Prepared by:

MARY ANNE M. POLESTINA

[email protected]
Instructor
Other Instructors: Prof. Carmelita H. Balbosa
Prof. Grace F. Empalmado
Prof. Venerando G. Tenio
General Guidelines and Purpose:
This module provides easy to follow steps to help you define, understand, and solve
ethical problems. It deals with the principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of
the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources (CMO
20. S 2013).
Three main elements of Moral Experience.
A. The Moral Agent
B. The Act
C. Reason or Framework for the Act
As stipulated in the CHED Ethics curriculum guide (CMO 20 s 2013) by the end of this
course the student must be able to:
1. Differentiate between moral and non-moral problems.
2. Describe what a moral experience is as it happens in different levels of human
existence.
3. Explain the influence of Filipino culture on the way students look at a moral experience
and solve moral dilemmas.
4. Describe the elements of moral development and moral experience.
5. Use ethical frameworks and principles to analyze moral experiences.
6. Make sound ethical judgment based on principles, facts, and stakeholders affected.
7. Develop sensitivity to the common good.
Understand and internalize the principle of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of
the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources.
This module is designed to equip you with the basic skills required to:
1. Know the definitions and major concepts of ethics.
2. Understand the ethical approach to decision making.
3. Follow the assessment criteria steps when making a decision.
This module will not tell you what is right or wrong; it will help you in determining it for yourself.
More specifically, it will present you with conceptual and analytical tools that will hopefully guide
you in your ethical thinking.
The CHED (Commission on Higher Education) had mandated that Ethics be a general
education course required for all college students. As stated in Memorandum Order No. 20, series
of 2013, “The fundamental purpose of higher education…is not only to develop manageable and
competent graduates in a particular field, but also well-rounded individuals who appreciate
knowledge in a general sense, are open minded because of it, secure in their identities as
individuals and as Filipinos, and cognizant of their role in the life of the nation and the larger
community. “Ethics, then, is one of the courses that will ideally contribute to the development of
your intellectual competencies and civic capacities, and to the development of your ability to
comprehend the complexities of the social and natural realities around us, as well as your ability
to think through the ethical and social implications of a given course of actions.

2
 Disclaimer: Most of the contents herein are from the book,

Gallinero, Winston et al (2018). Ethics. Mutya Publishing House.Inc. www.publishinghouse.com.

Other Reference Book:

Bulaong Jr, Oscar et al (2018). Ethics: Foundation of Moral Valuation. REX Bookstore.
www.rexpublishing.com.ph

Few modifications are made to suit the context needed for learning.

(Excerpt from the book of Bulaong Jr, Oscar et al (2018). Ethics: Foundation of Moral Valuation.
REX Bookstore. www.rexpublishing.com.ph)

In August 2007, newspapers’ reported what seemed to be yet another sad incident of
fraternity violence. Cris Anthony Mendez, a twenty-year-old student of the University of the
Philippines (UP), was rushed to the hospital in the early morning hours, unconscious, with large
bruises on his chest, back, and legs. He passed away that morning, and the subsequent autopsy
report strongly suggest that his physical injuries were most probably the result of “hazing” (the
term colloquially used to refer to initiation rites in which neophytes may be subjected to various
forms of physical abuse). What exactly happened remains an open question, as none of those
who were with him that night came forward to shed light on what had transpired. Needless to say,
none of them came forward to assume responsibility for the death of Cris.
Even as the leaders of the Sigma Rho fraternity publicly denounced the death of Cris,
those members of theirs who had been with him that night vanished, avoiding and refusing to
cooperate with legal authorities. Meanwhile, UP students and the general public clamored for
justice. In a move that surprised the student body, the UP Chancellor called on all fraternities to
justify their continued existence. Meanwhile, the case of the tragic death of Cris Anthony Mendez
was left unresolved. It remains that way up to this day.
No one knows just what exactly happened. No charges have been filed. No definitive
testimony has been forthcoming. But there is more to this for us than just a criminal mystery.
Pondering on the death of Cris, we may find ourselves asking questions such as “What is the
value of one’s life?” “What exactly were the wrongs done to Cris, by his so called fraternity
brothers?” or perhaps even” Is there any good to fraternities?” These questions that concern good
and bad, or right or wrong – and these are questions concerning value – are the kind of questions
that we deal in ethics.

