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100% found this document useful (2 votes)
3K views28 pagesEvolution Notes
Life orientation learners book
Uploaded by
steezypxychoCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
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EVOLUTION
Evolution -a general term that may be defined as change over time
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION ~ genetic changes in a population that are inherited over
successive generations due to natural selection
Biological evolution results inthe formation of new species
EVOLUTION ~ HYPOTHESIS OR THEORY?
HYPOTHESIS — an informed assumption that provides an explanation of a specific
phenomenon that can be tested,
THEORY ~ a well substantiated explanation supported by evidence that makes sense of a
natural phenomenon,
A theory develops and is changed or replaced as new evidence is discovered
Evolution isa scientific theory since various hypotheses relating to evolution have been
tested and verified over time
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
FOSSIL RECORDS (grade 10)
DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION
BIOGEOGRAPHY (GRADE 10)
Generics
FOSSIL RECORDS
FOSSIL ~ an organism or the remains, imprints or footprints of an organism, usually
preserved in rock,
Fossils provide evidence of the history of extinct organisms on earth.
Fossils are studied by Paleontologists
Paleontology isthe study of fossils
Paleontologists can determine the age of a fossil and also determine characteristics of the
‘organisms by studying its fossil This knowledge of these characteristics allows them to see
relationships amongst different organisms,
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—
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> Descent with modification describes haw the body plans of organisms are modified to adapt
to their different environments
Whale Bat
Examples of homologous structures in vertebrates
Forelimbs of vertebrates look different and perform different functions, but show the same
basic body plan.
Similar structures with the same body plan that perform different functions are known as
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES.
Homologous structures provide evidence of evolution because similarities may be traced
back to a common ancestor.
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Some body structures perform the same function in different organisms, but did not
‘originate from a common ancestor.
These are known as Analogous structures
These structures differ but have the same function
Therefore the theory of Descent with modification suggests that medern species are
modified descendants of earlier species and adaptations/ modifications occurred to adapt
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todifferent environments
BIOGEOGRAPHY
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jogeography - is the study of the distribution of existing and extinct species in specific
geographical species.
Biogeography proves that closely related species usually occur in the same geographical
region and this may suggest that they also share a common ancestor.
> Biogeographical regions, however, may be isolated by bartiers, this may lead to the
formation of a new species.
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Distribution map of flightless birds
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These flightless birds may have developed from a common ancestor
‘The birds were separated by geographically and thus they adapted to their changing
environments,
New species develop due to different mutations and selections in various environments
GENETICS
GENETICS ~ the study of inheritance
Genetics provides evidence that:
(© Closely related organisms have more similarities in their
DNA
(0. the source of variation that is necessary for evolution to
occur
(© changes in genotype or phenotype are transferred to
successive generations
(© gene pools of populations can change and lead to
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> BIOLOGICAL SPECIES - a group of organisms that interbreed to produce fertile offspring
POPULATION - a group of organisms of the same species that live in a particular place at a
particular time with the ability to freely interbreed.
SOURCES OF VARIATION
+ CROSSING OVER
‘+ RANDOM ARRANGEMENT OF CHROMOSOMES:
= MUTATIONS
+ RANDOM FERTILIZATION
© RANDOM MATING
1. Crossing over
Crossing over a process that occurs during meiosis
lvolves the exchange of genetic material during prophase | and leads to the formation of
gametes with different gene combinations
2. Random arrangement of chromosomes
> Occurs during meiosis
7 Involves the random assortment of homologous chromosome pairs on the equator during
‘metaphase | also leads to greater variation in the gametes
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Mutations are the most important cause of genetic variation
Occurs as a change in the sequence or quantity of nucleotides in DNA
This leads to a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein synthesized.
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Sperm cells and egg cells ae different from each other due to meiosis.
Given that fertilization is random of these gametes, therefore there will be different
combinations of genetic material in the offspring
5. Random mating
> individuals within a population can mate randomly
> This leads to variation af gene combinations
This leads to even more variation within a species
CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION
CONTINUOUS VARIATION
v
Occurs when there is a range of phenotypes for the same characteristics
Forms a continuous spectrum from one extreme to another
A genetic characteristic may be controlled by more than one gene and each gene may have
multiple alleles
Examples include: height in humans, skin colour, hair length and milk yield in cows,
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DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION
> Phenomenon where phenotypes fit into separate categories, with no intermediate forms
> Only single pair of alleles occurs
> Examples include: human ABO blood groups, tongue rolling, finger prints and sex
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LAMARKISM.
