New edition of the publication Land Drainage (published in 1983). The book is based on
traditional drainage methods for rainfed agriculture in the humid temperate zone. Significant
parts are devoted to drainage for salinity control of irrigated lands in (semi-)arid zones, and to
drainage of rice land in the humid tropics. Institutional, management and maintenance aspects
are covered, as well as the mitigation of adverse impacts of drainage interventions on the
environment. Moreover, various applications for drainage design and management are treated.
The book is intended for use both as a university level textbook and as a professional handbook.

29
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

1983 Smedema, L.K., and D. Rycroft. Land Drainage: Planning and Design of Agricultural
Drainage Systems. Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd., London, United
Kingdom. 376 pp.

The text discusses the diagnosis of agricultural drainage problems and their solutions, based on
an understanding of the physical principles involved. Land drainage is treated as being a field of
applied soil physics and applied hydrology. All major drainage problems are covered, each in its
particular environment and field of application: Groundwater Drainage; Watertable Control;
Surface Drainage of Sloping and Flat Lands; Shallow Drainage of Heavy Land; Drainage for
Salinity Control in Irrigated Land; Drainage and Reclamation of Polders; Drainage for Seepage
Control; Main Drainage: Design Discharges, Canal Design, Outlets. The book stresses the
universal relationships between the main design variables and soil, climatology, and other
relevant environmental conditions.

DRAINAGE PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

2007 Ritzema, H.P. (Editor-in-Chief). Drainage Principles and Applications, Third Edition.
ILRI Publication 16, ILRI, Wageningen, 1125p.

This completely revised second edition on drainage principles and applications is based on
lectures delivered at the International Course on Land Drainage, which is held annually by the
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
The book presents the basic principles of land drainage with applications. The book provides a
coverage of all the various topics useful to those engaged in drainage engineering. Includes a
glossary. Also available is a Spanish version published in 1977, entitled: Principios y
Aplicaciones del Drenaje (en cuatro volúmenes).

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

1999 Skaggs, R.W., J. van Schilfgaarde (Ed.). Agricultural Drainage. Number 38 in the
series Agronomy, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, USA, 1328 p.

This monograph summarises the information developed during the past two decades and deals
with the many aspects of contemporary agricultural irrigation and drainage systems, placing
these systems into the perspective of comprehensive water management. It can serve as the
scientific basis for decision-makers in developing management strategies to improve the soil
conditions of the field and protect water quality from contamination by cropping practices. The
42 chapters which contributions from 71 scientists and professions are presented in 12 sections:
I) Introduction; II) Overview of drainage and crop production; III) Soil water movement in
drained lands; IV) Movement and fate of solutes in drained lands; V) Modelling in the
performance of drainage systems; VI) Drainage for salinity control and reclamation; VII) Water
table control; VIII) Hydrology and water quality impacts of drainage; IX) Planning and design of
drainage systems; X) Drainage methods and materials; XII) Special drainage problems; XII)
Determination of soil properties for drainage design, and; XII) Socio-economic impacts of
agricultural water management systems.

DRAINAGE TESTING

1976 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Drainage Testing. Irrigation
and Drainage Paper No. 28. FAO, Rome. 172 pp.

This publication gives guidelines on how to test the functioning and adequacy of single drains
and drainage systems.

DRAINAGE TRAINING MANUALS

1996 Ritzema, H.P., R.A.L. Kselik and F. Chanduvi. Drainage of Irrigated Lands. Irrigation

30
Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Water Management Training Manual No. 9. Food and Agricultural Organisation of the
United Nations, Rome, 74 p.

Drainage of Irrigated Lands is the ninth in a series of training manuals on irrigation. The manual
is intended for use by field assistants in agricultural extension services and irrigation & drainage
technicians at the village and district levels who want to increase their ability to deal with farm-
level irrigation and drainage issues. It discusses the needs for drainage in irrigated areas,
focusing on drainage at farm level. It reviews the systems that are available to drain irrigated
lands and explains which factors of soil and hydrology influence drainage. It touches briefly
upon the design, construction, operation and management of field drainage systems.

