Evolution is simply defined as the sum total of adaptive changes that have taken

place over a very long period of time.

Evolution as a topic makes us believe that new species developed from older ones. Just
like man that had other primitive species like homo erectus, homo naledi etc before the
modern day Homo sapiens.

This is also called Phylogeny ‼ ‼

The difference and similarity among living organisms account for evolution
Evolutionary trend suggests that life started from simple forms(unicellular
organisms) and advanced to complex forms(multicellular organisms).
Evolution occurs among a population and not amount individuals.

Concepts of Evolution.

Creationists believed in the Theory of Special Creation, whereas evolutionists believed in

the Theory of Natural Selection.

THEORY OF CREATION

According to the theory of special creation, all living things came into existence in their
present forms especially and specifically created by Nature. Among the scientists who
believed in divine creation was Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778).

THEORY OF EVOLUTION.
The idea that organisms might evolve through time, with one type of organism giving
rise to another type of organism, is an ancient one, existing from the days of Aristotle.

There has been a lot of misconceptions surrounding evolution as some claim living
things came from nonliving things, some believe living things were created by a
supernatural beings and some also believe living things were from from a cosmic
explosion due to inorganic accumulation of substances

Note: Some of these claims has been refuted and some are still in check that is why
they all still remain as THEORIES not laws. Hence there is nothing like Darwin Law of
evolution.‼ ‼ ‼

So theories that existed before the common theories of evolution.

Take note that some of them were debunked.

Theory of spontaneous generation [ Abiogenesis]

Theory of biogenesis

Cosmic theory

. Theory of special creation

. Theory of chemical evolution.

All these would have been expatiated on but their explanations are outside the scope of
your exams.

Take note that evolution is an orderly process that's occurs in populations alone.

Larmack's Theory [Lamarckism]:

Jean Baptist Larmack proposed Two theories while he was trying to explain what he
knows about Evolution.
Larmack observed that a body part that is constantly in use enlarges and becomes
efficient while one that is not used constantly becomes weak and small. This
observation is actually correct

But he made a mistake with his explanation of this. Let's take a look at the Theories that
Larmack proposed.

a. Theory of use and disuse:

This is what I just explained. Larmack observed and proposed that body parts that are
constantly in use tend to become stronger and more efficient while those that are not
used tend to be weak. For instance, let's take a look at an athlete. His muscles become
stronger and bigger as he continues to gym. Larmack used a giraffe to explain his
theory.

b. Inheritance of acquired traits:

Larmack then proceeded to state that these characteristics that we see as a result of
practice (e.g enlargement and strengthening of the muscles when one does exercises)
can be inherited by our offsprings. What he meant is that if a father that has big
muscles give rise to offsprings, his children will also have big muscles.
So, that's where Larmack missed it.
He proposed that ACQUIRED TRAITS CAN BE INHERITED and this is 100% wrong

Only INHERITED traits can be transferred from parents to offsprings acquired traits can't.

Lamarck argued that those parts of the body used extensively to cope with the
environment become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate.

Example 1. Among the examples Lamarck cited were the blacksmith developing a
bigger bicep in the arm that works the hammer

Example 2.
Giraffe stretching its neck to new lengths is pursuit of leaves to eat.

Inheritance of acquired characteristics.

The second idea Lamarck adopted, was called the inheritance of acquired
characteristics. In this concept of heredity, the modifications an organism acquires
during its lifetime can be passed along to its offspring

Example.
Lamarck reasoned, the long neck of the giraffe, evolved gradually as the cumulative
product of a great many generations of ancestors stretching higher and higher.

Dismissal of Lamarckism

August Weissman dismissed Lamarck's second theory after he conducted the

experiment of removing the tails of 68 white mice, repeatedly over 5 generations, and
reporting that no mice were born in consequence without a tail or even with a shorter
tail. These experiments clearly showed that acquired characteristics "cannot" be
inherited.

DARWIN'S THEORY (DARWINISM)

Charles Darwin, a British biologist, in 1859 propounded a theory of organic evolution by

Natural Selection leading to the origin of species. His theory of natural selection is as
follows:
 Overproduction: All living organisms produce more offspring than can survive.

Struggle for existence: Due to overproduction of offspring, there is a constant

struggle (competition) for existence among the offspring

Offspring show variations: No two individuals are exactly the same.

Adaptive characteristics: Some of the offspring are well adapted (fitted) to survive
the competition than others.

Inheritance of adaptive characteristics: The well adapted ones (or the fittest) will
transmit such variations to their offspring. Those with poor adaptations will die off.

Development of new species: An accumulation of favourable variations will in a long

time lead to a divergence (spread) from the original stock resulting in the formation of
new species.

Alfred Wallace a young naturalist working independently in the East Indies

developed a theory of natural selections essentially identical to Darwin’s and hence both
were published together.

Modern day theories are an advancement of what Darwin did and they can be called
"NEO-DARWINISM THEORIES"

MODERN THEORY OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

The theory of organic evolution as stated by Darwin has been modified. The modern
theories are now based on genetics, ecology, cytology, palaeontology, physiology,
anatomy and embryology and lots more.

So now, let's delve more deeply into mutation

MUTATION is a change in genetic material resulting in a new stable characteristic which

can be inherited by offspring.

Hugo De Vries, a Dutch botanist propounded the mutation theory of organic evolution in
1901. From this study Hugo De Vries further concluded that mutations similar to
"Primrose plants" are frequently occurring in other organisms too and that change by
mutation forms the basis for evolution.