3
 Introduction
What is morality?
Morality is a system of beliefs about what is right behavior and wrong behavior (Rubin,
2015). Morality deals with how a person relates with others and with the world to promote what
is good (Thiroux and Krasemann, 2009). In his book, Elements of Moral Philosophy, author, and
university professor Dr. James Rachels- a philosopher who specialized in ethics-asserted that at
the very least morality is the effort to guide one’s conduct by reason- to act based on the best
reasons for doing-while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual affected by one’s
decision (Rachels, 2015).
Morality is the effort to guide one’s conduct by reason- to act based on the best reasons
for doing while giving equal weight to the interest of each individual affected by one’s decision
(Rachel’s, 2015).

Reference:
Gallinero et al. (2018). Ethics. MUTYA publishing house, Inc. www.mutyapublishinghouse.com

Diagnostic Exercise
Answer the questions briefly.
1. What is ethics?
2. What is morality?
3. Why are rules important to people?

Lesson 1. Why do you need to study ethics and the importance of rules?
Pre-discussion:
As an individual, what could happen when no one follows rules and those
who break them go unpunished?

It’s time to learn!

What to expect: This section will discuss what a moral experience is, why you need to study
ethics; and why rules are important to social beings.

1. What are moral standards, and how do they differ from other rules in life?
2. What is moral dilemma?
3. Why is freedom crucial in our ability to make moral decisions?

4
 4. What is the advantage of owning moral standards (morality and ethics) over merely
abiding by moral standards?
Unit 1. What is Ethics?
The Need to Study of Ethics
The Commission on Higher Education states “ethics deals with principles of ethical
behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the
environment and other shared resources.” (CMO 20 series 2013). Assuming you decided on a
course of action to resolve your dilemma, what was your reason for choosing such action? Why
did you do it?
Understanding your moral compass in order to develop better judgment is the aim for
studying Ethics. Upon entering college, students are not blank sheets, devoid of pre-existing
beliefs and values. College students have already developed a set of moral standards by which
they use to understand the world and a moral compass to navigate in it (Billet, 2006; Campbell,
2009). This reality makes it important for students to study, explore, understand, and critically
reflect on their personal values systems. The end goal for studying ethics is for students to
become a person who makes sound judgment, sensitive to the common good.

Activity 1. List down rules in your workplace, at home, in your community, or organization.
Evaluate the rules by responding to the following questions:
a. Which of the rules do you find constricting? Why?
b. Why are rules important to social beings?

Rules are standards that guide human activities.

e.g. Traffic rules- regulate how motorcycle/motorists should behave on

the road.

Assignment

a. When do we say that a rule is a moral rule?

b. When do we say that an experience is a moral experience?
Moral standard is a code of what is right or wrong without
c. What is the difference between moral and non-moral experience?
reference to specific behaviors or belief.
d. What is the difference between moral and non-moral standard?

5
Lesson 2. MORAL VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Pre-Discussion:
The keywords you need to know here are etiquette, policy, law, and
commandment.

It’s time to learn!

What to expect: Be ready to differentiate between moral and non-moral standards, as well
as how particular rules in life differ from moral standards.

Moral standard is a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific behaviors
or belief.
Non-moral standards can be considered as relative standards by which something or
someone is judged as either good or bad.

Characteristics of Moral Standards

1. Moral Standards involve behaviors that seriously affect other people’s well-being.
2. Moral standards take a more important consideration than other standards, including
self-interest.
3. Moral standards do not depend on any external authority but in how the person
perceives the reasonableness of the action.
4. Moral standards are believed to be universal.
5. Moral standards are based on objectivity.
6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings.
Moral standards versus other Rules of Life
Although the six moral standards distinguish it from other life rules, it is useful to discuss
the other standards which moral standards are sometimes confused with.
Etiquette is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in the society
(Taylor and Williams, 2017).
Policy is a clear simple statement of how an organization plans to handle its services,
actions, or business.