CASE STUDIES

Egypt

2003 Advisory Panel Project on Water Management. Precious Water: a celebration of 27

years of Egyptian- Dutch Cooperation. APP Central Office, Cairo, Egypt, 84 p.

The booklet published through the Secretariat of the Egyptian-Dutch Advisory Panel on Water
Management, on the occasion of the Third World Water Forum, March 2003, presents an
overview of an unique 27-year cooperation between the Governments of Egypt and the
Netherlands in the Egyptian-Dutch Advisory Panel on Water Management. This bilateral
cooperation on water started, in 1975, on drainage, with a main focus on design and
implementation of large-scale drainage systems. Throughout the years of the bilateral co-
operation, the Advisory Panel successfully widened its scope from drainage specific issues to
water management topics and gradually changed from technical support to policy advice. The
main objective of the Panel in its present set-up is to assist the Ministry of Water Resources and
Irrigation in carrying out its responsibilities towards managing the quality and quantity of
Egypt’s freshwater resources more efficiently and effectively. This task is accomplished with an
Annual Panel Meeting, Workshops, consultant missions (local and international), Working Group
Meetings, Task Forces, etc., coordinated by a Secretariat, based in Cairo, Egypt, and
Wageningen, The Netherlands. In the booklet the “nuts and bolts” of the Panel as well as many
of the achievements of the last 27 years are described in 13 interviews with Panel members,
Officials of the Netherlands Embassy in Cairo, and the Panel’s Secretariat.

2003 El Guindy, S., M. Salah El Deen, A. Bazaraa & W. Wolters. “Seminar on Water
Management Development in Egypt, Results of Long-term Egyptian-Dutch
Cooperation”. Proceedings seminar on water management development, 12-14
December 2002, in Hurghada, Egypt. Advisory Panel Project on Water Management,
Cairo, Egypt.

The proceedings highlight the results of the long-term, 27 years from 1975-2002, Egyptian-
Dutch cooperation on water management. The objectives of the Seminar were threefold:
 To highlight the achievements of more than 25 years of Egyptian-Dutch cooperation
 To reflect on the evolution of the cooperation programme from technology transfer
in land drainage towards integrated water management and planning, institutional
reform, capacity building and environmental management.
 To exchange experiences, lessons learned, vision for the future of Egypt’s water
sector and coordination issues of donor cooperation.
The proceedings include the critical success factors for such a bilateral cooperation programme
as well as the Main Findings and Recommendations of the Seminar. A CD with all papers and
presentations completes the Proceedings.

2001 Drainage Research Project I & II. 2001. Drainage Research Project I & II, Final
Report, Dec 1994 – June 2001. Drainage Research Institute, Kanater, Cairo, Egypt,
172 p.

The report presents the results of the long-term co-operation of drainage research in Egypt
between the Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Egypt and the International Institute for Land
Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), the Netherlands. After a brief sketch of agriculture and
agricultural research in Egypt, with emphasis on the activities by DRI, the achievements in the

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

field of design criteria are described in 6 sections: I) Project details; II) Research on design
criteria; III) Monitoring and evaluation; IV) Research on drainage technology; V) Crop
production and water management; VI) Research Management. The report concludes with a list
of publications by the project.

2000 H.J. Nijland (Ed.) Drainage along the River Nile. RIZA Nota nr. 2000.052, Ministry of
Public Works and Water Resources, Egypt, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and
Water Management, Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management,
The Netherlands, 323 p.

This publication presents the achievements of 15 years of co-operation on institutional and

technical aspects of Agricultural Land Drainage in Egypt between the Egyptian Public Authority
of Drainage Projects (EPADP) and the Netherlands Directorate General of Public Works and
Water Management (RWS). It presents various aspects of large-scale implementation of
drainage, covering subjects that are technical, economic, and organisational, or that concern
operation research, and institutional and human resources development. The contributions of 40
authors are presented in 5 parts: I) Drainage in Egypt and The Netherlands; II) Training: III)
Planning and Organisation; IV) Information Technology, and; V) Drainage Technology.

