EVOLUTION

SLOW CHANGE BY: MR NYAMA

Email:[email protected]

contact:0691829045
 EVOLUTION
Introduction (content of this slide)
De nition of biological evolution
Di erence between a hypothesis and
a theo
 EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
Role of the following as evidence
for evolution:
Fossil record – Link to Grade 10
Biogeography – Link to Grade 10
Modi cation by descent
(homologous structures)
Genetics
Emb ology


Variation
De nition of a biological species and a population
 Causes of variation
Meiosis
1. Crossing-over
2. Random arrangement of chromosomes
Mutations
Random fe ilization
Random mating
 Continuous and discontinuous variation
 CONTENT : CLASS TIME
Evolution is the processes of change in the
genes that have transformed life on ea h
from its earliest forms to the vast diversity
that characterizes life on ea h today.
Or evolution is the change in the
characteristics of a species over several
generations and relies on the process of
natural selection.
Biological Evolution means ALL present-day
forms of life
◦ have descended from, and are related to, those that
lived in the past
◦ Di erence may be because they became modi ed
from one generation to another
 HYPOTHESIS & THEORY
HYPOTHESIS Is a tentative
explanation for phenomena, facts, or
a scienti c inqui that may be tested,
veri ed or answered by fu her
investigation
You must be able to test your
hypothesis, and it must be possible to
prove your hypothesis true or false.
For example, Michael obse es that
maple trees lose their leaves in the
fall.
He might then propose a possible
explanation for this obse ation:
“cold weather causes maple trees
to lose their leaves in the fall.” This
statement is testable.
By: MR B NYAMA
 THEORY
A scienti c theo is a broad explanation for
events that is widely accepted as true.
To become a theo , a hypothesis must be
tested over and over again, and it must be
suppo ed by a great deal of evidence. eg
the theo of evolution by natural selection.
Charles Darwin
People commonly use the word theo to
describe a guess about how or why
something happens
By:MR B NYAMA
 EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
1.Biogeography
is the study of the
distribution of species
and ecosystems in
geographic space and
through geological time.
provides information
about how and when
species may have
evolved..
By: MR B NYAMA
2. Fossil record
Fossil remains have been found
in rocks of all ages.
Fossils of the simplest
organisms are found in the
oldest rocks, and fossils of more
complex organisms in the
newest rocks.
This suppo s Darwin's theo of
evolution, which states that
simple life forms gradually
evolved into more complex ones.
BY: MR B NYAMA
3.Comparative anatomy (modi cation by descent)
Deals with similarities and di erences in the
anatomy of di erent species
Organisms with the same ancestor have the
same anatomical plan (pentdactyl limbs). But they
are di erent due to divergent evolution.

Homologous structures
4.OneGenetic evidence
of the strongest evidences for common descent
comes from gene sequences.


Organism likely to have a common ancestor if they

have:


– Identical DNA structure – Similar sequence of genes

– Similar po ions of DNA with no functions and –


Similar mutations (mitochondrial DNA).

By: MR NYAMA

5.COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY
the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult form, provides
evidence for evolution as emb o formation in widely-divergent groups of organisms tends to be
conse ed
For example, vestigial structures such as tails or gills in humans can be found in embr y
os early
during their development

MR NYAMA
6.Cultural evidence:
Cultural evidence from studies of tools and weapons,
as well as language is also used to show similarities
and di erences between humans and African apes.
This is linked to human

BY: MR NYAMA
 VARIATION
Is the di erences between organisms of the
same species. It may be due to genetic
factors or environmental factors.
A species : is a group of living organisms
consisting of similar individuals capable of
interbreeding to produce a fe ile/ viable
o spring.
A population: organisms of the same
species living in a pa icular geographical
area and are capable of interbreeding.
BY: MR NYAMA
 CAUSES OF VARIATION
1.CROSSING-OVER
When homologous
chromosomes form pairs during
prophase I of meiosis I, crossing
-over can occur.
leads to new combinations
of maternal and paternal
genetic material in each new
cell
BY MR NYAMA
 2.Random arrangement of chromosomes
The random arrangement of chromosomes during metaphase results in
gametes with a unique combinations of alleles.
at the equator during metaphase allows di erent combinations of
chromosomes/chromatids to go into each new cell resulting from
meiosis, making them di erent.