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829) was a
French naturalist that proposed his theory of
evolution in his book Philosophie Zoologique
LAMARKISM - Lamarck’s theory of evolution
Based on two related ideas:
> Law of use and disuse — the use or disuse of organs may cause the organs to
increase or decrease in size or even completely disappear.
> Law of inheritance of Acquired characteristics ~ during their lifetime organisms
‘acquire certain changes in characteristics that are inherited by their offspring,
> This results in changes in populations and the formation of a new species
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ee |
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EXAMPLE OF LAMARCKISH
> Allgiraffes had short necks originally
> Giraffes frequently stretched/used their necks to reach for leaves of tall trees
‘causing their necks to become longer
> The characteristics of long necks acquired in this way was then passed on to the next
generation forming offspring with longer necks than the generation before
LAMARKISM - Reasons for rejection
After the discovery of modern genetics, Lamarck's theory was rejected
In the example of the giraffe, the ancestors of the giraffe possessed the gene for
long, strong necks and did not acquire the gene by stretching their necks.
‘Acquired genes cannot be inherited or transmitted to offspring.
Lamarck had no understanding of genes and mutations, but he was the first scientist to
suggest that ‘something’ passed on the characteristics of the parents to the offspring
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Darwin in 1840,
Charles Darwin (1805-1882) was an English naturalist on the after his return
from the
survey ship HMS Beagle that undertook a five year expedition | voyage
to the southern hemisphere from 1831-1836. He made some
important observations on the Galapagos islands. He published
his book, On the origin of species by means of natural selection
DARWINISM - History
Darwin's observations:
‘+ Individuals of a population produce more offspring than is required
‘+ Agreat deal of variation occurs within a population to ensure survival of the
population
‘+ Some individuals are better adapted to a specific environment and are more likely to
reproduce while weaker adapted individuals will not reproduce or may become
extinct
# Characteristics are transferred from the surviving parents to their offspring
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DARWINISM ~ Evolution by natural selection
Organisms produce a large number of offspring
There is vi
ion in the offspring
Some individuals have favourable characteristics that give
them an advantage in the environment
When there is a change in the environment or increased
‘competition, organisms with favourable characteristics that
are better adapted to their environment, survive
Organisms without these favourable characteristics are less
suited to the environment and will de. Therefore the number
of ‘less fit’ organisms in the population will deerease
‘The organisms that survive, reproduce and thus pass on the
favourable characteristic to their offspring
The next generation will therefore have @ higher proportion of
individuals with the favourable characteristic
The changes occurring inthe individuals of a species over time
may lead to the formation of a new species
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Large number of
offspring is produced
Variation
Struggle for survival
Natural selection
Inheritance of favourable
characteristics
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DARWINISM - Application
EXAMPLE OF DARWINISM
> Asa result of genetic variation inthe giraffe population some giraffes have longer
necks than others
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Environmental change/competition for resources occurred causing those with
shorter necks to die and those with longer necks to survive, since they could reach
the leaves of tall trees
> This is termed natural selection
> The genotype for longer necks was passed on to subsequent generations
> Im this way each subsequent generation had necks longer than the generation before
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAMARCK & DARWIN
Lamarck Darwin
Law of use and disuse Law of natural selection
The acquired characteristics are passed on | Inherent genelic characteristics can be
to the next generation inherited from parents
‘Organisms have an internal drive to ‘Organisms do not have an internal drive to
change/deterministic changeinature selects the best to survive
Individuals change Populations change
Infers that no extinction because organisms | Extinction occurs since organisms may have
get better and better and therefore survive | features that do net favour survival
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2
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
.
Niles Eldredge of the American Museum of Natural History and Stephen Jay Gould of
Harvard University described Punctuated Equilibrium in 1972
> Punctuated Equilibrium and gradualism are concerned with evolutionary rate
¥
Evolution involves long periods of little or no change (known as equilibrium)
¥
This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods of time where rapid changes
occur through natural selection
> During which new species may form in a short period of time
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM AND GRADUALISM
CRU cc
Species 3 Species 3
Species 2
Evolution
Time Tine
> According to Darwin evolution takes place due to an accumulation of small changes
over a long period of time there are transitional fossils to show gradual change over
a long period of time
nal fossils ~ consist of both the ancestor species and the modern species
> Eldredge and Gould observed that sometimes evolutionary changes happens very
rapidly and then long periods of stasis involving little evolutionary change. This was
rium,
called punctuated equi
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ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
> Astificial selection ~is the deliberate breeding of plants and animals for desired
characteristics that would not necessarily benefit the survival ofthe offspring,
Humans select the desired characteristics and therefore serve as the environmental trigger
> During artificial selection a specific orgarism is chosen for a specific genetic trait requirect by
the breeder. The organism is then bred with another organism of the same species, with the
same characteristic, Based on genetic mechanisms, more offspring will have the desirable:
characteristic
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ARTIFICIAL SELECTION — Example
A domesticated species
By selecting cows which produce large amounts of milk and whose mothers and grand-
‘mothers were also high milk producers, and allowing them to mate with bulls whose
mothers and grandmothers were also high milk producers, cows which produce more milk
than their ancestors, have been developed.