1989 Amer, M.H. and N.A. de Ridder (Eds.) Land Drainage in Egypt. Drainage Research
Institute, Cairo, Egypt and the International Institute for Land Reclamation and
Improvement (ILRI), The Netherlands, 377 p.

The project presents the achievements of 14 years of technical co-operation between Egypt and
The Netherlands on agricultural land drainage. The book summarises the knowledge gained in
research studies that were conducted to combat waterlogging and salinity in the Nile Delta and
Valley with the aim to provide some 2.1 million hectares with subsurface drainage systems. The
results are presented in seven: 1) Drainage survey and design practices; 2) Drainage
technology; 3) Operation and maintenance of drainage systems; 4) Vertical drainage feasibility
in the Nile Valley; 5) Re-use of drainage water for irrigation; 6) Economic evaluation of drainage
projects, and 7) Institutional and management aspects of drainage projects. The book provides
in depth guidance to practising engineers in planning and designing drainage systems.

India

2003 Indo-Dutch Network Project on Drainage and Water Management for Salinity
Control in Canal Commands in India. Research on the control of waterlogging
and salinization in irrigated agricultural lands. Central Soil salinity Research Institute,
Karnal, India and Alterra-International Institute for Land Reclamation and
Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 4 Volumes, 380p.

This report presents the findings of the Indo-Dutch Network Project on research on the control
of waterlogging and salinization in irrigated agricultural lands in India. The project, covering the
period 1995 – 2002, was a collaboration between the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute,
Karnal , the four State Agricultural Universities of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and
Rajasthan and Alterra-ILRI. The four volumes of the report cover the following issues:
 A methodology for identification of waterlogging and soil salinity conditions using
remote sensing: Based on eight studies covering areas ranging from 5 000 to 350
000 ha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (3), heavy clay or black soils (3) and sandy soils
(2), two methodology, one based on visual and another for digital interpretation are
recommended.
 Recommendations on Waterlogging and Salinity Control based on pilot area
drainage research: presenting the research findings of 7 drainage pilot areas
(ranging in size from 20 to 188 ha), covering 5 agro-ecological sub-regions in India
with soils ranging from sandy loam to heavy clay. For each sub-region
specifications for subsurface drainage systems, both open and pipe drains, are
presented.
 Computer modelling in irrigation and drainage: four computer simulation models,
SWAP, UNSATCHEM, SALTMOD and SURDEV, were tested to assess the short and
long-term impacts of water management options on the land and water productivity
and the environment.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

 Human resource development and the establishment of a training centre: the report
discusses the adopted approach in technology transfer, capacity building and
institution strengthening of the four network centres.

1995 Rajasthan Agricultural Drainage Research Project. 1995. Analysis of Subsurface

Drainage Design Criteria. Chambal Command Area Development Authority,
Rajasthan, India, 260 p.

The report presents an intensive review of the present state of scientific knowledge and
technology in the subsurface drainage research activities undertaken by the Rajasthan
Agricultural Drainage Research Project (RAJAD) during1991-1994. These activities have resulted
in the development of criteria and guidelines for subsurface drainage installation to assist with
the formulation of large-scale subsurface drainage procedures for the installation of subsurface
drainage in about 25 000 ha in the Chambal Command Area, Kota, Rajasthan, India. The
information is presented in 10 chapters: 1) Project description; 2) Background information on
Chambal Command Area; 3) Salinity and waterlogging; 4) Description of the experimental
drainage test sites; 5) subsurface drainage design criteria development; 6) Multidisciplinary
aspects of subsurface drainage; 7) Hydraulics of subsurface drainage systems; 8) Subsurface
drain envelope requirements; 9) Subsurface drainage installation costing procedures; 10)
Design guidelines for subsurface drainage.

The Netherlands

1993 Ven, G.P.van de (Editor). Man-made lowlands: history of water management and
land reclamation in the Netherlands. Matrijs, Utrecht, 293 p.