BY MR NYAMA
3.Random fe ilization
Any sperm cell stand a chance of fe ilising any egg
cell/ovum.between di erent ovum and di erent sperm cells formed
by meiosis result in o spring that are di erent from each other.
Note: each individual is capable of producing over 8million
potential gametes, the random chance of any one sperm and
egg coming together is a product of these two probabilities -
some 70 trillion di erent combinations of chromosomes in a
potential o spring.

By: M.Saidi 0848331738

4.Random mating
Mating takes place within species randomly
between organisms within a species leads to a
di erent set of o spring from each mating pair.
5.Mutation
changes the structure of a gene or chromosome
and therefore the organism’s genotype changes
too.
Since the genotype in uences the phenotype, it
creates organisms with new, di erent
characteristics from one generation to the next.
Mutations could be
Harmless mutation
Harmful mutation
Bene cial mutation

BY MR NYAMA
 Continuous and discontinuous
variation
CONTINUOUS VARIATION this is the type of
variation where there is a range of
characteristic.ie there is intermediate values.
• Phenotype could be a ected by environment.
e.g. height and weight
 DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION
Clearly de ned di erences in a characteristic
that can be obse ed in a population. There is no
intermediate values
Eg. In the ABO blood group system, only four
blood groups are possible (A, B, AB or O).
Environment has no e ect on the phenotype.

BY MR NYAMA
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
•Lamarckism
(Jean Baptiste de Lamarck – 1744 – 1829)
•Darwinism
(Charles Darwin – 1809 – 1882)

BY MR NYAMA
 Lamarckism
(Jean
– 1829) Baptiste de Lamarck – 1744
Lamarck used
explain evolution: two ‘laws’ to
1. The law of use and disuse:
As an organism
orbecomes
organ more uses a structure
frequently, it
enlarged. better developed or
Ifstructure
an organism
or does
organ not use
frequently, a it
becomes
reduced less
in developed
size and may or
disappear altogether.
MR NYAMA
2.The inheritance of acquired characteristics
Characteristics developed during the life of an
individual (acquired characteristics) can be
passed on to their o spring.

BY: MR NYAMA
 QUESTIONS
1.have
Write an account
explained the showing how
development Lamarck
of longer would
necks
in modern gira es. (5)
MEMO
All gira es had sho necks originally.
These
necks gira es frequently stretched their
They did this to reach the leaves that
available only higher up on the trees. were
As a result, their necks became longer
The
this characteristic
way was then of long
passed necks
on to acquired
the next in
generation.
Eventually all the gira es had longer necks
BY MR NYAMA
 2. Explain whyrejected.
Lamarck’s theo was
There is no enough evidence
characteristics are inherited to show that acquired
Organisms
evolve did not evolve because they want to

BY MR NYAMA
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
LAMARCKISM AND DARWINISM
LAMARCKISM DARWINISM
Variation of the o spring occurs Variation in the o spring is inherited
when individuals in the population
change
Change occurs because of Natural selection – individuals best suited
adaptation to the to the environment su ive
environment /Law of use and
disuse/ deterministic theo
Individuals in the population change The population as a whole change
Acquired characteristics are inherited Characteristic are passed on from
by o spring generation to generation to enable
individuals to su ive in the environment

BY MR NYAMA
 Darwinism

(Charles Darwin – 1809 – 1882)




Its by natural selection:
Organisms produce a large number of o spring.
There is a great deal of variation amongst the o spring.
Some have favourable characteristics and some do not.
When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is
competition
Then organisms with favourable
characteristics, su ive while organisms
with unfavourable characteristics, die.
The organisms that su ive, reproduce and
thus pass on the allele for the favourable
characteristic to their o spring.

BY MR NYAMA
Qn 3. Write an account showing how Darwin would have explained
the development of longer necks in modern gira es.
As a result of genetic variation in the gira e
population some gira e had longer necks than
others.
As a result of leaves being available only higher
up on trees,
gira es competed for these leaves.
• Gira es with sho er necks died.
• Gira es with longer necks su ived.
• This is natural selection.
• The allele for longer necks was passed on to
subsequent generations.
• Eventually all the gira es had longer necks.
MR NYAMA
 Punctuated Equilibrium (Eldredge and
Gould – 1972)

It explains the speed at which evolution
takes place:
Evolution involves long periods of time
where species do not change or change GRADUALISM
gradually through natural selection
(known as equilibrium)
This alternates with (is punctuated by)
sho periods of time where rapid
changes occur through natural selection
during which new species may form in a
sho period of time.

