ETHICS

Mayra Christina M. Ambrocio, DEM

Leonida C. Bueno, Ed.D.
Emelyn U. Napiza
Arnold R. Alcaraz

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 LAGUNA UNIVERSITY

Vision

Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational institution of

choice providing holistically developed individuals in the Asia-Pacific Region.

Mission

Laguna University is committed to produce academically prepared and

technically skilled individuals who are socially and morally upright.

Quality Policy

Laguna University commits itself to provide free quality education, to deliver

socially responsive services to our stakeholders to continuously improve
quality management system, and to satisfy applicable regulatory and statutory
requirements.

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Course Code: GE8

Course Description: Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern

society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the environment
and other shared resources. (CMO 20 s 2013)
Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong that an individual
originally picks up from the community. The course discusses the context and
principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of individual, society.
and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources. The course
also teaches students to make moral decisions by using dominant moral frameworks
and by applying a seven-steps moral reasoning model to analyze and solve mora
dilemmas.
The course is organized according the three (3) main elements of the moral
experience: (a)agent, including context- cultural, communal, and environmental;
(b) the act; and (c) reason or framework (for the act).

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Differentiate between moral and non-moral problems;

2. Describe what a moral experience is as it happens in different levels of
human existence;
3. Explain the influence of Filipino culture on the way students look at moral
experiences and solve moral dilemmas;
4. Describe the elements of moral development and moral experience;
5. Use ethical frameworks or principles to analyze moral experiences;
6. Make sound ethical judgments based on principles, facts. and the
stakeholders affected;
7. Develop sensitivity to the common good;
8. Understand and internalize the principles of ethical behavior in modem
society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the
environment and other shared resources.

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Grading System:

Class Standing 60%

Major Examination 40%
Periodic Grade 100%

Preliminary Grade = 60% (Prelim Class standing) + 40 (Prelim Exam)

Midterm Grade = 30% (Prelim Grade) + 70 % [ 60% (Midterm Class Standing)
+ 40% (Midterm Exam)]
Final Grade = 30% (Midterm Grade) + 70% [ 60% (Final Class Standing
+ 40% (Final Exam)]

Note: Components of the Class Standing can be seen in the OBTLP and Class Grading Sheet.

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 Table of Contents
Module 1: Basic Concepts 1
Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1. What is Ethics? 2
Lesson 2. The Nature of Ethics 3
Lesson 3. Moral vs non-moral standards 7
Lesson 4. Moral Dilemma 10
Lesson 5. Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts 13

Module 2: Culture in Moral Behavior 26

Introduction 26
Learning Objectives 26
Lesson 1. Culture and its role in moral behavior 27
Lesson 2. Cultural relativism 28
Lesson 3. The Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior 30

Module 3: Developing Virtue as Habit 44

Introduction 44
Learning Objectives 44
Lesson 1. How is a moral character developed? 45
Lesson 2. The Stages of Moral Development 49

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 List of Figures

Figure Description Page

1.1 Ethics Word Cloud 4

2.1 Checklist of Strength and Weaknesses 31
3.1 Psychological components of Moral Development 46
3.2 Moral Identity 48
3.3 Lawrence Kohlberg 49
3.4 Stages of Moral Development 51

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 List of Tables

Table Description Page

1.1 Ethics and Morality 7

1.2 Moral vs Non-Moral Standards 10

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 MODULE 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Introduction

“What are the characteristics of a good person?”

“What does it mean to be a moral person?”

“What personality should I possess?”

“How should a good person deal in a given situation?”

These are some of the questions to consider as to how an individual should act. Ethics, as
one of the branches of the social science is the same as branches of a tree intertwined and
paralleled. With such a diverse concept, how do we begin to understand ethics? This module will
focus on the basic concepts of ethics its uses and how it is almost synonymous to morality. It will
also give emphasis on moral and non-moral standards and making moral decisions. The issue
on moral dilemma will also be highlighted in this module and the important role of freedom as the
foundation of moral acts.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Differentiate ethics and morality;

2. Identify and explain moral standards;

3. Define moral dilemma;

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Lesson 1. What is Ethics? (Agapay, 2020)

The word “ethics” is derived from the Greek word “ethos” which means “characteristic way
of acting”, “habit”, or “custom”. The Latin equivalent is mos, mores, from which come the word
moral and morality. Ethics studies the characteristics behavior of man as endowed with reason
and freewill. The study of Ethics started with the Greek philosophers, notably Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle. Socrates is regarded as the father of moral philosophy. However, it is Aristotle who has
greatly influenced ethical thinking with three important treaties – the Nicomachean Ethics, the
Eudemian Ethics, and the Magna Moralia (Great Ethics).

Human acts are actions done intentionally and freely, like walking, reading, working,
playing, shopping, joining a contest, or signing a contract. Human acts are differentiated from acts
of man which are instinctive, such as the physiological and psychological movements like
breathing, feeling happy, or falling in love. Ethics does not study the acts of man in themselves
but as factors affecting man’s judgement and violation.

Ethics is the study of man as moral being, one who is rationally able to distinguish between
right and wrong. It examines how man is accountable for his actions and its consequences. It
proposes how man ought to live his life-meaningfully. It is concerned with morality, the quality
which makes an act good or evil, correct or wrong. It also examines and explains the rational basis
why actions are moral or immoral. In other words, Ethics is concerned with the norms of human
behavior.

What is Ethics?
By: Jovito R. Salonga

Ethics is the discipline dealing with right and wrong. And when we ask what things are right,
without having to go back to the ancient philosophers and scholars, common sense tells us the
things that are right are the things that help people and society at large, such things as honesty,
fairness, decency and accountability. To be sure, ethics has a practical dimension. It is based on
what one might call reciprocity, something like the Golden Rule- “Do unto others what you would
like others to do unto you.” Or even its negative version- “Don’t do unto others what you don’t like
them to do unto you.” I don’t want to be lied to, hence I should not lie to others. I don’t want my
possession to be stolen, therefore I should not steal other people’s possessions. If I don’t want to
be cheated by the other candidates for president, then I should not cheat them.

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 But beyond reciprocity, ethics has a spiritual dimension: People have an inner sense of
right and wrong. That is why we feel guilt and shame. Wasn’t it Abraham Lincoln who said: “When
I do good, I feel good. When I do bad, I feel bad?” “Our best moments, as one ethicist points out
(Meyers 2020 p.18), are not when we made a lot of money, but when something we did meant a
lot good to others. In my own law practice before I got into the fascinating but turbulent world of
politics, I earned more than enough by serving as lawyer for a number of big corporations;
however, my happiest moment was not when I received a handsome attorney’s fee but when I
defended- gratis et amore- an old man, a friend of my late father, who, in my own opinion was
erroneously convicted by a biased judge. I appealed the judgement of conviction, prepared the
written brief at my expense and personally argued his case in the Court of Appeals, knowing he
could not pay me even if he wanted to. When the judgement of acquittal came, I thought I was the
happiest man in the world. What I am trying to say is that beyond honesty and fairness,
compassion and caring for people, especially those who are in need, are among life’s highest
ethical values (Excerpt from “Ethics in Politics” in The Intangibles That Make A Nation Great, 2003,
p. 165-166).

Lesson 2. The Nature of Ethics

Ethics as defined by Minkes et al. (2020) is a philosophical term originating from Greek
word “ethos” meaning custom or character. It is concerned with describing and prescribing moral
requirements and behaviors, which suggests that there are acceptable and unacceptable ways of
behaving that serve as a function of philosophical principles This is the concept that ethics is
associated with an individual’s character, as to how he acts in a particularly convincing and
courageous way, as well as to establish personal integrity. Also, there is the distinction a person
could make, mainly between ethics and morals. This is important because when giving emphasis
to ethics, it is almost as synonymous to the concept of “morality”, which gives more confusion to
the idea.

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 Figure 1.1 Ethics Word Cloud (2020)
Source: https://www.needpix.com/photo/download/766372/business-idea-style-concept-goals-guidelines-
association-finance-attitude

Based on the given idea, we can give a clear definition that ethics is a science that guides
our judgment concerning the morality of human acts. Furthermore, to clearly give a broader idea
on the concept of ethics, Padilla (2020), points out that:

1. Ethics is a natural science . It employs the power of human reason, which is purely a natural
process. It is not based on the teaching of the Catholic Church or any system of belief, nor it is
based on the Bible. Being a branch of philosophy, it arrives at its conclusions using the human
reason, which is philosophy’s only tool.