Man-made lowlands presents a comprehensive and richly illustrated picture of the way the
Dutch have made and kept their lowlands habitable. A indispensable standard work for anyone
interested in the Dutch history of water management and land reclamation. The publication
covers subjects: 1) The Netherlands, the country and its inhabitants; 2) Water management
from about 800 to about 1250; 3) Water management from about 1250 to about 1600; 4)
Water management from 1600 to about 1800; 5) The Netherlands, its inhabitants and water
management administration from 1800 till present; 6) Water management in ‘Laag-Nederland’
from about 1800 till present; 7) Water management in ‘Hoog-Nederland’ from about 1800 till
present; 8) Improvement of the large rivers; 9) The Zuiderzee and the Delta projects; 10)
Epilogue and the prospects of water management in the Netherlands.

Pakistan

2001 Alterra-ILRI. Netherlands Research Assistance Project: a bilateral cooperation in

drainage between IWASRI and ILRI – Final Report 1988-2000. Alterra-ILRI Rapport
354, Wageningen, 90 p.

This is the final report of the Netherlands Research Assistance Project, a joint undertaking by
the International Waterlogging and Salinity Research Institute (IWASRI), Lahore, Pakistan and
the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The
Netherlands. The project, with covered the period 1988-2000, had two main activities: work on
technical aspects of drainage and the development of a participatory approach to drainage. The
report discussed three main issues:
 Technical lessons learned, in particular: (i) envelope materials; (ii) drainage design
with computer simulations; (iii) drainage design criteria; (iv) salinity measurements
by magnetic induction; (v) interceptor drainage; (vi) groundwater approach to
drainage design; (vii) operation and maintenance of drainage systems (viii) benefits
of shallow drainage, and (ix) the use of poor quality water for crop production and
reclamation.
 Participatory drainage development: lessons learned on development and
implementation, and
 Institutional development, including capacity building through training and the
execution and dissemination of research.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

1984 MARDAN SCARP. 1984. MARDAN SCARP Subsurface Drainage Design Analysis.Water
and Power Development Authority, Pakistan, 224 p.

This reports presents the subsurface drainage design analysis for the Mardan Salinity Control
and Reclamation Project (SCARP) carried out by the Pakistan Water and Power Development
Authority (WAPDA) and consulting engineering companies Engineering with assistance by the
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The Mardan SCARP project encompasses
123 600 acres of the Culturable Command Area of the Lower Swat irrigation canal in the
Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan. The achievements are presented in 8 chapters: 1)
Background information; 2) Design drainage rates, drain depths and spacings; 3) Subsurface
drainage pipework; 4) drain envelopes; 5) Cost estimates; 6) Economic analysis; 7) Subsurface
drainage plans, and; 8) Evaluating the performance of subsurface drainage.

USA

1987 Pavelis, G.A. (Ed.). Farm Drainage in the United States: History, Status and
Prospects. Miscellaneous Publication No. 1455, United States Department of
Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Washington DC, 170 p.

This publication covers the historical, technological, economic, and environmental aspects of
agricultural drainage in the USA. The main purpose is to review the evolution of modern farm
drainage and to identify farm drainage objectives for agricultural extension specialists and
agents, environmental specialists, drainage consultants, installation contractors, and educators.
Farm production, water management, and other benefits and costs associated with the drainage
of wet soils on farms are described within the context of existing USDA programs and other
Federal policies for protecting wetlands. The publication, which draws from the combined
knowledge of academic and USDA professionals, covers subjects: 1) A framework for future
farm drainage policy: the environmental and economic setting; 2) A history of drainage and
drainage methods; 3) Advances in drainage technology: 1955-85; 4) Purposed and benefits of
drainage; 5) Preserving environmental values; 6) Principles of drainage; 7) Drainage system
elements; 8) Planning farm and project drainage; 9) Drainage for irrigation: managing soil
salinity and drain-water quality; 10) Drainage institutions; 11) Economic survey of farm
drainage; 12) Drainage potential and information needs, and: 13) Drainage challenges and
opportunities.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Glossary (Ref: ILRI Publication 16)

Agricultural drainage: See Land drainage.

