Exercise 28

APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIERS

1
1. Purpose of the exercise
The purpose of this exercise is to present some selected applications of operational amplifiers
commonly used in modern electronic analog systems.
Operational amplifiers (op-amp) are now used in all modern electronic systems. The rapid increase
of the interest of operational amplifiers has occurred after the introduction in the 1970s to mass
production, monolithic integrated circuits with very good properties and low price.
The variety of functions implemented using modern operational amplifiers is, practically speaking,
unlimited. In addition to the typical functions for the operation of the operational amplifier in analog
computers (basic arithmetic operations and logarithm, integrating and differentiating), are other uses of
this system should be mentioned, e.g.:
 voltage limiters,
 comparator systems,
 linear rectifiers
 analog to digital and digital to analog converters,
 generators of rectangular, triangular and sinusoidal waveforms,
 active filters.

2. Introduction to operational amplifiers

2.1 Basic information
The operational amplifier is characterized by high-gain and generally is designed to operate in a
system with an external negative feedback circuit. The properties of this circuit determine mainly the
characteristics of the entire system.
Most operational amplifiers have symmetrical (differential) inputs and unbalanced output.
Figure 2.1 shows a commonly used symbol of such amplifier.

Figure 2.1. Symbol of operational amplifier

Terminal IN1 labeled "-" is inverting input, because the output signal is reversed in phase by 180
relative to the applied signal.
Terminal IN2 labeled "+" is noninverting input, because the output signal is in phase with the applied
input signal.

2
 The operational amplifier may operate in unbalanced input system if the input signal is supplied to
one of the two inputs IN1 or IN2 (the signal is connected between the input terminal and the ground at
the second terminal is attached to ground). In the system with symmetrical input, the input signal is
supplied between inputs IN1 and IN2 of the amplifier. This signal is called a differential signal. The
output voltage is proportional to the value of the differential signal, which is the equal to the difference
of input voltages according to the dependence:

Where:
UIN1, uIN2 - input voltages,
UOUT - output voltage,
UD - differential input voltage,
AU - voltage gain of the amplifier with open feedback loop (differential gain).

Important feature of the operational amplifier (op-amp) is that the output signal should be equal to
zero when both inputs have identical signals relative to the ground. The same signal given on both
inputs is called a common signal. Op-amps suppresses the common signal.

2.2. Transformation characteristics

In Fig. 2.2 the characteristics of transformation with the open feedback loop and the basic system
for measuring this characteristics are shown.

Figure 2.2. Operational amplifier transformation characteristics

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In this characteristic three ranges of op-amp operation may be identified: linear operation range and two
saturation ranges. For linear operation, the output voltage is defined by the formula:

In range of saturation, the output voltage has a positive or negative saturation voltage value, which is
usually less by 1 to 2 V from the supply voltage. The linearity range of the op-amp without the feedback
is very small. For example, when the op-amp has a saturation voltage of ±10 V and gain AU is
100000 V/V, the linearity of the input voltage is in the range ±0, 1 mV.
When the linearity range is exceeded, the op-amp enters the saturation state. The output voltage of the
op-amp should be zero at difference of the input voltage equal zero (UIN= 0).
In practice, there is a certain voltage in this situation, called an unbalanced output voltage.
In Fig. 2.2. a dashed line corresponds to the transformation characteristic for the case when the
unbalanced output voltage is greater than zero (UIN> 0). Modern op-amp have the possibility of simple
compensation of the unbalance of the output voltage. In practice, this compensation is carried out using
the P potentiometer attached to the specially derived amplifier terminals, as shown in figure. 2.3.

Figure. 2.3. Compensation (balancing, resetting) of the imbalance voltage of the op-amp A 741 (a)
and the arrangement of its terminals (b)

2.3 Ideal operational amplifier

In the analysis of operation of the op-amp with different types of feedbacks an idealized model which
is ideal op-amp is often used.
Table 2.1. shows the basic parameters of ideal op-amps, mass-produced and most commonly used
A 741 produced by Fairchild (equivalent to polish ULY 7741N) and typical parameters of presently
used op-amp.

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 Tab. 2.1.