6
 Law is a rule created and enforced by the government and its agencies to maintain
order, resolve disputes, and protect a person’s liberty and rights (Robertson, 2008; Brickly
and Gottesman, 2017).
Commandment is a rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be set by
divine entity (Ten commandments).
Lesson 3. MORAL DILEMMA

Pre-discussion:
Provide an example of scenario/cases showing moral conflict faced by:
1. Personal- a person choice will adversely affect very important people in your life;
- When your decision in a situation where there is moral conflict is the cause
of either your own; that of another person; or a group of people’s potential
harm.
2. Organizational - A business owner whose choice will adversely affect either the company
or the employees;
- When a member or members of the organization is in a situation where
there is a moral conflict, and the decision will potentially harm either
some members of the group or the entire organization.
3. Structural - A high-ranking government official who needs to choose between
implementing or not implementing a policy not because it will affect the poor communities,
but not implementing it will also impact the environment.
- When a person or group of person who holds high-level positions in the
society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire social
system is affected.

It’s time to learn!

What to expect: Be ready to identify different kinds of dilemmas.

Dilemma is a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or more
alternatives, especially equally undesirable ones (Dictionary.com, 2017).

A moral dilemma is a situation where:

1. There are two or more actions that you can possibly do.
2. There is a moral reason(s) for doing such action.
3. You cannot do all the possible actions presented to you. You only need to choose one.

7
Assignment:

How will you decide when you are faced with a dilemma? Why will you
decide in such manner? Cite a specific scenario, either a personal,
organizational, or a structural dilemma to illustrate how you decide in
morally conflicting situations.

LESSON 4. FREEDOM
Pre-discussion
Why only Human Beings can be Ethical?

________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________.

It’s time to learn!

When talking about freedom and responsibility, aren’t these contrasting words? Freedom
connotes no ties, no hindrances, no blocks. Responsibility connotes doing something, not
because you want to but because it is expected of you. There are Eastern and Western
philosophers who viewed that responsibility follows freedom.

Morality refers to a code of conduct that would be accepted by anyone who meet certain
intellectual and volitional conditions, almost always including the condition of being rational.
The Foundation of Morality

 Reason is the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments by a process
of logic.
 Impartiality denotes that decisions should be “based on objective criteria rather than on
the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring to benefit one person over another for improper
reasons” (Jollimore, 2011).

8
Are Reason and Impartiality a requirement for morality?
Dr. Rachels (2004) said: morality “at the very least is the effort to guide one’s action
based on the most logical choice (reason) while giving equal importance to the interest of each
person affected by your decisions (impartiality).”

Philosophical insights on freedom:

 Freedom is a Gift
Free acts are significant because they help to make us who are as human
beings.
 Freedom is Complementary to Reason
Aristotle considered freedom and reason as necessary faculties for consciously
making sense of things (events, occurrences, phenomena, situations).

 Freedom is Absolute
Freedom sets the human person apart from other creatures.
 Freedom demands Responsibility
According to Jean Paul Sartre, even though individuals must make their own
choices because they are free, these choices (although freely made) also have
consequences to it.

Activity 2:
A suggested activity for this lesson is to watch the movie, “A Clockwork Orange”. The movie
was based on a novel of the same title written by English author/composer Anthony Burgess,
published in 1962. In this novel, Burgess examined the role of freedom in being human. The story
revolved on Alex-a young man who lived in a futuristic, unpleasant, violent, and degraded society.

(Burgess, A. (2013). A Clockwork Orange: Restored Edition)

After watching this film, answer the following:

1. What was the central theme of the story?
2. Which of the two makes you human? (Defend your answer)
a. Free to decide and do evil acts; and
b. Forced to become a moral person and not hurt others

Assignment:

Why is freedom crucial in your ability to make moral decisions?

9
 THE MORAL AGENT
This section addresses the following questions:
 How does culture shape moral behavior?
 Why should culture not be the ultimate determinants of values?
 Is there a Filipino understanding of right and wrong? What are its influences?

Diagnostic Exercises
Cite one Filipino Culture then discuss how this particular culture formed a
positive Filipino behavior. On the other hand, discuss, too, how this particular
Filipino Culture produced a negative Filipino attitude.