A crop species:
> Fatmers cultivated numerous popular crops from the wild mustard, by artificially selecting
them for certain attributes. By selecting for shorter internades, the cabbage was produced.
By selecting for poor flower development, the broccoli was produced. By selecting for sterile
flowers, the cauliflower was produced
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ARTIFICIAL SELECTION VS NATURAL SELECTION
ities:
> Variation occurs in a particular population
> Variation is hereditary inthe population
> The outcome is the same, ie the population changes over time and certain characteristics
become more frequent
Differen:
[NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION ]
The environments acts as the selection pressure | Humans determine which traits are selected
| Selected characteristics are advantageous for Selected characteristics are not necessarily
| |
survival in the natural environment advantageous for survival in the natural
environment
I
| Can lead to anew species Leads to a new breed of a plant or animal
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FORMATION OF NEW SPECIES
SPECIES ~a group of organisms that interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
SPECIATION ~ an evolutionary process during which new species form.
Speciation increases the range of organisms on earth and thus increases biodiversity
Extinction is thé loss of species, therefore decreases the range of organisms on earth andl
thus decreases biodiversity
SPECIATION THROUGH GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION
| population of a single species becomes separated by a geographical barrier (sea,
mountain, lake) then the population splits into two.
There is now no gene flow between the two populations
Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions/the selection
pressure may be different
"Natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations such that the
individuals ofthe two populations become very different from each other genotypically and
phenotypically
Even ifthe two populations were to mix again they will not be able tointerbreed.
The two populations are now different species.
EXAMPLES OF GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION
1. Galapagos finches
2. Lands on diferent land masses linked to continental drift)
- Baobabs in Africa and Madagascar
- Proteas in South Africa and Australia
3. Any example of mammals on different land masses
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GALAPAGOS FINCHES
The finches were isolated from the original population, islands are situated so far from the
mainland
The finches multiplied and mutations occurred
‘Variation in beak size occurred
Natural selection resulted in selection of traits that enable finches to adapt
Population began to look different from population on the mainland
Gone pool changed over time.
Some finches flew to other parts ofthe island
Finches are now isolated from each other by geographical barrier
‘Once again mutations occurred in each population
Natural selection occurred
Finches on different islands developed separately and differed genetically
Eventually, they were unable to cross breed
Thus a new species is formed with different beak sizes and shapes
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GALAPAGOS TORTOISES
> During continental drift the tortoise populations were isolated/separated from the original
Population on different islands living under different environmental conditions and through
‘natural selection developed into new species develop phenotypically and genotypically
differently not able to interbreed after a period of time
MECHANISMS OF REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
+ Breeding at different times of the year
‘+ Species-specific courtship behaviour
‘+ Mechanical isolation
«Hybrid isolation
Ecological isolation
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(MECHANISMS OF REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
Breeding at different times of the year
Animal species mate and reproduce at different times of the year
Wood frog species mates between march 1 and April 1
Leopard frog mates between April and may 1
Two species of mayflies emerge during different weeks in springtime.
Species-specific courtship behavior
Courtship rituals are species specific and only individuals of the same species will recognize
the signals. The two bird species are unable to recognize each other's courtship rituals, Two
similar species of birds have different mating rituals
Mechanical isolation
oor
closely related species |s inhibited
Caches
Organisms may have structural adaptations that ensure that they are only fertilized by their
own species
‘The frog species have genitals that are not compatible and hence ant mate. Two species of
‘orchid have different length nectar tubes and are pollinated by different species of moths.