2. Ethics is a practical science . It is not studied for the love of learning. All are bound in
conscience to apply its principles to their conduct.

3. Ethics is not a physical science . It does not deal with physical laws, such as “water seeks its
own level.” It is rather a moral science, dealing with the free acts of men.

4. Definition and purpose of ethics . Ethics is the study of the moral behavior or conduct of man
as viewed from ultimate principles insofar as these principles are known by human reason.

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 Briefly, Ethics is a philosophical science dealing with the morality of the human acts. Other
books dealing on this subject offer the following definitions:
a. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and
wrong.
b. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct.
c. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality.
d. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions.
What use is Ethics?

BBC.com (2021) listed down in their website the different uses of ethics as follows:

1. Ethics can provide a moral map

Most moral issues get us pretty worked up - think of abortion and euthanasia for starters.
Because these are such emotional issues, we often let our hearts do the arguing while our brains
just go with the flow. But there's another way of tackling these issues, and that's where
philosophers can come in - they offer us ethical rules and principles that enable us to take a cooler
view of moral problems. So, ethics provides us with a moral map, a framework that we can use to
find our way through difficult issues.

2. Ethics can pinpoint a disagreement

Using the framework of ethics, two people who are arguing a moral issue can often find
that what they disagree about is just one particular part of the issue, and that they broadly agree
on everything else. That can take a lot of heat out of the argument, and sometimes even hint at a
way for them to resolve their problem. But sometimes ethics doesn't provide people with the sort
of help that they really want.

3. Ethics doesn't give right answers

Ethics doesn't always show the right answer to moral problems. Indeed, more and more
people think that for many ethical issues there isn't a single right answer - just a set of principles
that can be applied to particular cases to give those involved some clear choices. Some
philosophers go further and say that all ethics can do is eliminate confusion and clarify the issues.
After that, it's up to each individual to come to their own conclusions.

4. Ethics can give several answers

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 Many people want there to be a single right answer to ethical questions. They find moral
ambiguity hard to live with because they genuinely want to do the 'right' thing, and even if they
can't work out what that right thing is, they like the idea that 'somewhere' there is one right answer.
But often there isn't one right answer - there may be several right answers, or just some least
worst answers - and the individual must choose between them.

Division of Ethics

According to Padilla (1999), Ethics has two major parts – General and Special Ethics.
General Ethics presents truth about human acts and from these truths deduce the general
principles of morality.
Special Ethics is applied ethics. It applies the principles of general ethics in different
departments of human activity, individual and social. It includes man’s relation within the family,
in the state and in the world. It is divided into the following:

as regards to God
Individual
as regards to self
Ethics
as regards fellowmen

in the family
Social
in the state
Ethics
in the world

Ethics is divided into general and special ethics. The first part of this book is about General
Ethics and the second part about Special Ethics.

• General Ethics is about the principles of morality. It explains the norms with which the
moral significance of the human act is determined. Special Ethics is the application of the
principles of General ethics to the problems and issues confronting a person on account
of his circumstances in life, for instance, as a citizen, neighbor, worker, wife, husband, or
child.
• Special Ethics includes the sub-branches of professional ethics, such as medical ethics,
business ethics, legal ethics, biological and environmental ethics. This book is divided into
General and Special Ethics.

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Ethics and Morality

Perle (2020) differentiate the two terms where ethics comes from the Greek word ethos
which means character or a characteristic way of acting while morality on the other hand came
from the Latin word moralis which means customs or manners. However, there are some
difference between the idea of the researchers as to the difference between the two. Ethics seems
to point out to the individual character of a person while morality is connected to the relationships
and interaction among human beings. One school of thought states that morality is integrally
grounded on spiritual values – one’s accountability to a supernatural being. Ethics, in contrast,
relies on materialist and social consequences based on a given situation, in order to weigh what
is ethical or not.

Table 1.1 Ethics and Morality (Perle, 2020)

ETHICS MORALITY

Guiding principles of conduct of an individual or Principles on which one’s judgments of rights

group and wrong are based

Influenced by profession, field, organization, Influenced by society, culture and religion

etc

Related to professional works Not Related to Professional work

Lesson 3. Moral vs Non-moral standards

In making moral decisions, what standards are we supposed to follow? Who made
these standards? Will following these standards make us all ethically moral?

What is Moral Standards?

Moral standards as defined by Articulo (2021) are bases for moral behavior and
bases for determining whether a certain act is moral or immoral and for someone to be
responsible or not. These are the guides of human behavior and decision making. These
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standards are not only applied to individual persons but also to a group or corporation.
Something is unethical if it does not conform to a particular standard of morality. They may
not be written but observed and they are assumed norms of moral conduct. Moral
standards is associated with the guidelines people follow about the actions they have
confidence that are believe to be right and wrong. Also included are the values they gave
on the kinds of objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists
equate moral standards with moral values and moral principles.

Manebog (2020) on the other hand explains that non-moral standards is defined
as the rules that are distinct to moral or ethical thoughts. Either these standards are not
necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral
standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various house
rules.
Merriam Webster (n.d.) gave the meaning of mores as the fixed morally binding
customs of a particular group. The term "mores" refers to the norms set by society, largely
for behavior and appearance. Individuals who do not follow social mores are often
considered social deviants. It is the customs, values, and behaviors that are accepted by
a particular group, culture etc. Norms on the other hand is a principle of right action binding
upon the members of a group and serving to guide, control, or regulate proper and
acceptable behavior. merriam-webster.com

Mañebog (2020) further discussed the characteristics of moral standards further

differentiate them from non-moral standards:

a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.

Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or
benefit human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards. For instance,
following or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does not
necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing.

b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral
standard state that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he/she is
supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even with
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selfinterest. It may be prudent to lie to save one’s dignity, but it probably is morally wrong
to do so. When a law becomes seriously immoral, it may be people’s moral duty to exercise
civil disobedience (Mañebog, 2020).

c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or
persons such as nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be
considered in the process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards cannot
be changed nor nullified by the decisions of an authoritative body. One thing about these
standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the soundness or adequacy of the
reasons that are considered to support and justify them (Mañebog, 2013).

d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.

Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more
accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in the relevantly
similar situation.

e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.

Moral standard does not evaluate standards based on the interests of a certain
person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal standpoint in
which each person’s interests are impartially counted as equal. Impartiality is usually
depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in morality requires that we give
equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all concerned parties.

f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

It indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards. These moral
standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives (such as, ‘Do not kill,’ ‘Do no
unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’). These principles are proposed for use, to
advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature is used to evaluate behavior,
to assign praise and blame, and to produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt. If a person
violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special purpose, it is not surprising
if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of his behavior afterwards. On the contrary,

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 not much guilt is felt if one goes against the current fashion trend (e.g. refusing to wear
tattered jeans) (Mañebog, 2020).

Table 1.2 Moral vs Non-Moral Standards (Mañebog, 2013)

Moral Standards Non-Moral Standards

• Different because they concern • Refer to rules that are unrelated to

behavior that is of serious moral or ethical considerations.
consequences to human welfare, that
can be profoundly injure or benefit
peoples

Take priority over other standards,

• • Either these standards are not
including self interest
necessarily linked to morality or by
nature lack ethical sense
• Their soundness depends on the
• Basic examples include rules of
adequacy of the reasons that support
etiquette, fashion standards, rules in
them
games, and various house rules

• The norms about the kinds of actions • The standards by which we judge
believed to be morally right and what is good or bad and right or
wrong, as well as, the values placed wrong in a non-moral way
on what we believe to morally good
and morally bad

Lesson 4. Moral Dilemma

Consider this.

Should you always tell the truth if

.. A killer at the door is looking for your friend who is hiding in your house?

.. your best friend is cheating on her partner?

.. you’ve witnessed a crime involving your family member?

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 A dilemma is a condition where there is no clear “best choice” between two or more
alternatives. Dilemmas help us to focus our moral intuitions and test our moral theories. According
to Cambridge Dictionary (2020), dilemma is a situation in which a choice must be made between
possibilities that will all have results you do not want.

Basically, every dilemma contains an ethical dilemma i.e. whether the decision is
good/bad, fair/unfair, moral/immoral. Judgments are made from the point of view of those who
make the decision (agents), from the point of view of those who require decision (principals) and
from the point of view of the most people who do not participate in decision-making but are affected
by them (the common good or the general interest). There are different types of the ethical dilemma
of which the knowledge is necessary because different types of the ethical dilemma require
different strategies for their resolving. However, any attempt to find the solution is a process, not
a one-time act, indicating the complexity and the importance of the ethical dilemma (Figar and
Dordevic, 2020).