Alluvial plain: A plain bordering a river, formed by the deposition of alluvium eroded from
areas of higher elevation.

Aquifer: A water-bearing soil layer.

Base flow: Water flow appearing in a river or stream as a result of groundwater

discharge, with a characteristic delayed reaction to recharge. Most clearly visible after
direct runoff has stopped.

Basin irrigation: A system of surface irrigation in which water is ponded on level land
parcels surrounded by earthen bunds or banks.

Bedding: A surface drainage method accomplished by ploughing land to form a series of

low narrow ridges, separated by parallel furrows. Water from the furrows discharges into a
perpendicular field drain at the lower end of the field.

Catchment: See Drainage basin.

Collector drain: A drain that collects water from the field drainage system and carries it
to the main drain for disposal. It may be either an open ditch or a pipe drain.

Composite drainage system: A drainage system in which both field drains and collectors
are buried.

Culvert: A square, oval, or round closed conduit used to transport water horizontally
under a highway, railway, canal, or embankment.

Design discharge: A specific value of the flow rate which, after the frequency and the
duration of exceedance have been considered, is selected for designing the dimensions of
a structure or a system, or a part thereof.

Direct runoff: That portion of excess rainfall that turns into overland flow.

Discharge hydrograph: A graph or a table showing the flow rate as a function of time at
a given location in a stream.

Diversion channel: A channel constructed across a slope to intercept surface runoff and
conduct it to a safe outlet.

Diversion drain: See Interceptor drain.

Drain spacing: The horizontal distance between the centre lines of adjacent parallel
drains.

Drainable surplus: The amount of water that must be removed from an area within a
certain period so as to avoid an unacceptable rise in the levels of groundwater or surface
water.

Drainage base: The water level at the outlet of a drained area.

Drainage basin: The entire area drained by a stream in such a way that all stream flow
originating in the area is discharged through a single outlet.

Drainage coefficient: The discharge of a drainage system, expressed as a depth of water

that must be removed within a certain time.

Drainage criterion: A specified numerical value of one or more drainage parameters that
allow a design to be calculated with drainage equations.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Drainage effluent: The water flowing out of a drainage system which must be disposed
of either by gravity flow or by pumping.

Drainage gate: A gravity outlet fitted with a vertically-moving gate or with a horizontally-
hinged door or plate (flap gate).

Drainage intensity: (1) An agricultural drainage criterion based on the ratio between the
design discharge and the depth of the watertable. (2) The number of drainage provisions
(e.g. natural or artificial open drains, pipe drains, or tubewells) per unit area.

Drainage sluice: A gravity outlet fitted with vertically-hinged doors, opening if the inner
water level is higher than the outer water level, and vice versa, so that drainage takes
place during low tides.

Drainage survey: An inventory of conditions that affect the drainage of an area, made at
various levels, ranging from reconnaissance to design level.

Drainage system: (1) A natural system of streams and/or water bodies by which an area
is drained. (2) An artificial system of land forming, surface and subsurface conduits,
related structures, and pumps (if any), by which excess water is removed from an area.

Drainage techniques: The various physical methods that have been devised to improve
the drainage of an area.

Energy dissipator: A hydraulic structure in which the total hydraulic head of water in a
canal is safely reduced by providing a protected approach section, a drop, a stilling basin,
and a protected outlet transition.

Envelope: Material placed around pipe drains to serve one or a combination of the
following functions: (i) to prevent the movement of soil particles into the drain; (ii) to
lower entrance resistances in the immediate vicinity of the drain openings by providing
material that is more permeable than the surrounding soil; (iii) to provide suitable bedding
for the drain; (iv) to stabilize the soil material on which the drain is being laid.

Estuary: The mouth of a river, subject to tidal effects, where fresh water and sea water
mix.