MR NYAMA
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
 ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
isagricultural
where humans select
products or for desirable
animals, traits
rather than inleaving
the species to
human inte erence.evolve and change gradually without
For a long
experiments time,
to humans
develop have been
organisms doing
with a breeding
selected
set of desirable characteristics,
FOR EXAMPLE
increased
cows quality and quantity of milk produced by
Drought resistance organisms
Disease resistant organism
increased sugar content in sugar cane.
MR NYAMA
 Selective breeding of cows
Suppose you wanted a variety of cow that produced a lot of milk.
 choose or select the cows in your herd that produce the most milk
let only these cows reproduce
select the o spring that produce the most milk
let only these o spring reproduce
keep repeating the process of selection and breeding until you achieve
your goal.
By: M.Saidi 0848331738
 Di erences between natural selection and
a i cial selection
Natural selection A i cial selection
The environment or Humans represent the
nature is the selective selective force.
force.
Selection is in Selection is in response to
response to suitability satisfying
to the environment. human needs.
Occurs within a May involve one or more
species. species (as in cross
breeding).
 SPECIATION
This is the formation of new species
process of speciation
A population of a pa icular species may become split
into two
mountain. by a geographical barrier, e.g. a river,
As a result,
interbreed. the two pa s of the population cannot
There is no gene ow between the two populations.
Natural selection
population. occurs independently in each
This is due to di erent environmental conditions.
As a result,
genotypicallythe two
and populations
phenotypically become
di erent over a
period of time.
Even if the two populations mixed at a later time,
they will not be able to interbreed again to produce
Some nches have large, blunt beaks that can
crack the hard shells of nuts and seeds.
Other nches have long, thin beaks that can
probe into cactus owers without the bird being
poked by the cactus spines.
Still other nches have medium-size beaks that
can catch and grasp insects.
Because they are isolated, the birds don’t breed
with one another and have therefore developed
into unique species with unique characteristics.
This is called allopatric speciation.
By: M.Saidi 0848331738
Other examples
• Galapagos to oises
• Plants on di erent land masses (linked to
continental drift)
- Baobabs in Africa and Madagascar
- Proteas in South Africa and Australia
BY MR NYAMA
Qn: Describe how these two species of
ies formed. (6)

A B
 There was one population of ies
Abypopulation of a f l
y species becomes separated


walls of the boxes into two populations A and B



 There is
population.no gene f l
o w between the separated
 Natural
populationselection
A and Boccurs
due toindependently
exposure to in
dif f
eeach
rent
environmental conditions /food source.
 Populations become ver ydif
other genotypically and phenotypically f
e rent from each
 When
they populations
were not be able were
to allowed
interbreed.to meet
to again,
produce a
fe ile o spring
 The populations A and B are now new species.

NAIL IT ! MR NYAMA
Qn: Describe how these two species
formed. (6) t it .....

By: M.Saidi 0848331738

 Mechanisms of reproductive isolation
 (Keeping species separate)
 Breeding at di erent times of the year

 Species-speci c cou ship behaviour

 Adaptation to di erent pollinators

 Prevention of fe ilisation
 Infe ile o spring
 EVOLUTION IN PRESENT TIMES
Describe how mosquitoes developed resistant to DDT

BY MR NYAMA
There is a large degree of variation in the
mosquito population
When the DDT was rst used, it killed o a large
number of mosquitoes
But some mosquitoes were resistant to the DDT
and su ived
Those that su ived were able to reproduce
Increasing the population of resistant
mosquitoes
Continued use of the DDT had little e ect on the
resistant mosquitoes
Hence the resistant mosquitoes increased
And non-resistant mosquitoes decreased
BY MR NYAMA
Describe how Bill (beak) and body size of Galapagos nches
developed

The ancestral nch was a ground-dwelling, seed-eating nch.

The ecological niches exe the selection pressures that push the
populations in various directions.
A drought on the Galápagos island reduced the number of small seeds
available to nches, causing many of the small-beaked nches to die.
This caused an increase in the nches' average beak size.

MR NYAMA
 Other examples explain with help of
the teacher
 Development of resistant
strains of tuberculosis-
causing bacteria (MDR
and XDR) to
antibiotics, due to
mutations (variations) in
bacteria and failure to
complete antibiotic
courses

HIV resistance to
antiretroviral medication