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Crain (2018) states that Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development uses
storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he presented
a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of
some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated. One of the best known of Kohlberg’s
stories of dilemma concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe. Read and
analyze the narrative below:

Heinz Dilemma

Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her.
The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some,
but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was much
more than the Heinz could afford.

Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to
the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest
of the money later.

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 The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money
from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the
chemist’s and stole the drug.

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?

3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?

4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?

Mcleod (2020) stated that Kohlberg listed three different levels of moral reasoning:
preconventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level has two sub-stages and each
new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage.

The level focuses primarily on moral values such as fairness, justice, equity, and human
dignity. It is also used in assessing development level. Heinz dilemma was given as a clear
example as to how a person’s moral reasoning changed as people grew older as it is the reasoning
of their responses, not the answer itself.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

Kvlanes (2019) explains that in a moral dilemma, it is impossible to live up to all of one’s
moral convictions and beliefs regarding how one should behave in that situation.

INDIVIDUAL

The dilemma here is when the employee’s ethical standards are in opposition to his or her
employer, which could lead to tensions in the workplace.

ORGANIZATIONAL

Ethical Standards are seen in company procedures. Still, there is a gap and tension
amongst those who operates the business whose ethical standard depart from that of the
organization. This causes ethical challenges and conflicts to those who are working in the
establishment.

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SYSTEMIC

At systemic level, ethics is inclined by the bigger operating environment of the

establishment. Political pressures, economic situations, societal behaviors and other factors, can
affect the operating standards and guidelines of the organization where it might encounter moral
dilemmas outside of the organization but within the macro-society where it fit in.

Lesson 5. Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts (Gammon, 2020)

Morality as Freedom

Freedom, as defined by Gammon (2020), is the power or right to act, speak, or think as
one wants without hindrance or restraint. Freedom, in Kant’s theory, is not concerned with our
capacity of a free choice; rather it is the property of the will. As Kant says, Will is a kind of causality
of living beings insofar as they are rational, and freedom would be that property of such causality
that it can be efficient independently of alien causes determining it, just as natural necessity is the
property of the causality of all non-rational beings to be determined to activity by the influence of
alien causes.

Will, for Kant, is not simply given by human beings’ biological structure. It is a kind of
causality that belongs to rational living beings. Freedom is the property of such special kind of
causality. The relation between will and freedom could be put in this way: will is a free will, and
freedom is the freedom of will, not of a choice. The reason that will is free lies in the fact that it is
about a special kind of causality. The specialty of this kind of causality is shown in the contrast
with natural causality (Liang, 2021).

Freedom enters Kant's ethical way of thinking as the answer for an issue. The downright
basic isn't scientific, and ignoring its cases is not conflicting. However it should give what we need
so as to show that profound quality is certainly not a " mere phantom of the mind", Kant tries to
give a conclusion of the ethical law: he should interface being normal to following up on the moral
law. The thought through which the profound quality are connected is the positive source of
opportunity. By appearing, first, that a free individual as such keeps the moral law, and, second,

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that a sane individual has reason for viewing himself as free, Kant attempts to show that to the
extent that we are normal, we will comply with the ethical law.

Different types of Freedom

• Freedom to be alive
• Freedom of association
• Freedom of belief
• Freedom of speech
• Freedom to express oneself
• Freedom to press
• Freedom to choose one’s state in life
• Freedom to talking each other
• Freedom of religion
• Freedom from bondage and slavery

What may be named the problem of morality concerns how opportunity confining
standards might be supported, given that we esteem our opportunity. Maybe an answer can be
found in opportunity itself. For if the most clear explanation behind dismissing moral requests is
that they attack one's individual flexibility, at that point the cost of opportunity from obtrusive
requests that others would somehow or another make may well require everybody tolerating
opportunity all in all as a worth that gives adequate motivation to holding fast to rules that serve
to expand, or possibly protect, opportunity when all is said and done. In any case, at that point it
is definitely such a worth which can be contended to ground a sufficient good framework.
Consequently, though the estimation of opportunity shows up from the start sight to present issues
for moral frameworks, it very well may be utilized to ground a specific assortment of them.

Talbert (2019) further states that freedom is not doing whatever you want but doing what
you ought to be right. Freedom of indifference is selecting between opposites, usually good and
evil. Freedom of excellence is the authority to act in the pursuit of human perfection and eternal
joy. Love and fear of consequences are correspondingly perfect and imperfect acceptable
motivations for following the moral law. Good moral activities make us freer; bad moral actions
make us a slave to our immorality.

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Reason and Impartiality

Impartiality according to Cottingham (2019), implies that we are making moral decisions
(e.g. about how to allocate goods and resources), we ought not to give any special weight to our
own desires and interests; instead of giving preferential treatment to ourselves, or to member of
our own particular social group, we should try to adopt neutral standpoint, detaching ourselves as
far as possible from our own special desire and involvement.

Jollimore (2019) explains that moral judgments must be supported by moral reasons.
Morality needs the impartial consideration of every individual’s benefits. One must not rely on his
own feelings, no matter how controlling and influential they might be. Feelings may be illogical
and may be nothing but products of different factors such as bias, self-centeredness, or the
environment itself. Decisions must be directed and guided as much as possible by reason. The
morally and equally right thing to do is always the thing best supported and reinforced by
arguments. Every individual’s interest are equally significant and important, and no one should
ever be treated special. If there is no good reason for treating people otherwise, then
discrimination follows most likely which makes the matter even worse.

Morality is, at the very least, the effort and challenge to direct one’s behavior by reason –
which is, to do what there are the reasons for doing based on giving impartial weight to the benefits
of each individual affected by one’s choice.

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 True or False

Assessment Task 1-1

Instruction: Write true if the state is correct and false if it is in correct.

1. Ethics is one of the branches of social science.

2. Ethics means character.

3. Ethics is a Greek word means custom.

4. Ethics is a science that our judgment concerning the morality of human

acts.
5. General Special ethics are two major parts of ethics.

6. The term “more” refers to the norm set by society according to Articulo.
7. Moral standards are invented, formed or generated by authoritative bodies.
8. Moral standard evaluates standards based on the interest of a certain
person or group.
9. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
10. Non-normal standards refer, to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
conditions.
11. Dilemmas help us to focus our moral intuition and our moral theories.

12. A dilemma is a condition where there is no clear best choice between two
or more alternatives.
13. Dilemma is a situation in which a choice must be made between
possibilities.
14. Every dilemma contains an ethical dilemma.

15. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development uses storytelling technique

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 Assessment Task 1-2

Matching Type. Instruction: Match the statements under letter A to letter B

A B
1. Direct one’s behavior by reason a. Impartiality

2. Implies making moral decisions b. ethics

3. Manning character c. Special ethics

4. Synonymous to the concept of morality d. Morality

5. Presents truth about human acts e. ethos

6. Applies the principles of general ethics f. General ethics

7. As regards to God g. morality

8. In the family h. mores

9. Means customs or relationships i. social deviants

10. Connected to the relationships

among human being j. norms

11. Bases for moral behavior k. social ethics

12. Rules that are distinct to moral l. dilemma

13. Norms set by society m. moralis

14. Do not follow social mores n. moral standards

15. Principle of right action o. theory of Moral Development

16. Condition where there is no clear best choice p. Individual ethics

17. Uses storytelling technique q. non-moral standards

18. Lived somewhere in Europe r. moral judgments

19. Power or right to act, speak or think s. Freedom

20. Supported by moral reasons t. Heiz

17
 Assessment Task 1-3

M Multiple Choice.

Instruction: Select the correct answer under each question.

1. What comes from the Greek word ethos?

a. Ethics
b. Ethos
c. Moral
d. Morality
e. Non-moral

2. Which associated with the guidelines of people to follow?

a. Moral standard
b. Non-moral standards
c. Moral
d. Ethics
b. Morality

3. What condition where there is no clear best choice?

a. Dilemma
b. Dalema
c. Decision
d. Moral
e. Morality

4. Who uses storytelling technique?

a. Theory of moral development

18
 b. Theory of morality
c. Theory of ethics
d. Theory of dilemma
b. Theory of freedom

5. What is the power of right to act, speak or think?

a. Freedom
b. Right
c. Manners
d. Character
e. Action

6. What makes moral decisions not giving any special weight to one’s own desires and interest
impartiality?
a. Impartiality
b. Non-impartiality
c. Right
d. Freedom
e. Norms

7. Who said that mother is one of the officials in the administration?

a. Robert
b. Nico
c. Kyle
d. Robertson
e. Roderick

8. What is almost as synonymous to the concept of morality?

a. Ethics
b. Ethos
c. Moralis
d. Morals
e. Actions
9. What kind of science that guides our judgment concerning the morality of human acts?