Evaporation: (1) The physical process by which a liquid (or solid) is transformed into the
gaseous state. (2) The quantity of water per unit area that is lost as water vapour from a
water body, a wet crop, or the soil.

Evapotranspiration: The quantity of water used for transpiration by vegetation and lost
by evaporation from the soil.

Excess rainfall: That part of the rain of a given storm which falls at intensities exceeding
the soil's infiltration capacity and is thus available for direct runoff.

Field drain: (1) In surface drainage, a shallow graded channel, usually with relatively flat
side slopes, which collects water within a field. (2) In subsurface drainage, a field ditch, a
mole drain, or a pipe drain that collects groundwater within a field.

Field drainage system: A network that gathers the excess water from the land by means
of field drains, possibly supplemented by measures to promote the flow of excess water to
these drains.

Field lateral: See Field drain.

Filter: A layer or combination of layers of pervious materials, designed and installed so as

to provide drainage, yet prevent the movement of soil particles in the flowing water.

Gravity outlet structure: A drainage structure in an area with variable outer water
levels, so that drainage can take place by gravity when outside water levels are low.

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Groundwater: Water in land beneath the soil surface, under conditions where the
pressure in the water is equal to, or greater than, atmospheric pressure, and where all the
voids are filled with water.

Horizontal drainage: A method of groundwater drainage in which low watertables are

maintained by pipe drains or open ditches.

Hydrograph: A graph showing, for a given point, the stage, discharge, velocity, or other
properties of water flow as a function of time.

Ideal drain: A drain without entrance resistance.

Interception: (1) The capture and subsequent evaporation of part of the rainfall by a crop
canopy or other structure, so that it does not reach the ground. (2) The capture and
removal of surface runoff, so that it does not reach the protected area. (3) The capture
and subsequent removal of upward groundwater seepage, so that it does not reach the
rootzone of crops.

Interceptor drain: A channel located across the flow of groundwater and installed to
collect subsurface flow before it re-surfaces, normally used on long slopes and on shallow
permeable surface soils overlying relatively impermeable subsoils.

Irrigation: Controlled applications of water to agricultural land to allow the cultivation of

crops, where otherwise, owing to a deficiency of rainfall, agriculture would be impossible.

Land drainage: The removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the land to
enhance crop growth, including the removal of soluble salts from the soil.

Land forming: Changing the micro-topography of the land to meet the requirements of
surface drainage or irrigation. In land forming for surface drainage, two processes are
recognized: land grading and land planing.

Land grading: Forming the surface of land to predetermined grades so that each row or
surface slopes to a drain.

Land planing: Smoothing the land surface with a land plane to eliminate minor
depressions and irregularities without changing the general topography.

Land reclamation: Making land capable of more intensive use by changing its general
character: by draining excessively wet land, by recovering submerged land from seas,
lakes, and rivers; or by changing its saline, sodic, or acid character.

Leaching: Removing soluble salts by the passage of water through soil.

Leaching requirement: The fraction of irrigation water entering the soil that must flow
effectively through and beyond the rootzone to prevent a build-up of salinity resulting from
the addition of solutes in the water.

Longitudinal profile: An annotated design drawing of a canal along its centre line,
showing original ground levels, canal bank levels, design water levels, bed levels, and
other relevant engineering information.

Main drain: The principal drain of an area, receiving water from collectors, diversion
drains, or interceptor drains, and conveying this water to an outlet for disposal outside the
area.

Main drainage system: A water conveyance system that receives water from the field
drainage systems, surface runoff, interflow, and groundwater flow, and transports it to the
outlet point.

Mole drain: An unlined underground drainage channel, formed by pulling a solid object,
usually a solid cylinder with a wedge-shaped point at one end, through the soil at the

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Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

proper slope and depth, without a trench having to be dug.

Open drain: A channel with an exposed water surface that conveys drainage water.

Outlet: The terminal point of the entire drainage system, where it discharges into a major
element of the natural open water system of the region (e.g. river, lake, or sea).