In summary;
Mutation is the sudden changes in genetic makeup (DNA) either in gene or chromosome
resulting in a new characteristic or trait that can be inherited. Mutation occurs during
meiosis when the sperm and eggs (ova) are being formed. When mutation occurs, it will
lead to the production of offspring with marked differences in appearance from other
members of the population of the species. An organism arising from mutation is called
mutant. Mutations provides raw materials for organic evolution through natural
selection of new species.

A mutation which provides an organism with beneficial trait (variation) for adaptation to
its environment will survive the struggle for existence.

TYPES OF MUTATION

Gene (Point) Mutation: are sudden changes in the structure of DNA (gene code) at
a particular point or area of the chromosome.

Gene mutations occurring in the reproductive cells are inherited by all the cells of the
offspring while

Somatic (body) mutations occur only in the somatic cells and are only inherited by
the cells produced by mutant cells by mitosis.

NB: Somatic mutations are not transmitted to offspring since reproductive cells are not
involved.

Somatic mutant cells may give rise to tumour which may become benign without
affecting other cells or become malignant and may invade healthy cells, a condition
referred to as cancer.

Chromosome mutations are caused either by breaking off or fragmentation of

chromosomes during meiosis. The following may happen to the break off or
fragmented part. It may;

- be lost (deletion)
- be attracted to another end of another
chromosome (translocation)
- be fused to another chromosome resulting in duplication
- turn through the angle of 180⁰ and region the chromosome (inversion)
 CAUSES OF MUTATION

Mutations may be caused by frequent exposure of

- X-rays
- ultraviolet sunlight
- cosmic radiation
- chemical mutagens usually present in cigarettes

All these are called MUTAGENS.

Evidence of evolution

Fossil records
Geographical distribution
Biochemical similarities
Molecular records
Comparative anatomy
Embryology
Vestigial organs
Cytology

These evidences show that there is an ancestral link between all living organisms i.e it
shows how one organism evolved into another.

• Fossil records (or Paleontology); There are similarities between fossils that have gone
into extinction and animals that are existing now i.e whales evolved from land-dwelling
animals because fossils of extinct land animals closely related to whales have front
limbs like paddles, similar to front legs,the fossils of the modern hoofed horse.
This is the trend
Eohippus( 4 toe) => Mesohippus (3 toe) => Merychippus (3 toe with the third as the
strongest) => Equus. (1 toe)
Note: This is the most accurate evidence and this holds true for extinct organisms both
plants and animals

• Geographical distribution (or Biogeography Or adaptive radiation ): the study of the

geographical distribution of organisms, provides information about how and when
species may have evolved. The same specie can have different characteristics due to
change in location.
The marsupials of Australia, Darwin's finches in the Galápagos, and many species on
the Hawaiian Islands are examples of organisms of this sort. Galapagos finches is a
pure example of adaptive radiation.

• Comparative anatomy: The limbs of the vertebrates is built on a plan called the
Pentadactyl limb plan. The only vertebrate that has lost this plan is Pisces(fishes).

N.B: Similar anatomy found in different species may be homologous (shared due to
ancestry i.e vertebrates) or analogous (shared due to similar selective pressures i.e
between bats and birds).

• Embryology: This is the study of embryo of living organisms. Similar features are
found in classes of organisms at the embryo stage i.e There are common features in the
embryos of vertebrates i.e Gill cleft or Pharyngeal cleft. The pharyngeal cleft develops
into pharyngeal tube or Eustachian tube in mammals and gill silts in pisces

• Vestigial organs: are reduced or non-functional versions of features, ones that serve
little or no present purpose for an organism. They are homologous to useful structures
found in other organisms, and they can provide insights an organism's ancestry. i.e
Coccyx helped in mobility and balance while walking in human ancestors and no use in
modern humans Appendix,chest hair are also vestigial organs,ear muscles and tonsils
are some vestigial structures in man.

• Domestication: For mammals to successfully tame other animals, there is a

relationship between all organisms

• Cytology: This is the study of the cell. All animal cells have similar composition
likewise plant cells.

Radioisotope dating: This uses radio isotopes to measure the degree of decay of
rocks .This is not affected by temperature and pressure.

Patterns of evolution
This is as a result of Comparative Anatomy.

Divergent evolution : This is a pattern of evolution in which related species become

less similar in order to adapt to the environment. They have similar structures with
different uses. This leads to Homologous organs. E.g the wings of an eagle and the
wings of a penguin,the arms of human, forelegs of cats, flippers of whales, wings of
bats, have the same skeletal elements although these appendages have very different
functions

Coevolution : In co-evolution two species of organisms which interact closely evolve

together. E.g Plants pollinated by butterflies have tube-like flowers which are as long as
the butterflies' proboscis.

Convergent evolution : This is the process whereby unrelated species become similar
in order to adapt and survive similar environment .This leads to analogy or analogous
organs. E.g The fins of fishes and whales,wings of insects and birds.

Homologous organs are functionally different but structurally alike while analogous
structures are functionally alike but structurally different.

Rhema points

Evolution in humans is a gradual process and it is an example of anagenesis.

Mammals originate from the COENOZOIC era

Reptiles originated from the MESOZOIC era

Fishes amphibians and invertebrates originated from the PALEOZOIC era.