19
 a. Ethics
b. Ethos
c. Moralis

d. Morals
e. Actions

10. What does not base on the teaching of the Catholic church or any system of
belief?
a. Ethics is a natural science
b. Ethics is a natural law
c. Ethics is a physical Science
d. Ethics is a science

e. Ethics is a psychology

20
 Assessment Task 1-4

Instruction:

SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS. Analyze the story below and answer the questions that follows.

Robert is a student in a school where his mother is one of the officials in the
administration. Recently, three of his classmates posted a web site that openly attacks
some of the teachers and students, using explicit and offensive language. It even goes as
far as predicting which gay students will be the first to die of AIDS. Remarks about several
teachers are offensive and aggressive to the point that names were dropped and invading
their personal lives like family problems and love life. The site also includes disgusting
graphics.
Several weeks ago Robert learned the identities of the three students who created
the website when one of them accidentally said something to him in a conversation. The
other two quickly talked to Robert and pressured him not to reveal their names. He agreed,
not thinking much about it at the time. Robert used to be close to one of the three students,
but that friendship has faded.
Now, the school principal has obtained a software that allows him to identify each
person who has visited the website. He is asking students to come forward with the names
of the creators of the site, and if no one does, he is going to question each student who
visited the site. Robert is one of those who did visit the site. He realizes he may be the
only student who knows the names of the three kids who created the site. He can lie and
say he doesn’t know, or he can break his promise not to tell.

Robert has always thought of himself as an ethical person with a pretty clear
sense of right and wrong. Right now, however, he feels that either choice will end in
disaster. What should Robert do?

21
1. What do you consider to be Robert’s responsibility?

2. A common definition used to describe an ethical choice is a “choice between two rights.”
How might you apply this to Robert’s situation?

3. What would you do if you were in Robert’s place? How would that choice affect the
others in this case?

4. Have you or someone you know ever been in a situation where you were expected to
turn someone in? Share what that was like.

5. Is there ever a point where the good of a community is more important to honor than
the good of an individual relationship? Explain.

22
 Summary
• Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos which means character or a
characteristic way of acting while morality on the other hand came from the Latin
word moralis which means customs or manners.

• Moral standards are associated with the guidelines people follow about the actions
they have confidence that are believed to be right and wrong. Non-moral standards
are defined as the rules that are distinct to moral or ethical thoughts.

• A dilemma is a condition where there is no clear “best choice” between two or more
alternatives. Dilemmas help us to focus our moral intuitions and test our moral
theories.

• Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development uses storytelling technique to

tell people stories involving moral dilemmas.

• Freedom, is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without
hindrance or restraint. Freedom, in Kant’s theory, is not concerned with our
capacity of a free choice; rather it is the property of the will.

• Impartiality is making moral decisions by not to giving any special weight to one’s
own desires and interests.

23
 References

Agapay, R. B. (2008). Ethics and the Filipino. National Bookstore, Quad Alpha Centrum, Pioneer
St. Mandaluyong City. Articulo, C. Archimedes. (2005). Moral Philosophy. Andson
Printing Corporation: Manila.

BBC - Ethics (2020) - Introduction to ethics: Ethics: a general introduction... Retrieved August 7,
2020, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction

Cambridge English Dictionary. (2020). Dilemma Retrieved 21 September 2020, from

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/dilemma

Clements, Bindi (n.d.). Ethics for environment and development. Centre for Development,
Environment and Policy, University of London, International Programmed.

Corpuz, R. M. (2019) Ethics: Standards of Human Conduct, Mind shaper Co. Inc.

Cottingham, John, (2020) Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the
Analytic Tradition Vol. 43, No. 1

Crain, W.C... (2020). Theories of Development. Kohlberg's Moral Stages. (2020). Retrieved 21
September 2020, from
https://www.cs.umb.edu/~hdeblois/285L/Kohlberg'sMoralStages.htm

Ethics and Standards Committee (2011). https://www.mm3admin.co.za/documents/ do

manager/55E836D5-3332-4452-BB059F12BE8DA9D8/00012416.

Figar, Nadica and Đorđević, (2020) Biljana Managing an Ethical Dilemma, Economic Themes,

Gammon, K. (2012). What Is Freedom? Retrieved 21 September 2020, from

https://www.livescience.com/21212-what-is-freedom.html

Gracyk, T. (2020). Four fundamental ethical principles. http://web.mnstate.edu /gracyk/index.htm

Jollimore, T. (2021) Impartiality (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). (2020). Retrieved 21

September 2020, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/impartiality/

Kvalnes, Ø. (2019). Moral Dilemmas. Moral Reasoning at Work, 11-19. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-
15191-1_2

24
Liang, Hao, (2020) "Freedom as Morality". Theses and Dissertations. Paper 411. Retrieved
August 7, 2020 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-epcc-introethics-
1/chapter/what-is-ethics/

Maboloc, C. B., (2020) Ethics and Human Dignity, Rex Bookstore,

Mañebog, J. D.G. (2020) Moral Standards vs. Non-Moral Standards, Retrieved August 7, 2020
https://ourhappyschool.com/node/824

McLeod, S. A. (2013). Kohlberg. Retrieved August 7, 2020

www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Mores. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved September 21,

2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mores

Minkes, A. L., Small, M. W., & Chatterjee, S. R. (1999). Leadership and business ethics: Does it
matter? Implications for management. Journal of Business Ethics, 20(4), 327-335.

Moral Responsibility (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).

Padilla, R. A., (2019) Ethics: Principles and Analysis of Contemporary Moral Problems, Rex Book
Store,

Perle, S. M. (2004) Morality and Ethics: An Introduction. (2004). Retrieved 21 September 2020,
from https://www.dynamicchiropractic.com/mpacms/dc/

Singer, P. (2020). Bioethics. Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics, Princeton University

Wilbert, M. (2019).Moral Responsibility (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

25
 MODULE 2 Culture in Moral Behavior

Introduction

Today the study of culture reaches far beyond differences in outward appearances.
Outward appearance is only a small part of the diversity of human beings. When we study culture,
we come to realize that there is no “race card,” and that real identities are not built upon skin color,
eye color, hair texture, or stature. Identities are all about culture and culture patterns. (It’s All
about Culture, 2020)

Culture itself, is an individualistic, man-made idea of aggregate character that is available

for subjectivity. The reality such many 'societies' exist is proof of this because of the separation of
cultural standards.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Explain the role of culture in moral behavior;

2. Define cultural relativism and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses; and

3. Analyze the crucial qualities of a Filipino identity.

26
Lesson 1. Culture and its Role in Moral Behavior

Culture as defined by Merriam Webster (2020) is the customary beliefs, social forms, and
material traits of a racial, religious, or social group. It is also the characteristic features of everyday
existence such as diversions or a way of life shared by people in a place or time. Culture, as
explained by Taylor (2020), “is the integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs and behaviors.
This consists of language, ideas, customs, morals, laws, taboos, institutions, tools, techniques,
and works of art, rituals and other capacities and habits acquired by a person as a member of
society.

Schulman (2020) defines moral behavior as “acts intended to produce kind and/or fair
outcomes. It is distinct to action or actions that produce respectable results for the people as part
of a community. It can also be applied to the entire global humanity. We can say that it is the
actions that determine social reaction to the desires and benefits of others.

Moral development refers to the “process through which a human person gains his or her
beliefs, skills and dispositions that makes him or her morally mature person.” Yet this definition
does not tell on what those beliefs, skills and dispositions are. Nevertheless, it focuses on the
acquisition, understanding and most probably of changing the principles of morality of a person
from infancy to adulthood. This moral development is fundamentally rooted in the very experience
of a person, in his or her relationship with others in the community. (Academia.edu, 2020)

The Influence of Culture in Moral Development

Culture influences the person on what to do, how to act on situations or conditions and
what are the factors that are need to be considered as well as those things that should be evaded.
Culture marks the prevailing moral values into its members and forms the character of everyone
as well. Truly, this is a development from early stages to adulthood, as presented by American
psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg in his theory on the stages of moral development.

Baring (2018) explained the influences of culture the moral development of the people.