LESSON 1. HOW CULTURE SHAPES HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Pre-discussion
The keywords you need to know here are symbols, language, beliefs,
values, and norms.
The father of Anthropology, Edward Taylor stated that in general, culture is the way
of life of a group of people that “includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (Tylor, 1974, 1981).

It’s time to learn!

This will discuss what culture is, how culture shapes moral behavior, cultural relativism, and the
Filipino moral identity.

What is Culture?
Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of
shared human experiences. How does culture affect human behavior?
Since human beings are naturally social creatures, we as people, are
also naturally drawn to participate in culture. People want to belong, to
be accepted by peers. We also need protection from dangers. Being part
of a social group not only feeds our need to be accepted, it also
increases the human being’s chances to survive. Thus, because of the
safety in numbers that being part of a group services, human beings
learned to modify behaviors to match that which their cultural group
deem acceptable.

10
Elements of Culture
The five basic elements of culture are: symbols, language, beliefs, values, and norms.
1. Symbols can be anything that a group of people find meaningful.
2. Language is a complex symbol system that enabled human beings to communicate
either verbally or through writing.
3. Beliefs are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an individual or a group of
people.
4. Values are culturally acceptable standards of behavior.
5. Norm is an informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit about
what is considered normal or correct/incorrect social behavior.

How does culture define moral behavior?

According to Plato in his philosophical work, The Republic cited three critical elements
that jointly influence the human person’s moral development. These elements are native traits
(or what we call genetic characteristics); early childhood experience; and one’s cultural
surroundings (Pekarsky, 1998).
Assignment
Activity 3. Answer the following:

a. How did your community influence your behavior? Cite one culture in
your community and reflect on a particular behavior you have. Discuss
how this particular community culture influenced the development of your
particular behavior.
b. In what way can culture negatively affect the development of a person’s
moral behavior?

LESSON 2. CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Pre-discussion
Gather information/facts about the similarities and differences between
Filipinos and other nations (Methods: observation, interview, survey, or online
archives).

It’s time to learn!

What to expect:

In some countries, children are allowed to marry but in most countries this is unacceptable.
Divorce is not allowed in the Philippines, but Filipino Muslim men and women can legally
divorce their respective wife or husband. Why are there so many differences in societies on
what is acceptable or not? Is it true that different cultures have radically different moral codes?
Are there any values that all societies commonly have? This section will discuss the
advantages of cultural relativism and the dangers in holding this viewpoint
11
Why can’t all cultural practices be always correct?
Cultural Relativism explains why one behavior or practice is completely acceptable by a
particular group of people, while it is a taboo in another. It refers to the idea that values,
knowledge, and behavior or people must be understood within its own cultural context, and not
by the standards of other cultures. Hence, all moral and ethical standards (or judgment of what is
right or wrong) is valid and there is not “one” standard that is “better” among all others.

Dr. James Rachels (1941-2003), in his book The Elements of Moral Philosophy, laid out
five claims of cultural relativists as to why right or wrong is only a matter of cultural standards.
These claims are:
1. Different societies have different moral codes.
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong. There is no objective
standard considered better than others.
3. There are no universal moral truths.
4. The moral code of a particular society has no special status. It is but one among many.
5. It is arrogant for one culture to judge another culture. There should be tolerance among
others.
The Advantages and Dangers of Cultural Relativism
1. It warns us from assuming that our professors are the absolute rational standard.
2. It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth.
The dangers of Cultural Relativism
1. We cannot call out societal practices that promotes harm.
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful practices.
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful.

LESSON 3. UNIVERSAL VALUES

Pre-discussion
Discuss the possible results if respect for human life and telling the truth
are not respected.

By the end of the discussion, you should be able to explain why universal values are necessary for
survival.

12
The three Universal Values shared by all cultures are:
1. Caring for the young
2. Murder is wrong
3. Tell the truth
“There are some moral rules that all societies will have in common, because those rules are
necessary for society to survive” Rachels (2004).