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4. Hybrid isolation
> Two different species can sometimes crossbred and produce a hybrid offspring
> The hybrid s often infertile and unable to produce offspring
> Inthe image a donkey mates with a harse to produce a mule which is an infertile hybrid
Ecological isolation
> Organisms may lve indifferent habitats or niches in the same envionment and use different
This decreases the chances of meeting mating partners
> The one snake is found on land while the other is found in aquatic enviconment decreasing
their chances of meeting tomate
EVOLUTION AT PRESENT TIMES
> insecticides in insects
> Mosquito population had variation
Resistant to DDT and others not resistant
> Mosquitoes that were resistant to ODT survive and reproduce offspring,
> Mosquitoes that were not resistant to ODT died
DOT also killed birds and fish that naturally prey on mosquitoes
Gene pool of Mosquito population changed
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Resistant strains of tuberculosis-cousing bacteria
> Bacteria undergo munations
The applications of antibiotics changes the environment and acts asa selection pressure
>
> The mutated resistant bactena are selected and survive
Mos" of non-resistant bacteria are destroyed by the antibiotics
While resistant ones multiply
>
> The charactenstic of resistance is inherited
>
Eventually » new bacteria population that is resistant to a specific antibiotic
HIV resistance to antiretroviral medication
> Some viruses develop mutations that make them resistant to ARVS.
> This introduces variation
> The application of ARVs changes the environment and acts as a selection pressure
> Resistant viruses are selected, survive and multiply
> Rarug resistant virus population develops
Bill (beak) and body size of Galapagos finches
» There was variation in the size of beaks
> Dunng normal wet seasons plants used to produce small and large seeds.
+ The smal seeds could be eaten by the finches with small and medium beaks
The large seeds could be eaten by the finches with large beaks.
> Between 1976 ~ 1978 there was a serious drought
> During the drought the small seeds were depleted and larger seads were plentiful
‘Many of the small to medium beak finch species could not survive the drought and died
The bigzer beaked finches were able to break open the coats of large seeds in order to get to
the seeds
Therefore the finches with larger beaks had a competitive advantage during the drought
period where larger seeds were available.
> Enwronmental selection pressure eliminated finches with small beaks due to a lack of food
> Presently only large beaked finches have been able to survive and are naturally selected due
to thei advantageous gene of having larger beaks,
The genes for larger birds with strong beaks were passed on to successive generations
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EVIDENCE OF A COMMON ANCESTOR
Scientific Classification
Mammal dass
Primate der
Hono spertrty
Woansce tomy
Siege ee a
Ser si
tomo Pan Gonta Pango bysates genus
Human Chimpanzee Genta Oongutan —Sbbon
veasme Owes | Coen)
Great Apes
All members of the family Hominidae are known as hominids (Great Apes and humans)
Hominines refers to humans and their fossil ancestors.
hominid refers to the Great Apes as well as humans and their fossil ancestors.
Great Apes are also often referred to as African Apes
viv
¥
——— HoMINIDs —__
(Great Apes and humans)
Hominins
(bipedal)
Araipithecus
Australopithecus
Evolutionary path of the family Hominidae
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Comparing African apes and Humans
Similarities between African apes and Humans
Long upper arms
Freely rotating arm
Elbow joints allowing rotation of forearm
COpposable thumbs
Fiat nails instead of claws/bare finger tips
Large brains/skulls compared to their body mass
Eyes in front/binocular vision/stereoscopic vision
Eyes with cones/colour vision
Sexual dimorphism/ distinct differences between male and female
Olfactory brain centres reduced/reduced sense of smell
Portions of the brain centre that process information from hands and eyes enlarged
‘Anatomical differences between African apes and humans
African apes Humans
‘Smaller cranium/brain Large eranium/brain
[ace sloping Flat face
‘Brow ridges pronounced Brow ridges not pronounced
Larger canines ‘Small canines
Large spaces between the teeth ‘Smaller spaces between the teeth
Jaw with teeti in a rectangular/U shape | Jaw with teeth ina round shape
‘More pronounced jaws/prognathous Less pronounced jaw |
Poorly developed chin Well-developed chin
Foremen magnum at the back of the skull | Foremen magnum at the frant/bottom of the
skull
Long and narrow pelvis Short and wide pelvis
C-shaped spine S-shaped spine
‘Quadrupedal Bipedal
Flat feet Curved foot arch
(Opposable toes on feet No opposable toes on feet
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+ Genetic evidence
* Cultural evidence
1. Fossil evidence
Bipedalism
CChimpaneer (qvadeuped) Human (bipedal
‘Apes are four-footed (quadrupedal} with gorillas and
| chimpanzees demonstrating a particular manner of
| walking, Le. knuckle-walking.