Culture is always social and communal by which the relationship of the people towards one

another and their experience as a people are the culture’s meadow. It is in this relationship and

27
communal experience that culture influences the moral development of its members. It is
important to note that morality as principle is promoted because primarily of the relationship within
the community. Laws and rules and standards of attitudes and behavior are set and promulgated
by the community to promote that relationship that binds them together as a people.

The culture defines the normative principles and behavior of the society. It defines which principle
and behavior that should be kept that would serve the best interest of the community.
There would be a definition on what are the principles and behavioral of what should not
be promoted or rejected. This kind of influence of culture in moral development is best
seen in terms of relational level.

Culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the people, develops restrictions and sets
boundaries and limitations as they live and relate with one another. These restrictions and
boundaries serve as protection among themselves. These would create an atmosphere of
promoting the welfare of the community. Indeed, anyone who tries to step beyond these is
subject to punishment or consequences set by the community embedded in the culture.

Culture helps in generating the character and identity of its people, it also includes their moral
character. Culture conditions the mind – the way people think and the way they perceive
the world and their relationship with one another. Henceforth, a culture which characteristic
is aggressive tends to be aggressive in terms of its relationship with one another or with
other cultures.

The culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups. They are the symbol
of guidance and control. In many cultures, men are always regarded as the leaders who
oversee the order of the community and give guidance, which is true in patriarchal
societies. Through their roles and responsibilities in the community within the given culture,
may it be patriarchy, matriarchy or whatever; people submit themselves to their authorities.

Lesson 2. Cultural Relativism

The Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential defines cultural relativism as
the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that

28
person's own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another. Cultural relativism is
also considered as basis for moral judgments amid cultures. (Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020)

Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right or
wrong, strange or normal. Instead, we should try to understand cultural practices of other groups
in its own cultural context. For example, instead of thinking, “Fried crickets are disgusting!” one
should instead ask, “Why do some cultures eat fried insects?”

Cultural relativism is connected in understanding a culture on its own identity and not to
make decisions using the morals of one’s own culture. The objective of this is encourage
consideration of cultural practices and beliefs that are distinct to one’s culture. The viewpoint of
cultural relativism directs to the standpoint that no one culture is greater than another culture when
being associated to systems of morality, law and standards. It is a notion that customs, traditions
and values originate their meaning in a detailed and precise social context. It is also grounded on
the knowledge that there is no complete standard of right or wrong, so every conclusion and
decision of what is good and bad is decided in each culture. The perception of cultural relativism
also means that any viewpoint on ethics depends in the perspective of each individual within their
specific culture. In an understanding of the idea of cultural relativism, it simply wants to encourage
the understanding of cultural beliefs and practices that are unfamiliar to others such as family way
of life, eating habits, feasts and festivals and a lot more.

There are two types of cultural relativism. Absolute cultural relativism is when everything
that happens within a culture must and should not be questioned by outsiders. An example of
absolute cultural relativism would be the Nazi party’s point of view justifying the Holocaust. Critical
cultural relativism raises questions about cultural practices in terms of who is accepting and
tolerating them and why. Critical cultural relativism also distinguishes power relationships. (Lumen
Learning, 2020)

Examples of cultural relativism in some households is when females are confined to the
kitchen and are proud to play their roles in such a setting while in some homes, women are
engaged to management and involved in what is supposed to be the specialization or area of a
man of the house.

Cultural Relativism is also viewed in ways of life associated to religion. One example of
this is where a country with Islam as the major religion, a more full covering of the body is expected
29
than in other religion. While it might seem odd to eat fish soup or stewed vegetables for breakfast
in the United States., in other places, such as the Asian countries especially in the Philippines,
this is perfectly normal. Equally, our tendency toward cereals and milk or preference would seem
rather strange to other cultures (Khan Academy, 2020).

Lesson 3. The Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior

Filipino’s understanding of moral behavior and ethics is grounded on two notions in our
culture. According to Reyes (2020), the first one is loób, which can easily be misunderstood when
literally translated into English as ‘inside’ but which is better translated as ‘relational will’, and the
second is kapwa, which is literally translated as ‘other person’ but is better understood as ‘together
with the person’. These serve as pillars for a special collection of virtues ( kagandahang-loób,
utang-na-loób, pakikiramdam, hiya, lakas-ng-loób/bahala na) which are not individualistic
virtues in the same way as most of the cardinal virtues of the Western tradition (i.e. prudence,
justice, temperance and fortitude) but are all directed towards the preservation and strengthening
of human relationships. This introduction to a Filipino virtue ethics is articulated and organized
through a dialogue with Aristotelian-Thomistic virtue ethics.

Filipinos have been labeled as welcoming, friendly, outgoing, sensitive, easily insulted,
noisy, chatty, direct, hospitable, energetic, mocking, good natured, ingenious, witty, generous,
gracious, easy to befriend, casual, fun loving, and many other adjectives to describe a person. In
short, being a Filipinos is having a mixed character trait. Perhaps the reason for this is the many
struggles in history that we have experienced. Under the influence of different conquerors such
as the Spaniards, British, Americans and Japanese and with constant interaction and foreign
relations with the Asian countries and the Arab Nations, Filipinos are said to be cosmopolitan, a
mixed of every nation in the world, a blend of East and West.

Hays (2015 further explains that Eastern influence gave us the personal and family honor
that we valued, as well as dignity and pride. Western influence gave us a systematic education
and form of government. But aside from that, we highly value families and kinship and make great
sacrifices to educate our children. Family, as a foundation of all relationship gave us hiya (shame)

30
which is instilled in at an early age. To be shamed is the greatest form of disgrace. Filipino culture
developed over centuries and is still continuing to develop.

With regards to society, Filipinos have a durable sense of family and community. Filipinos
are very sociable and like to talk and hang out with family and friends. This is very evident in the
numerous feasts and festivals, different occasions, and moments to celebrate. Filipinos love to
fool around, make jokes and tease one another. Rumors spread quickly. Some say Filipinos are
happy-go-lucky people who are often pessimistic about today but always optimistic that tomorrow
will be better.

Strengths and Weaknesses of a Filipino

Bautista (2020) lists the strengths and weaknesses in his blog as follows:

Strengths Weaknesses

Pakikipagkapwa- tao Extreme personalism

Family orientation Extreme family centeredness

Joy and Humor Lack of discipline

Flexibility, adaptability and Passivity and lack of initiative

creativity
Hardwork & Industry Colonial Mentality

Faith & Religiosity Kanya- kanya syndrome

Ability to survive Lack of self - analysis and self

reflection

Figure 2.1 Checklist of Strength and Weaknesses (Santos, 2020)

31
 Santos (2020) further expounds these strengths and weaknesses as follows:

STRENGTHS

1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao is opening yourself to others and feel one with others with dignity and
respect deal with them as fellow human beings. Part of this is the sense of fairness and justice,
concern for others, ability to empathize with others, helpfulness and generosity, practice of
hospitality, and sensitive to other feelings and trust. We have been known around the world to
be the most hospitable people and will do everything to please our visitors. The lavish feast
for the welcoming of visitors can be clearly seen during feast and welcoming guest in every
programs.

2. Family Orientation is a genuine and deep love for family. Commitment and responsibility, honor
and respect, generosity and sacrifice and sense of trust and security are the main focus of this
strength. This value is one of the constant in Eastern and Oriental countries.

3. Joy and Humor. Filipinos have a cheery and positive approach to life and its up and down,
pleasant nature, a sense of humor and tendency for cheerfulness that contribute not only to the
Filipino appeal but also to the Filipino Spirit. We make fun at those we love and hate. We are
incline to make joke about our good and even misfortune, to smile even in the most trying of
times. Filipinos are very resilient. We laugh amidst the face of every challenges such as natural
calamities. Social media is a reflection as to how Filipinos turn a negative thought into a light
entertaining one through memes and funny posts.

4. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity. Filipinos are quick to adapt to changes. We have proven
to adjust at life as mirrored in history where we are under different oppressors.

5. Hard Work and Industry is also a positive trait of the Filipinos which shows the capacity for hard
work given to raise one's standard living of a decent life for one's family.

6. Faith and Religiosity is a foundation of the Filipino culture. Our Faith in God, is reflected in our
mantra “Bahala Na” (si Bathala Na) is accepting reality to comprehend which gives us a strong
will or “Pampalakas-loob".

7. Ability to Survive. Filipinos will do anything to survive. As part of being resilient and creative,
Filipinos are quick to adapt to changes which is a big factor in surviving.