Ideal A 741 Other op-

amplifier amp
Differential gain AU V/V →∞ 105 104... 107
Differential input resistance RID M →∞ 1 0.05... 104
Output resistance RO  →0 75 50... 200
Limiting frequency fT MHz →∞ 1 1... 100

where:
DIFFERENTIAL VOLTAGE GAIN. AU - ratio of the output voltage to the differential
input voltage at the open loop,
INPUT DIFFERENTIAL RESISTANCE RID - resistance between the input terminals,
OUTPUT RESISTANCE RO - resistance between the output terminal and
the ground in a balanced amplifier with an
open loop,
LIMIT FREQUENCY fT - the highest frequency at which the
(UNIT AMPLIFICATION BAND) differential gain equals t o the
m a x i m u m g a i n for DC.

From the data presented in the Tab. 2.1 it follows that the ideal parameters of the op-amp are a certain
theoretical limit to which the parameters of the commonly constructed op-amp are approaching.

3. Basic circuits of operational amplifiers

3.1. Introduction
The op-amp can operate in the many numbers of different configurations. The simplest option is to
use a layout with an open loop. In this case, the op-amp works as a voltage comparator, small differential
values of the input voltage, depending on the sign of this voltage, cause one of the two saturation states.
It operation is very unstable in this system.
The op-amps are primarily used in systems with external negative close loop. This loop improves the
properties of amplifier – decrease nonlinearity of the characteristics and unbalance, extends the
frequency band, enhances the steadiness of the parameters and allows to select the gain. Below some
basic circuits with op-amp are presented, assuming that its properties are ideal.

3.2. Inverting amplifier

The inverting amplifier is such a system in which the input signal is connected in to the inverting
input - Fig. 3.1.

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 Figure 3.1 Inverting amplifier

If AU → ∞ than:
→0

The potential of point "0" is equal to the potential of the noninverting input, so it is close to the potential
of ground. For this reason, "0" is called the "apparent ground".
If RID → ∞ and I-= 0, I+= 0 than:

Therefore, gain of the inverting amplifier:

By selecting the resistance R2 (usually R1= const) you can obtain the required gain.
In the case of R1= R2 , an inverter with a gain of 1 is obtained .
Inverting amplifier input resistance:

Because the resistance R1 has low value the resistance RI has also low value.
In practice, additional resistor with a value equal to the resistance of parallel connection of R1 and R2
is often connected to the input "+" to achieve best compensation of error caused by unbalance voltage.

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3.3. Noninverting amplifier
In the noninverting amplifier system, the input signal is applied to the noninverting input - Fig. 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Non inverting amplifier

If the op-amp is ideal:

and hence the voltage gain of the system:

It is not possible to obtain a gain of 1.

Input resistance of the noninverting amplifier:

Because I+ → 0 is RI → ∞, in practice resistance value RI is very high.

For the same reasons as described in p.3.2, in the practical circuit to the input "+" resistor is connected
with value equal to the resistance of parallel connection of R1 and R2.

3.4 Voltage follower

If in the noninverting amplifier from the Fig. 3.2 the value of resistor R1 is infinitely high, the system
with 100 percent negative feedback is obtained. This system is called a voltage follower (Fig. 3.3).

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 Figure 3.3. Voltage follower

By adopting in the formula for gain of the noninverting amplifier R1=∞ we receive:

The voltage follower has a gain equal to 1 and is characterized by very high input resistance and low
output resistance. For this reason, it is ideal for use as a buffer separating electronic circuits (e.g. in a
memory-sampling system).
In practice, the resistance value R2 must be equal to the resistance of the internal input source.

3.5 Differential amplifier

In Fig. 3.4 the differential amplifier diagram is shown.

Figure 3.4 Differential amplifier

If the op-amp is ideal (U+ and U- voltage at the inputs of op-amp in relation to the ground):

By transforming the above equations and substituting:

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The output voltage value is obtained:

In most cases:

then the output voltage:

In addition, if 1, then .

3.6. Summing amplifier

Using the op-amp the summation of voltages may be realized using the circuit shown in Fig. 3.5.

Figure. 3.5. Summing amplifier

....

Using different values of resistors R1, R2... RN is obtained different signal amplification for individual
inputs, additionally, performs the function of multiplying the input signals by the corresponding
constants. If R1=R2=... =RN=TF is:

....

In practice, between the input terminal "+" and the ground a resistor is connected with a value equal to
the resistance of parallel connection of resistors R1, R2,..., rn, Rf.