Activity:

In the Philippines, one moral argument against the RH Law is that it

violates universal human rights and values such as the right to life and
health of children. On the other hand, proponents of the law assert that
family planning and sexual education consistent with one’s own beliefs
and moral convictions is exercising one’s freedom to choose.
If the basis of universal values is true, and taking into consideration our
social problems due to overpopulation, what is your moral stand on the
debate about having a comprehensive health programs in the
Philippines.

LESSON 4. THE FILIPINO WAY

Pre-discussion:
Discuss your observations of common Filipino attitudes. Then act out a scenario
depicting a particular Filipino attitude.
It’s time to learn!
What to expect:
In the discussion, you will look into the qualities of the Filipino moral identity and
evaluate elements that you need to be change. Learn, too, about the strengths and weaknesses
of some Filipino moral trait.
Qualities of the Filipino Moral Identity
The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures.
Psychology, educator, and former Chairperson of the Commission on Higher Education Dr.
Patricia B. Licuanan wrote that the strength and weaknesses of the Filipino character are rooted
in factors such as:
1. The Home Environment- Filipinos children are taught to value family and give it
primary importance.

13
 2. The Social Environment – characterized by depending on one another to survive.
3. Culture and Language – depict openness to foreign elements with no basic
consequences of our cultural core (Licuanan, 1994).
4. History – regarded as the culprit behind our colonial mentality.
5. The Educational system – also instrumental in molding the strengths and
weaknesses of the Filipino character.
6. Religion – taught us optimism and resilience.
7. The economic environment – the hard life drove Filipino to work hard and take risks,
such as leaving our families to work abroad.
8. The political environment - developed the culture of corruption in the Philippines.
9. Mass media – reinforces our colonial mentality.
10. Leadership and role models – Filipinos highly respect authority.
Strengths of the Filipino Culture
1. Pakikipagkapwa-Tao – demonstrated in the Filipino’s openness, helpfulness, and
generosity; Bayanihan.
2. Family Orientation – Filipinos possess a genuine love for family.
3. Joy and Humor – Filipinos are cheerful and loving.
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity - Filipinos improvise and make use of
whatever is at hand to create and produce.
5. Hard work and Industry - Noticeable in our willingness to take risks and work in
other countries.
6. Faith and Religiosity – related to our bahala na attitude, could serve as a “kickstarter”
or “pampalakas loob”.
7. Ability to Survive - “Filipinos can endure, make do, and get by on so little while
looking forward to the coming of better days.
Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
1. Extreme Personalism – lead to the prevalence of graft and corruption in the country.
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness - manifested in our political system where political
dynasties ruled over our elected government posts starting from the barangay level all
the way up to the national positions.
3. Lack of discipline – characterized by our idiomatic expression “ningas cogon”
4. Passivity and Lack of initiative – strong reliance on leaders and government to solve the
nation’s problems.
5. Colonial Mentality - connected to our feelings of inferiority.

14
 6. Kanya-kanya syndrome – Personal and in-group interest are supreme and the drive to
fulfill those interest is completely insensitive to the common good.
7. Lack of Self-analysis and Self-reflection – joyful and fun-loving Filipino also has the
tendency to be superficial and somewhat flighty.

Tell your classmates what you think:

a. What positive trait can you most relate to and how the trait help you become a better
person?

b. Think about a personal negative experience. Analyse how this was rooted in Filipinos
qualities, and from hindsight, tell your classmates how your would would have done
things differently.

LESSON 5. HOW MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPED

Pre-discussion:
Watch a video presentation about the four beginnings of the Confucian tradition and
Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics.
It’s time to learn!
Let’s delve into moral development. How does moral character develop? Study the
philosophical roots of moral development and the stages of moral development.
What is Moral Character
First let us take the most basic definition of the terms moral, character, and moral
character.
 Moral is “concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior or the goodness and
badness of the human character” (Merriam-Webster 2017).
 Character is defined as “the mental and moral qualities distinct to an individual”.

 In philosophy, the term character usually denotes to the moral dimension of a person
(Timpe, 2007).
 Moral Character refers to the “existence (or lack of) virtues such as integrity, courage,
fortitude, honest, and loyalty”. (Merriam-Webster ,2017).
Moral Character of Disposition
Moral characters are those dispositions or the tendency to act or think in a particular way for
which a person can be held morally responsible. Thus, moral character traits are rational,
informed stable, and reliable dispositions (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017).