32
WEAKNESSES

1. Extreme Personalism is always trying to give personal interpretation to actions. Thank you with
"but" (compliment-criticism-compliment) is a common Filipino trait.

2. Extreme Family Centeredness is a strong family protection for either good or bad condition.
With the concept of blood is thicker than water, Filipinos will sacrifice himself for his love one
no matter what the situation is. The love of parents to children is very strong.

3. Lack of Discipline is the relaxed attitude but poor time management of the Filipinos. Being
impatient and unable to delay gratification or reward and the love to take short-cuts or 'palusot'
system is rooted in our system. Carelessness is also very evident.

4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative is a strong reliance to others fate which is a Filipino trademark.
It's all because of the race (nationality/blood) not by persons attitude, hard-work, dream and
perseverance etc. Filipinos are very relax and has a low sense of urgency especially in beating
the deadline. Filipinos are too patient without any plan or action) " Bahala na System" - No
matter what, At least we tried.

5. Colonial Mentality the internalized attitude of ethnic or cultural inferiority felt by Filipinos as a
result of colonization, that is, them being colonized by another group. It corresponds with the
belief that the cultural values of the colonizer are inherently superior to one's own. Being
colonized by a lot of countries, Filipinos tend to assimilate the culture of the colonizers, thus,
forgetting their own identity.

6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome is a self-serving arrogance that generates feeling of jealousy, greed

and competitiveness towards others. Personal ambition matters a lot but insensitive to common
good. Also, the lack of appreciation resulting unhealthy competition is very evident.

7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection of the Filipinos tend to make them forget a misfortune very
fast and thus bound to commit them again. Being unprepared to disasters, voting a corrupt
politicians are a good example of this weakness.

33
 Assessment Task 2-1

Matching Type. Instruction: Match the statements under letter A to letter B

A B
1. Customary belief, social forms, A. Critical cultural relativism
religious and materials traits B. Loob
2. Produced kind and/or fair outcomes
3. Process through which a human C. Inside
person gain his beliefs, skills and D. Kapwa
dispositions E. Together with the person
4. The idea that a person’s beliefs,
F. Culture
values and practices understood
5. Cultures must and should not be G. Moral Behavior
questioned by outsiders H. Moral Development
6. Raise questions about cultural
I. Cultural Relativism
practices
J. Absolute cultural relativism
7. Better translated as relational will
K. Filipino
8. Loob literally translated into English
L. Lack of discipline
9. Literally translated as other person
10. Kapwa is better understood in M. Extreme family
English N. Extreme personalism
11. Labeled as welcoming, friendly,
O. Ability to survive
easily insulted and many other
adjective P. Flexibility
12. Relaxed attitude but poor time Q. Passivity
management of the Filipino
R. Kanya-kanya syndrome
13. Strong family protection for either
S. Colonial mentality trademark
good or bad condition
T. Faith and religiosity
14. Always trying to give personal
interpretation to actions
15. Filipino will do anything to survive
16. Foundation of the Filipino culture
17. Internalized attitude of ethics or
cultural inferiority

34
18. Self-serving arrogance that
generates feeling of jealousy
19. Strong reliance to others fate which
is a Filipino
20. Filipinos re quick to adapt to
changes

Assessment Task 2-2

Multiple Choice

Instruction: Select the correct answer under each question.

1. What Filipino have as cheery and positive approach to life and its up and down?
a. Joy and humor
b. Love and care
c. Happiness and sadness
d. Friendly and lovely
e. Kind and honest

2. What is the genuine and deep love for family?

a. Family orientation
b. School orientation
c. Church orientation
d. Society orientation
e. Friend orientation

3. What shows the capacity for hard work given to raise one’s standard living of decent life
for one’s family?
a. Hard work and industry
b. Hard work and timely
c. Initiative
d. Patience
e. Industrious

36
4. What refers to the process through which a human gain in his beliefs?
a. Moral development
b. Moral dilemma
c. Morality
d. Moral and emotion
e. Moral and feelings

5. What makes the Filipinos quick to adopt to changes?

a. Ability to survive
b. Ability to speak
c. Ability to write
d. Ability to walk
e. Ability to travel

6. In our faith in God, what is reflected in our mantra?

a. Bahala na
b. Tama na
c. Ayoko na
d. Saka na
e. Suko na

7. In accepting reality to comprehend, which gives us a strong will or pampalakas-loob?

a. Bathala
b. Paraluman
c. Pangulo
d. Diwata
e. Hari

8. Who is most hospitable people and will do everything to please visitors?

a. Filipinos
b. Japanese
c. Americans
d. Spaniards
e. Malaysians

9. Which is the correct answer, opening yourself to others and feel one with others with
dignity and reflect deal with them as fellow human beings?
a. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
b. Pakikisangkot
c. Pakikibahagi
d. Pakikiramay
e. Pakikibaka

38
10. Who have durable sense of family and community?
a. Filipino society
b. American society
c. Indian society
d. Singaporean society
e. Indonesian society

11. Who is happy-go-lucky people who are often pessimistic about today but always optimistic
that tomorrow will be better?
a. Filipinos
b. Japanese
c. Vietnamese
d. Indonesians
e. Americans

12. Who gave us the personal and family honor that we valued, as well as dignity and pride?
a. Eastern influence
b. Western influence
c. Southern influence
d. Northern influence
e. South-east influence

13. Who have a mixed character and pride?

a. Filipinos
b. Japanese
c. Vietnamese
d. Indonesians
e. Malaysians

14. Which of the following articulated and organized through a dialogue with Aristotelism-
Thomistic virtue values?
a. Filipinos Virtue Ethics
b. American Virtue Ethics
c. Eastern Virtue Ethics
d. Western Virtue Ethics
e. Spaniards Virtue Ethics

15. Which of the following refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right
or wrong, strange or normal?
a. Cultural relativism
b. Culture
c. Feelings
d. Emotions
e. Behaviors

39
 Assessment Task 2-3

True or False

Instruction: Write True if the statement is correct and write False if the statement is not
correct.

1. Moral development is fundamentally rooted in the very experience of a person in

his relationship with others.

2. Culture is explained by Baring as the integrated pattern of human knowledge,

beliefs and behaviors.

3. Taylor define moral behavior as acts intended to produce kind and/or fair
outcomes.

4. Merriam Webster defined culture as the customary beliefs, social forms, and
materials traits of radical religious or social group.

5. Behavior is an individualistic, man-made idea of aggregate character that is

available for subjectivity.

6. Culture is an individualistic, man-made idea of aggregate character

7. The study of culture today reaches for beyond differences in outward appearance.

8. Outward appearance is only a small part of the diversity of human beings.

9. Culture is also the characteristic features of everyday existence.

10. Moral behavior is the actions that determine social reactions to the desires and
benefits of others.

11. Culture marks the prevailing moral values into its members and forms the
character of everyone as well.

12. American psychologist Baring presented the theory on the stages of moral
development.

40
 13. Theory on the stages of moral development was presented by Lawrence Kohleerg
an American psychologist.

14. Laws and rules and standards of attitude and behavior are set promulgated by the
community to promote that relationship that binds them together as a people.

15. Influence of culture in moral development is best seen in terms of relational.

Summary

Culture is the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial,
religious, or social group. It is also the characteristic features of everyday existence shared
by people in a place or time.

Moral development refers to the “process through which a human person gains his
or her beliefs, skills and dispositions that makes him or her morally mature person.”

Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is
right or wrong, strange, or normal. Instead, we should try to understand cultural practices
of other groups in its own cultural context.

Filipino’s understanding of moral behavior and ethics is grounded on two notions

in our culture. The first one is loób, which is better translated as ‘relational will’, and the
second is kapwa, which is understood as ‘together with the person’.

Eastern influence gave us the personal and family honor that we valued, as well as
dignity and pride. Western influence gave us a systematic education and form of
government. But aside from that, we highly value families and kinship and make great
sacrifices to educate our children.

41
 References

Academia.edu. (2020) the Influence of Culture in Moral Development. Retrieved 25 October 2020,
from
https://www.academia.edu/11007189/The_Influence_of_Culture_in_Moral_Development

Baring, J. (2020). The Influence of Culture in Moral Development.