3.7. Integrating amplifier (integrator)

The circuit enabling the integration function using op-amp is shown in Fig. 3.6.

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 Fig. 3.6. Integrating amplifier

1
∙

where R1  C   is the time constant of integration.

It should be noted that the integrating circuits are working property when the output signal is at a
frequency less than 1/. In Fig. 3.6 A triangular waveform of the output signal is shown, which is the
integral of the rectangular waveform input. The practical system of integrator is usually much more
complex, because it contain additional elements that set the initial working conditions (containing
capacitor C) and compensate errors.

3.8. Differentiator amplifier

If in inverting amplifier circuit, the input resistor is replaced by a capacitor C, the differentiator
system is obtained (fig. 3.7).

Figure. 3.7. Differentiator amplifier

where R 2 C   is the time constant of the differentiating.

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In Fig. 3.7 a rectangular waveform of the signal is shown, which is derived from the input triangle
waveform. A properly selected R1 resistor switch on to the circuit improves the stability of the amplifier.
For the same reason, there is also necessity to include an additional capacitor in the loop circuit (parallel
to the R2 resistor).

4. Other applications of operational amplifiers

4.1 Linear rectifier

The usage of semiconductor diodes in conventional rectifier systems in the field of small signals is
limited. This is due to the very high non-linearity of these elements at very small voltages. For example,
for silicon diodes at voltages smaller than about 0,7V the conduction of current is practically impossible.
The high linearity of the processing AC voltage to DC voltage is achieved by placing the diodes in the
loop circuit, which causes the diodes to be conductive even at very low input voltage. The one-half
linear rectifier is shown in Fig. 4.1.

Figure 4.1. Single-half linear rectifier

D1 and D2 diodes are cut off if the output voltage of the op-amp is < |0, 7 V|, the gain of the system is
determined by the differential gain of op-amp (open loop).
Closing the loop occurs when the output voltage of op-amp> |0, 7 V|.
The cut-off zone of the diodes D1 and D2 corresponds to a very low range of the input voltage (with op-
amp for which AU= 100 000 V/V the range of non rectified input voltages at which the diodes are cut
off is 0,7 V: 100 000 V/V = ±6 V). This small range of non rectified input voltages practically has no
effect on the accuracy of AC voltage processing in to DC voltage. For positive input voltages > + 6 V
diode D2 leads, so the D1 diode is cut off. The voltage UOUT is equal to zero. The D2 diode is used to
protect the op-amp before it enters saturation.
When the negative voltages are input <-6 V, the D1 diode leads and the D2 diode is cut off. The output
voltage of the system is equal:

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In case R1= R2 , the gain of the system equals - 1 and the negative half of the input voltage is repeated
at the output as positive.

4.2 Voltage limiter

A voltage limiter is a system that contains negative loops of non-linear elements (rectifier diodes or
Zener diodes).
The task of voltage limiters is to shape the input waveform consisting of an asymmetric or symmetrical
limit of course - from top or bottom or on both sides. In the op-amp, the limitation may prevent the
amplifier from entering the saturation that causes time delays. Necessity of reduction voltage value also
arises when working with amplifiers with digital circuits. The voltage limiter with the Zener diodes in
the loop shown in Fig. 4.2.

Figure. 4.2 Voltage Limiter

The system occurs the bilateral limit of the input waveform to the value (Uz+ UF),with the Zener voltage
of the D1 or D2 diodes, and UF -their voltage in the direction of conduction. In the range of voltages in
which the D1 and D2 diodes do not lead and none of them work in the Zener area, the system acts as a
reinverting amplifier:

4.3. Comparator
The function of the comparator system is to comparing the analog input of the UIN with the reference
signal Uo. On the output of the system, a comparison is obtained in the form of a two-state logical signal
indicating the difference between the input signal and the transmission signal. The comparator system
is therefore an elementary single bit - analog-to-digital converter and is the intermediate link between
analog and digital circuits.
Comparators distinguish between threshold discriminators (Reference voltage U0 ≠ 0) or with Zero-
pass detectors (U0= 0). In Fig. 4.3 a differential threshold discriminator system is presented.