Outlet drain: A drain that conveys collected water away from the drained area or project,
either in the form of a natural channel or as a constructed drain.

Overland flow: Water flowing over the soil surface towards rills, rivulets, channels, and
rivers. It is the main source of direct runoff.

Peak runoff: The maximum rate of runoff at a given point or from a given area during a
specified period, in reaction to rainfall.

Pipe drain: A buried pipe - regardless of material, size, or shape - which conveys
drainage water from a piece of land to a collector or to a main drain.

Polder: A tract of low land, reclaimed from the sea or another body of water, by endiking
it. In a polder, runoff is controlled by sluicing or pumping, and the watertable is
independent of the watertable in the adjacent areas.

Precipitation: The total amount of water received from the sky (rain, drizzle, snow, hail,
fog, condensation, hoar frost, and rime).

Rip-rap: Broken stone or boulders placed compactly or irregularly on dams, levees, dikes,
or similar embankments, and at the downstream end of structures, to protect earth
surfaces from the action of waves, currents, and flowing water.

Roughness coefficient: A dimensionless parameter appearing in Manning's Equation for

uniform steady flow in open canals, related to surface irregularity, vegetal drag, and
material retardance of the wetted perimeter.

Salinity: The content of totally dissolved solids in irrigation water or the soil solution,
expressed either as a concentration or as a corresponding electrical conductivity.

Salinization: The accumulation of soluble salts at the surface or at some point below the
surface of the soil profile.

Singular drainage system: A drainage system in which the field drains are buried and
discharge into open collectors.

Subsurface drainage: The removal of excess water and salts from soils via groundwater
flow to the drains, so that the watertable and rootzone salinity are controlled.

Subsurface drainage system: A man-made system that induces excess water and salts
to flow via the soil to wells, mole drains, pipe drains, and/or open drains, and be
evacuated.

Surface drainage: The diversion or orderly removal of excess water from the surface of
the land by means of improved natural or constructed channels, supplemented when
necessary by the shaping and grading of land surfaces to such channels.

Surface drainage system: A system of drainage measures such as channels and land
forming, meant to divert excess surface water away from an agricultural area in order to
prevent waterlogging.

Surface irrigation: Irrigation whereby the water flows over the soil surface, thereby
partially wetting the soil through infiltration, as in basin, border, and furrow irrigation.

Surface runoff: Water that reaches a stream, be it large or very small, by travelling over
the surface of the soil.

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 Main Drainage systems WUR/HPR/2011

Tidal drainage: The removal of excess water from an area, by gravity, to outer water
which has periodic low water levels owing to tides.

Tidal river: A river whose water level is influenced by tidal water level fluctuations over a
considerable distance.

Tide: The periodic fluctuations of the sea-water level that results from the gravitational
attraction of the moon and the sun acting upon the rotating earth.

Tile drain: See Pipe drain

Tubewell: A circular well, which may be used to dispose of surface water, to control
groundwater levels, or to relieve hydraulic pressures, where local physical conditions are
appropriate for their use.

Tubewell drainage: The control of an existing or potential high watertable or artesian

groundwater through a group of adequately spaced wells.

Tubewell drainage system: A network of tubewells to lower the watertable, including

provisions for running the pumps, and drains to dispose of the excess water.

Vegetated waterway: An earthen channel to dispose of excess water safely, and

therefore lined with vegetation to stabilize the channel and prevent erosion.

Vertical drainage: See Tubewell drainage.

Water balance: Equating all inputs and outputs of water, for a volume of soil or for a
hydrological area, to the change in storage, over a given period of time.

Waterlogging: The accumulation of excessive water on the soil surface or in the rootzone
of the soil.

Water management: The planning, monitoring, and administration of water resources for
various purposes.

Watershed: See Drainage basin.

Watertable: The locus of points at which the pressure in the groundwater is equal to
atmospheric pressure. The watertable is the upper boundary of groundwater.

Well field: See Tubewell drainage system.

Wetlands: Land where the saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the
nature of soil development and the types of plant

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