Bautista, G. (2020) Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character. Retrieved 25 October
2020, from http://evotistavenue.weebly.com/asean-youth-org/strengths-and-
weaknessesof-the-filipino-character

Church, T. and. Katigbak, M.. (2021) Studying Personality Traits across Cultures: Philippine
Examples Washington State University, Washington State University,

Hays, J. (2020). Filipino Character And Personality: Hiya, Amor Propio, Emotions and the
Influences of Catholicism, Asia and Spain Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Philippines/sub5_6c/entry-3867.html

Introduction to Culture - Lecture - It's All About Culture. (2020). Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://itsallaboutculture.com/introduction-to-culture-lecture/

Khan Academy (2020) Cultural relativism: definition & examples Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/society-and-
culture/culture/a/culturalrelativism-article

Lumen Learning (2020) Cultural Relativism. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology

Merriam-Webster (2020) Definition of CULTURE. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture

Moral Relativism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2020). Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://iep.utm.edu/moral-re/

Reyes, J. (2020). Loób and Kapwa: An Introduction to a Filipino Virtue Ethics. Retrieved from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09552367.2015.1043173

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Santos, R. M. (2020) Man as a Productive Being. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://www.academia.edu/11896771/Man_A

Schulman, M. (2020) How we become moral. In C. R. Snyder, & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of
Positive Psychology: 499-512. Oxford: University Press,

Taylor, E. (2021) Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology, (Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.,

43
 MODULE 3 Developing Virtue as Habit

Introduction

“How should I live my life?” “What is the good life?” “What are the appropriate family and
social values?”

These are the common questions concerning Virtue ethics. So, what really is virtue ethics?
Virtue ethics is a comprehensive concept for theories that highlight the vital role of character and
virtue in moral philosophy rather than performing one’s duty or accomplishing in order to have
better results. As a guide and advice from a virtue ethicist goes, “Act as a virtuous individual would
act in your situation you are in.” An idea echoing the Golden rule.
Almost all theories of virtue ethics take their idea from the Greek philosopher Aristotle
himself, who stated that a virtuous person is the one who has the ideal and model character
behaviors. These traits originate from natural tendencies, but must be nurtured; but, once
established, they will become constant. A virtuous person for instance, is someone who is caring
in many conditions over a period of his life because that is his character traits and not because
he wants to take full advantage or gain something or simply do his responsibility. Theories of virtue
ethics do not target mainly to recognize general principles that can be useful in any moral condition
or situation. (Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020)

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Explain how moral character is developed; and

2. Identify and analyze the different stages of moral development;

44
Lesson 1. How is a moral character developed?

The development of moral character has been the subject of philosophical and
psychological investigation since Aristotle theorized three levels of moral character development:
an ethics of fear, an ethics of shame, an ethics of wisdom (Kraut, 2021)

Damon (2018) recognized six patterns that social scientists have defined morality:

1) An evaluative orientation that distinguishes good and bad and prescribes good;

2) A sense of obligation toward standards of a social collective;

3) A sense of responsibility for acting out of concern for others;

4) A concern for the rights of others;

5) A commitment to honesty in interpersonal relationships; and

6) A state of mind that causes negative emotional reactions to immoral acts.

This definite system may not adapt all useful meanings, especially the more fundamental
and significant ones suggested by academics and theologians, but they mirror the broad array of
definitions and the necessity for a specific operational definition that can guide research.

While most researchers backs up a many faceted view of moral character, especially the
advocacy of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components, several researchers support
additional components. They propose that the set of skills of moral and character development
should be studied in terms of four psychological components. They say that the concentration
should be on the internal practices and behavioral skills that are needed for moral behavior and
recommend that compassion, reasoning, and purpose occur from the interaction of both cognitive
and affective practices.

45
 Ethical
Sensitivity

Psychological
Ethical components Ethical
Motivation
Judgment
of Moral
Development

Ethical
Action

Figure 3.1 Psychological components of Moral Development (2020)

Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/theories-of-human-
development/

1. Ethical Sensitivity—the view of moral and social circumstances, as well as the capability to
consider probable actions and their effects in terms of all the people affected;

2. Ethical Judgment—with regards to probable option and the basis for decide on one or more as
the most viable judgment;

3. Ethical Motivation—the choice of moral values most appropriate in the condition and the
dedication to act on that choice;

4. Ethical Action—the ego strength combined with the psychological and social skills necessary
to carry out the selected alternative.

Berkowitz (2020) identified seven psychological components of the “moral anatomy,” and
urged scientists and educators to begin reconstructing the “complete moral person.”

Moral behavior

• prosocial
46
 •sharing
•donating to charity
•telling the truth

Moral values

•believe in moral goods

Moral emotion

• guilt
• empathy
• compassion

Moral right and wrong

• about right and wrong

Moral identity

• morality as an aspect self-image

Moral personality

• enduring tendency to act with honesty

• altruism
• responsibility

“Metamoral”

• make morality possible even though they are not inherently moral

Vessel (2020), stated that one of the most recently developed viewpoints on moral
character development that can be placed in the interactional category is social cognition. This
method merges many of the statements of the blank slate, information processing, and affective
methodologies. The main difference is that it shifts its attention on concentrating thoughts and
values into action. It suggests a relationship of shared determinism among the environment,
apparent behavior, and personal factors such as reasoning skills or level of empathy. For instance,
not only do models, outcomes, and other environmental changes have an impact on behavior, but
behavior also has an impact on various characteristics of the environment.

47
 Another emphasis of the social-cognitive view is human agency or volition. Whereas
Kohlberg (2020) focus on enhanced levels of moral reasoning, which directs on a more self
regulation and self-efficacy. He suggests that moral development occurs gradually from dealings
with environment, involving the application of outcomes, the observation of models, and
acculturation by social agents. Most relevantly it is the person’s thinking on both external and
internal elements that offers the vital procedures related to moral development. As such, the social
cognition methodology is more concentrated on the processes of moral development than on
matter. Social-cognitive theorists normally focus on personal agency and the freedom to choose.
They recommend that with this freedom happens from a responsibility to make good judgments
and act morally.

Figure 3.2 Moral Identity (2020) Source: https://encrypted-

tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcT3HXgYiFZFODYzw0UNUwWxRaqj8RKxyaIYTQ&usqp=CA
U

Not all acts help to build moral character, but those acts which emanate from moral
characters certainly matter in moral development, hence, there appears the apparent circular

48
relationship between individual acts and moral character. Moral development should also be
appreciated in the idea of human flourishing. This flourishing is reached by the persistent practice
of moral and intellectual merits or virtues.

Virtuous characteristics must be balanced and lasting and are not mere result of stroke of
luck, but of learning, constant practice, and development. We have to consider that virtuous traits
are called excellences of an individual because they are the best exercise of reason. In this sense,
the Greek moralists suppose that virtuous acts achieve a perfect human life. (Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2019).

Lesson 2. The Stages of Moral Development

North American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg authored that the moral growth of an
individual has six stages, but sadly, only a minor proportion of individuals achieve the highest
stage. Using the idea of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, the first to make a methodical
research of cognitive development as a springboard and starting point, Kohlberg classified the
phases of ethics as part of the psychological development of children. As a matter of fact, the six
stages are valid for people of all ages, for the most diverse ethnicities, and the numerous
categories of social group in any country. (Lumen Learning, 2020)

Figure 3.3 Lawrence Kohlberg (2020)

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/212372938648412331/
49
 The six stages co-operate among them. Every individual has a variety of levels of reasons
to act in appropriate ways and various interpretation of what is appropriate.

In every individual or group, some degrees of ethical consciousness are more valuable
than the others. The levels are exceeded when there are enough collected experience. Behaviors
that are still immature use to disregard the higher stages of ethics. The stage on which a person
positions himself depends on the quantity of understanding and level of goodness possessed by
him.

These are the stages of moral perception as devised by Kohlberg which was cited by Crain
(2018).

The two initial stages of morality are called “preconventional” because there is no code of
conduct in them. Actions are isolated events, and the wider context is hardly seen.

1) In the first stage – lowest and most basic – “right action is that action which is not
punished”. The priority is to avoid condemnation: for this reason obedience occurs. The wrong
action is the action that provokes punishment. In the absence of penalty, no wrongdoing is
perceived or acknowledged.

2) In the second stage, right action is seen as that “which serves the interests of each one”.
The goal is obtaining a reward. Now the exchange and the deal between individuals occur on the
basis of immediate interests. Case-by-case decisions are dominant. Mutual help takes place with
a short-term view of things.

50
 Figure 3.4 Stages of Moral Development (2020)
Source: https://philonotes.com/index.php/2020/12/24/kohlbergs-six-stages-of-moral-development/

Stages three and four are called “conventional”, because in them the individual is sincerely
loyal to the collective rules and norms.