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 Figure 4.3. Comparator (threshold discriminator)

The output voltage in this system is equal to the Zener voltage UZ if UIN < Uo or voltage UF Zener diode
polarized in the direction of conduction (about -0,7 V) if the UIN> U0.
To reduce the error caused by unbalance voltage, select R1= R2.
Resistor R3 is used to limit the current of Zener diodes D. By selecting the Zener diode, the output
voltage levels appropriate for the cooperation with the logic gates of different types are determined.
A fairly high voltage can occur between the op-amp inputs due to the difference in input and reference
voltages. This fact must be taken into account for the type of amplifier with an appropriately high
permissible input differential voltage.
Given in Fig. 4.3 the threshold discriminator system can also operate as a Zero pass detector if the R2
resistor is attached to the ground (U0= 0).
The input signal changes state each time the value of the analog inputs exceeds the zero level.
The zero-pass detectors are widely used in various systems for testing and processing analog signals.

4.4. Rectangular waveform generator

Previously discussed usege of the op-amps included negative loop circuits. An important field of use
of amplifiers is also the waveform generators, which are circuits with positive loop. An example of a
simple solution of a rectangular pulse generator using a single op-amp is given in Fig. 4.4.

Figure 4.4. Rectangular waveform generator

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The voltage obtained at the output is limited by Zener diodes D1 and D2. The Elements R2 and C form
an integral system that determines the frequency of the generator. The frequency adjustment is best done
by changing the value of resistor R2.

4.5. Sinusoidal waveform generator

Diagram of the simplest and most commonly used sinusoidal generators with a fixed frequency is
shown in Fig. 4.5.

Figure 4.5. Sinusoidal waveform generator

The Zener D1 and D2 diodes limit and stabilize the amplitude of oscillation. The RC elements of the
Wiena bridge are placed in the positive loop. These elements determine the frequency of the generator.

4.6 Active RC Filters

4.6.1. Introduction
Filters built with the use of the op-amps are called active filters.
The active filter is a group of passive RC components and active elements, most often operational
amplifiers. The properties of amplifiers, including filters, describe frequency characteristics. The
primary is the amplitude characteristic, which determines the dependence of the amplification module
on the frequency. The two frequency values at which the gain decreases to the specified value are called
boundary frequencies: lower fL and upper fH , and they denote the frequency response . In amplifiers as
1
typical assumed a reduction in the gain to the value  0,707 of what the logarithmic scale corresponds
2
to 3dB.
The task of passband filters is to transform signals of frequencies lying in the transformation band,
and suppress signals with frequency lying outside in this band.
Band-stop filters fulfill the inverse function, suppress the signals of the frequencies lying in the band-
stop, and transmit all other signals with frequencies lying out of the band-stop.

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Active filters, compared with the passive filters RLC have many advantages, eg. high stability of
operation, accuracy, ease of frequency tunability, lack of attenuation of the signal and even the
possibility of its amplification, elimination of inductance elements (L) costly and uncomfortable due to
large dimensions. RC active filters can operate in a wide range of frequencies - from the thousandths of
parts hertz to tens, and even to several hundred kilohertz. The upper frequency of the filter operation is
the deliberately and the transmission of the op-amp band.

4.6.2. Band-stop filter

Band-stop filters are used to suppress interfering signals with frequencies lying in the usable bands.
They can be used e.g. to eliminate the undesirable frequency in the grid.
One of the many possible execution of a band-stop filter shows the figure. 4.6.

Figure 4.6 Band-stop filter

The frequency at which maximum signal attenuation occurs is the central (or zero) frequency of f0.
For the filter presented in Fig. 4.6:
1
; 1
2

where Auf is the gain of the system in the pass-through band.

4.6.3. Low-pass filter

An example of a low-pass multi loop filter is shown on Fig. 4.7.

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 Figure. 4.7. Low-pass filter

In this filter:

1
; 1
2

4.6.4. High-pass filter

The filter diagram is shown in Fig. 4.8.

Figure. 4.8 High-pass filter

In this filter:

1
; 1
2

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4.6.5. Bandpass filter
The pass (central-pass) filters are mainly used in cases where one frequency signal or a narrow
frequency band should be removed, the accompanying noise or interference with frequencies that are
similar to the frequency of the signal.
The bandpass filter is shown in Fig. 4.9.

Figure 4.9. Bandpass filter

In this filter:
1
; 1
2
2

5. Laboratory studies

All circuits from the op-amp are prepared in the form of a combined device. All attachments,
adjustments and measurements are made using the buttons, knobs and voltmeters mounted on the front
of the device. The only elements attached to the outside are oscilloscopes and a generator.