Humans, however, are bipedal and walk upright
Hominid fossils show evidence of a transition from
| quadrupedalism to bipedalism
Evidence that indicates hominids may have shared a common ancestor:
Position of foreman magnum
s e °
‘A. Chimpanzees: foramen magnum is at the back of the
skull
8. Early Homo species: foramen magnum is closer to
the front for stable
upright walking
C. Homo sapiens: foramen magnum is directly above
the spine to balance
the head above the vertebrae
‘The human vertebral column is S-shaped for flexibility
and shack absorption. The vertebral column of apes is
The human pelvicgirdle has become larger, shorter
‘and wider to support the greater weight due to the
Upright posture. The pelvic girdles of apes are long
he more complex human brain gave rise to:
* the capacity for language
‘the use of fre
| Sige SD E> £2
Hominid fossils indicate that the size of the cranium increased in most fossils over time. We may conclude that,
in general, the size of the brain (brain capacity) increased over time.
* well developed hand-eye coordination (to make and use tools)
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hd ism
one Ansvatopineces Nome sions
‘ont (onatenceso ‘Paevan)
‘Promant crit ora play mecca
‘Apes have large, protruding jaws (snout or muzzle) without wow ions crater brow does
8 chin. Their jaws protrude beyond the upper part of the | Apes have prominent cranial and brow ridges for
face, which results ina sloping face. attachment of well-developed
AAs the teeth become smaller over time, so the jaws become | chewing muscles
less protruding Cranial and brow ridges are completely reduced
| (reducee prognathism) and more rounded. The face appears | in humans
| flatter and less sloping
Humans have a narrow, flat face with rounded jaws and a
| protruding chin. The forehead appears more vertical as 3
| result of the larger cranium that
contains a larger brain
2. Genetic evidence
[ Chromosomal DNA Mitochondrial ONA (mtDNA)
i
x - *
rt
fe sty nce cy
one me sr comparing he mA fle hom,
cells and contains all the genetic information evolutionary paths of humans and African apes
pertaining to the characteristics of the separated.
organism. ‘f there are many differences, the separation
Gromoremsionnistansteredby ain | eccredecer
parents (mother and father) to their offspring, ‘This means there was more time for mutations to
-A comparison of the chromosomal DNA of if there are fewer differences, the separation
living hominids may determine how closely occurred more recently.
related they are. There was thus less time for mutations to occur
~The more similarities found in the DNA, the and there is less variation.
Int nS deterine that» omen
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closer the relationship.
-Although every person is unique, 99,9% of al
‘human ONA is identical, with anly a small
variation in 0,1%
This small genetic variation between people
also serves as evidence of the close relationship
between all humans,
Humans and apes share 96 -98% of the same
| ona.
| -98% of human DNA corresponds with
| chimpanzee DNA, which makes them the
closest related hominid to humans.
‘The above-mentioned evidence supports
Darwin's intial idea that humans and apes
sharea
ancestor for allfiving
hominids may have existed 15 mya and that the
evolutionary paths of humans
‘and chimpanzees separated about 6 mya.
3. Cultural evidence: tools
Different hand axes in Acheulian tool culture
The production and use of tools and other cultural practices like fire:making, burial rites, art and
hunting techniques are suggested as further evidence of common ancestors for ving hominids.
~The development of speech and language is another cultural change that distinguishes modern
humans from primates.
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ADVANTAGES OF BIPEDALISM
> Allows total awareness ofthe environment in sensing danger/looking for food
> Enables hands to be free to cary tools or offspring/throw/protect
> Exposes a large surface area for thermo:regulation/lose body heat to surroundings in hot:
conditions/reduce overheating therefore reduce need for water
More effective for locomotion
Display of male/female sex organs as part of courtship behaviour
v
MAJOR PHASES IN THE HOMINID EVOLUTION (from 6 mya to present)
‘The main hominin genera within the hominid group are the following:
+ Acdipithecus
‘+ Australopithecus
© Homo
Taung child (Australopithecus africanus) ‘Mis Ples (Australopithecus africanus)
Taung skull Mrs Ples
In 1924 the fossi skull of 2 hominin was found
by Professor Raymond Dart {1947 a complete adult skull and various bones
at Taung, northwest of Kimberly. were found by Or Robert
-tt was the skull ofa child of about 3-4 years | Broom in the Sterkfontein Caves in South Africa,
od
Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) Uttie Foot (Australopithecus species)
Alucyis a fossilised female skeleton found by | -in 1994 the ankle and foot bones of an
Donald Johanson at Hadar in the Afar valley, | australopithecine fossil was discovered in the
Ethiopia in 1974 Sterkfontein Caves by the palaeoanthropologist
The skeleton dates back 3,5 million years. Or Ron Clarke