3) In the third stage, the child (or the adult) demonstrates he has a good character. It is the
stage of the “good-boy attitude”. The goal is obtaining social approval or the sincere support of
the elders and the more powerful persons. Now the axiom “do unto others as you would have
them do unto you” is both understood and followed, even if imperfectly. The person has a sincere
sense of justice and reciprocity. The feeling of compassion is understood and – up to a certain
point – experienced. A conformist attitude may also occur; yet there is a true sense of ethical
commitment.

4) The fourth stage is dominated by the idea of Law and Order. At this point, the practice of
respect for and obedience to the leader, the boss, the teacher, as well as due regulations, plays
a key role. Discharging one’s duty is the priority. One must follow the rules and obey authorities
without cavil or delay.
51
 We then have the two final stages. Now the children and adults respect law and the codes
of conduct. Yet at the same time they see beyond them and aim at improving them.

5) In the fifth stage of ethical development, therefore, the individual realizes that the laws and
customs are sometimes unfair. If necessary, he tries to improve them. He does that through
legitimate means, in democratic, morally acceptable, ethically responsible ways.

The higher levels of moral development result from a thorough understanding of the law of nature.
The Natural Law theory, as Kohlberg wrote, “holds that there are universal or natural principles of
justice that should guide all societies and that are known to us by reason independent of specific
religious revelation or faith”. Stages five and six are called postconventional because they go
beyond appearances. They question institutionalized injustice and aim at the inner improvement
of both individual and society.

6) In the sixth stage of moral development, the individual – or the community – tries to live
according to the principles of universal ethics.

Today the human beings who live in this stage are not numerous. They are forerunners
and prepare the future. They pave the way for a lasting improvement in human evolution.

Barger (2020) summarizes the impact of the idea of Lawrence Kohlberg as very essential
in the study of ethics and moral development. The philosophical importance of his books might
be important in the 21st century because they help us explain the mystery of how to achieve the
highest level conscience-based moral decisions. Kohlberg encourages us to establish the
foundations of human contentment into motion and that depends on us.

52
 Assessment Task 3-1

True or False

Instruction: Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the statement
is not correct.

1. Virtuous person has the ideal and model character behaviors.

2. Virtue ethics highlight the vital role of character and virtue in moral philosophy rather than
performing one’s duty.
3. Aristotle is a Greek philosopher.

4. Aristotle theorized three levels of moral character development.

5. Damon recognized six patterns that social scientist have defined morality.

6. Emotions are evaluative orientations that distinguishes good and bad and prescribes good.
7. Anxiety is a state of mind that causes negative emotional reactions to immoral acts.
8. Honesty is the state of concern for the rights of others.

9. Feelings are sense of responsibility for acting out of concern for others.

10. Excitement is a sense of obligation toward standards of a social collective.

11. Berkowitz urged scientists and educators to begin reconstructing the compute moral person.
12. Ethical motivation is the choice of moral values most appropriate in the condition and the dedication
to act on that choice.
13. Ethical action is the ego strength combined with the psychological and social skills necessary to
carry out the selected alternative.
14. Moral values believe in moral goods.

15. Moral reasoning is about right or wrong.

16. Vessel stated that social cognition is one of the most recently developed viewpoints on moral
character development.

17. Another emphasis of the social-cognitive view is human agency or volition.

18. Kohlberg focus on enhanced levels of moral reasoning.

19. Social cognition methodology is more concentrated on the processes of moral development than
on matter.

53
20. Moral development can be reached by persistent practice of moral and intellectual merits or virtues.
21. Virtuous characteristics must be balanced and lusting and are not mere result of stroke of luck.
22. Virtuous characteristics can be achieved by learning, constant practices and development.
23. Virtuous traits should be considered as excellences of an individual because they are the best
exercise of reason.
24. Kohlberg was a North American psychologist.

25. Lawrence Kohlberg authored that the moral growth of an individual has six stages.
26. Feelings are variety of levels of reason to act in appropriate ways and various interpretations of
what is appropriate.
27. Emotions are degrees of ethical consciousness are more valuable than the others.
28. The two initial stages of morality are called conventional because there is no code of conduct in
them.
29. Stages three and four stage of morality are called preconventional.

30. The two, three, four and six stages of morality are called preconventional.

Assessment Task 3-2

Matching Type.

Instruction: Match the statement under letter A to letter B.

A B

1. Summarized the idea of Kohlberg

a. Damon
2. Psychologist from North America
b. Virtuous person
3. Achieve a perfect human life
c. Researchers
4. Occurs gradually from dealings with
d. Barger
environment

54
5. Social cognition

6. Identified seven psychological e. Lawrence Kohlberg

components of the moral anatomy f. Virtuous Acts

7. Theorized three levels of moral g. Moral Development

character development h. Aristotle

i. Berkowitz
8. Recognized six patterns that social
scientists have defined morality j. Vessel

9. Has the ideal and model character

behaviors

10. Back up many faceted view of

moral character

56
 Assessment Task 3-3

Multiple Choice.

Instruction: Select the correct answer on each question.

1. Who encourage to establish the foundation of human contented?

A. Kohlberg

B. Barger

C. Crain

D. Aristotle

E. Solomon

2. Who summarizes the impact of the idea of Lawrence?

A. Barger

B. Kohlberg

C. Solomon

D. Aristotle

E. Crain

3. Which one must follow the rules and obey authorities without delay?

A. Law and order

B. Natural law

C. Specific law

D. Law

E. Order

57
4. Which of the following holds that there are universal principles of justice that should guide all
societies and that are known to us by reason of specific religious revelation or faith?

A. Natural law

B. Specific law

C. General law

D. Law and Order

E. Order

5. What stages that go beyond appearances?

A. Post conventional

B. Conventional

C. Middle conventional

D. Preconventional

E. Conventionally

6. Which tell that individual is sincerely loyal to the collective rules and norms?

A. Conventional

B. Post conventional

C. Preconventional

D. Conventionally

E. Middle conventional

7. Which action are isolated events and the wider context is hardly seen?

A. Preconventional

B. Post conventional

C. Middle conventional

D. Conventionally

E. Conventional

58
8. Which is listed the staged of moral perception as devised by Kohlberg?

A. Crain

B. Kohlberg

C. Barger

D. Solomon

E. Damon

9. Who authored that the moral growth by an individual has six stages?

A. Kohlberg

B. Aristotle

C. Crain

D. Solomon

E. Damon

10. Who stated that virtuous person has the ideal and model character of behaviors?

A. Aristotle

B. Damon

C. Crain

D. Kohlberg

E. Barger

59
 Summary

There are six patterns that social scientists have defined morality: (1) an evaluative
orientation that distinguishes good and bad and prescribes good; (2) a sense of obligation
toward standards of a social collective; (3) a sense of responsibility for acting out of concern
for others; (4) a concern for the rights of others; (5) a commitment to honesty in
interpersonal relationships; and (6) a state of mind that causes negative emotional
reactions to immoral acts.
Berkowitz (2020) identified seven psychological components of the “moral
anatomy,” and urged scientists and educators to begin reconstructing the “complete moral
person.”
Lawrence Kohlberg authored that the moral growth of an individual has six stages.
In every individual or group, some degrees of ethical consciousness are more valuable
than the others. The levels are exceeded when there are enough collected experience.
Behaviors that are still immature use to disregard the higher stages of ethics. The stage
on which a person positions himself depends on the quantity of understanding and level
of goodness possessed by him.

60
 References

Barger, R. (2020). A Summary of Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development. (2020).

Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/medical_ethics_text/Chapter_2_Et
hical_Traditions/Reading-Barger-on-Kohlberg.htm
Berkowitz, M. (2020). The science of character education. In W. Damon (Ed.), Bringing in a new
era in character education (43-63). Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute Press.
Crain. W.C. (2020). Theories of Development. Prentice-Hall.
Damon, W. (Ed.). (2020). Bringing in a new era in character education. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute
Press.
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2020). Aristotle. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://iep.utm.edu/2019/
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2020). Virtue Ethics Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://iep.utm.edu/virtue/
Kohlberg, L. (2020) Essays on Moral Development”, “The Philosophy of Moral Development”, Harper
& Row, Publishers, San Francisco
Kraut, R. (2020). Aristotle’s ethics. In E. Zalta (Ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford,
CA: The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved August
15, 2020 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/
Lumen Learning (2020) Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development | Education, Society, & the K-
12 Learner. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stagesof-
moral-development/

Vessels, G., & Huitt, W. (2020). Moral and character development. Paper presented at the
National Youth at Risk Conference, Savannah, GA, March 8-10. Retrieved August 15,
2020 http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/chardev.pdf

61