5.1 Balancing the amplifier

System tested was presented in Fig. 2.3.
Attach the voltmeter to the terminals of the op-amp and by adjusting the potentiometer P bring the
voltmeter display to zero. During an exercise it is not necessary to reposition the potentiometer P, as
the zeroed op-amp is switched on to all other systems.
After balancing the op-amp, disconnect the compensating system with the corresponding button.

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5.2. Inverting amplifier
System tested is presented in Fig. 3.1.
A. Attach voltage UIN with " +" or "-" polarization. Attach the voltmeter to the outputs terminals and
supply UIN measure the UOUT value for individual amplifier gains. Note the results in the table. Based
on the results of the measurements, determine the actual gain of Aufr amplifier (as the average of the
measurements).

Auf= 10 Auf= 20 Auf= 100

UIN UOUT UIN UOUT UIN UOUT
V V V V V V
0.5 0.25 0.05
1.0 0.40 0.10
Aufr=.... Aufr=.... Aufr=....
B. For gain Auf= 10 specify characteristics of UOUT= f (UIN) over the entire range of the amplifier. Note
the measurement results in the table.
UIN V -1.5 -1.4 -1.2 -1.0 -0.6 -0.2 + 0.2 + 0.6 + 1.0 + 1.2 + 1.4 + 1.5
Auf= 10 UOUT V

Based on the characteristics, determine the voltage of the UOUT at which the amplifier reach the
saturation
+ UOUTsat=.....
- UOUTsat=.....

5.3. Noninverting amplifier

System tested is presented in Fig. 3.2.
As in p. 5.2. (measure the UOUT voltage and determine the actual gain and Aufr (as the mean value of the
measurements). Note the results in the table.

Auf= 10 Auf= 20 Auf= 100

UIN UOUT UIN UOUT UIN UOUT
V V V V V V
0.5 0.25 0.05
1.0 0.40 0.10
Aufr=.... Aufr=.... Aufr=....

5.4 Voltage follower

System tested is presented in Fig. 3.3.
Attach the UIN voltage of the polarization "+" or "-". Attach the voltmeter to the terminals of the OUT.
Check the operation of the auxiliary unit by dealing the voltage UIN and measuring UOUT. Note the results
in the table.

UIN V 2 4 6 8 10
UOUT V

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5.5 Differential amplifier
System tested is presented in Fig 3.4.
Check the operation of the amplifier by dealing different voltage values UIN1 and UIN2 and measuring
UOUT. Compare one of the results obtained with the value obtained as a result of the calculation according
to the theoretical relationship describing the amplifier. Specify Auf layout. Results note in the table.

UIN1 V +5 +5 -5 +5
UIN2 V + 2 -2 +2 +5
UOUT V

Auf =..... UOUT= Auf(UIN2 -UIN1) =...

5.6. Summing amplifier
System tested is presented in Fig 3.5.
Check the performance of the amplifier by dealing different voltage values UIN1 and UIN2 and measuring
UOUT. Note the results in the table.

UIN1 V +5 +5 -5 +5
UIN2 V + 2 -2 +2 +5
UOUT V

5.7. Integrating amplifier

System tested is presented in Fig 3.6.
At the input of the system, conect the generator and set the rectangular waveform at the amplitude
UINemax= 1 V and frequency 50 Hz. Check the performance of the system by observing the output.
Determine the amplitude of the output signal UOUTmax. Observations and measurements made by using
an oscilloscope. Specify the |Auf| of the system.

5.8. Differentiator amplifier

System tested is presented in Fig 3.7.
For the input of the system, connect the generator and set the triangular waveform with amplitude
UINmax= 1 V and frequency 50 Hz. Check the performance of the system by observing the output
waveform. Determine the amplitude of the output signal UOUTmax. Observations and measurements made
using an oscilloscope. Specify the |Auf| system.

5.9 Linear rectifier

System tested is presented in Fig 4.1.
For the input of the system, connect generator and set the sine waveform with frequency 50 Hz by
adjusting the amplitude of the voltage UINmax. Check the performance of the system by observing the
output. Determine the amplitude of the output signal UOUTmax. Observations and measurements made
using an oscilloscope. Specify the |Auf| system. Note the results in the table.

UWemax mV 50 100 200

UWymax mV

| Auf| =……………

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5.10 Voltage limiter
System tested is presented in Fig 4.2.
Attach voltage UIN. Attach the voltmeter to the terminals of the OUT. When adjusting the UIN of the two
polarizations "+" and "-", measure the characteristics of UOUT= f (UIN) of the system. Specify Auf of the
system. Note the results in the table.

UIN V -2.0 -1.0 -0.5 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 + 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.5 + 1.0 + 2.0
UOUT V

Auf =....

On the basis of the characteristics determine the values of Zener voltages UZ1, UZ2 diodes D1 and D2.
Assume that the voltage drop on the conductive diode is UF1= UF2= 0,7 V.
UZ1=....
UZ2=....

5.11. Comparator
System tested is presented in Fig 4.3.
Attach voltage UIN. Attach the reference voltage U0. Attach the voltmeter to the terminals of the OUT.
Set the reference voltage value (e.g. Uo= + 2v). Adjust UIN voltage in the range: UIN< U0... UIN= U0...
UIN> U0 by measuring the UOUT voltage.
Measure the voltage in UIN at which the state of the output is changed -thus defining the characteristics
of the UOUT= f (UIN) of the system. On the basis of the characteristics determine the value of the Zener
UZ diode D and its voltage in the direction of conduction UF.

U0= + 2v
UIN V -1.0 0 + 1.0 + 1.9 + 2.0 + 2.1 + 3.0 + 4.0 UZ=....
UOUT V UF=....

5.12. Rectangular waveform generator

System tested is presented in Fig. 4.4.
Attach the oscilloscope to the terminals of the OUT. Determine the frequency and amplitude of the
output signal.
UOUTmax =....
f =....

5.13. Sinusoidal waveform generator

System tested is presented in Fig 4.5.
Attach the oscilloscope to the terminals of the OUT. Determine the frequency and amplitude of the
output signal.
UOUTmax =....
f =....

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5.14 Band-stop filter
System tested is presented in Fig 4.6.
Attach the generator to the IN terminals. Set the sine waveform witch the amplitude UINmax= 1 V.
Adjust the input voltage frequency. Measure the amplitude of the output voltage UOUTmax. The
measurements are performed using an oscilloscope - thus determining the frequency characteristics of
the transformation of the filter - . Note the results in the table.

UINmax= 1 V

f kHz 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1

UOUTmax V

On the basis of the characteristics specify |Auf| of the system, the central frequency f0, the lower
frequency fL, the upper frequency fH , and the bandwidth f.
|Auf| = ....
f0 =....
fL =....
fH =....
f =....

5.15. Low-pass filter

System tested is presented in Fig 4.7.
Perform analogous steps as in p.5.14.
Designate the filter transformation characteristics - . Note the measurement results in
the table.

UINmax= 1 V

f kHz 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

UOUTmax V

On the basis of the characteristics specify |Auf| The system and the upper frequency fH.
|Auf| = ....
fH =....

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5.16 High-pass filter
System tested is presented in Fig 4.8.
Perform steps as in P. 5.14. Designate the filter transformation characteristics - . The
results of the measurements are in the table.

UINmax= 1 V

f kHz 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

UOUTmax
V

On the basis of the characteristics specify |Auf| The system and the lower frequency fL.
|Auf| = ....
FL =....

5.17. Pass band filter

System tested is presented in Fig 4.9.
Perform steps as in p.5.14. Designate the filter transformation characteristics- .. Note
the measurement results in the table.

UINmax= 1 V

f kHz 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1

UOUTmax V

On the basis of the characteristics specify |Auf| The system, the centre frequency f0, the lower frequency
fL, the upper frequency fH and the f bandwidth.
|Auf| =. ...
f0 =....
fL =....
fH =....
f =....

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Literature

1. Nadachowski N., Kulka Z.: Analog integrated circuits. Warsaw, WKiŁ 1979
2. Kulka Z., Nadachowski M.: Operational amplifiers and their application Part 2 practical realizations.
Warsaw, WNT 1982.
3. Sonta S., Kotlewski H.: Linear integrated circuits and their use. Warsaw, WNT 1977.
4. Rusek M., Ćwirko R., Marciniak W.: A guide to electronics. Warsaw, WNT 1986.
5. Horowitz P., Hill W.: The Art of electronics, part. 1 and 2. Warsaw WKiŁ 1996.

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