15
Philosophical Views on Moral Character
What do the great ancient minds think about moral character? Let us look at the
viewpoint of Eastern and Western thinkers.

Confucian Traditions
The four beginnings in Confucian traditions are:
1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen.
2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi.
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li.
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi.
Jen means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and generosity. Yi means righteousness and
the respect of duty, that is, respect your position as guardian towards nature and humanity. Li
deals with outward behavior such as etiquette, customs, and rituals. Zhi means wisdom, and
this wisdom is a product of practicing Jen, Yi, and Li in one’s life (Liu, 2002).

Tell your classmates what you think:

Here is a moral dilemma. Read the story and then discuss it with your classmates. There
are questions provided to guide your discussions.
Joe is a fourteen-year-old boy who wanted to go to camp very much. His father
promised him he could go if he saved up the money for it himself. So Joe worked hard at his
paper route and saved up the forty dollars it cost to go to camp, and a little more besides.
However, just before camp was going to start, his father changed his mind. Some of his friends
decided to go on a special fishing trip, and Joe’s father was short of the money it would cost.
Therefore, he told Joe to give him the money he had saved from the paper route. Joe did not
want to give up going to camp, so he thinks of refusing to give his father the money.
1. Should Joe refuse to give his father the money? Why or why not?
2. Does the father have the right to tell Joe to give him the money? Why or why not?
3. Does giving the money have anything to do with being a good son? Why or why not?
4. Is the fact that Joe earned the money himself important in this situation? Justify your
answer.
5. The father promised Joe he could go to camp if he earned the money. Is the fact that
the father promised the most important thing in the situation? Why or why not?
6. In general, why should a promise be kept?
7. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you do not know well and probably will
not see again? Justify your answer.

16
 8. What do you think is the most important a father should be concerned about his
relationship to his son?
9. In general, what should be the authority of a father over his son?
10. What do you think is the most important think a son should be concerned about in his
relationship to his father?
11. In thinking back over the dilemma, what would you say is the most responsible thing
for Joe to do in the situation? Why?

LESSON 6: STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Pre-discussion:
Watch a video presentation on Heinz’s dilemma. Engage with the class on what you
would do if you were Heinz. Explain your choice of action.
It’s time to learn!
What to expect:
How did we develop a sense of what is right or wrong? In this discussion, you should be
able to identify the different stages of Moral Development as stipulated by philosopher and
psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Adapted from General Psychology with Drug Education Book
by Virgie S. Otig M.A. and Winston B. Gallinero, M. A.

Level 1. Pre-conventional Morality

 Judgment at his level is solely focused on the self.

Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation

 This is also called pre-moral stage where decisions and actions are determined by
immediate physical consequence and not the true moral value. For example, “I am
going to study my lessons because mom will get mad at me if I do not pass this test.”
Stage 2: Reward Orientation

 Children learn to behave in a manner based on the principle “What’s in it for me?”
For example, an older child might reason: “If I get good grades mom and dad will buy
me a new smart phone. So, I’m going to do my homework.”

17
Level II. Conventional Morality
This level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. It is accepting the
ruled and standards of one’s group. This means decisions and the morality of his/her actions
are based on society’s views and expectations. The focus on this level is the “significant others’
or what is also called “Tyranny of the They”.
Stage 3. Good Boy/Good Girl Orienatation
-At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from other people by living up to their
expectations. He/She also now understands the concept of loyalty, trust, and gratitude as well
as become interested in motives an intention behind a particular decision or action.
Stage 4. Authority Orientation

 By this time, individuals have reached adulthood and they usually consider society
as a whole when making judgements. The focus at this stage is following the rules,
maintaining law and order, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
Level III. Post Conventional
This is also known as the ‘principled level’. It is marked by a growing realization that
people are unique and are an independent part of the society.
Stage 5. Social Contract orientation

 This stage means the individual is aware that much of what is considered to be moral
or good is mainly based on personal beliefs as well as on the social group they
belong to and that only a very few of the known fundamental values are actually
universal.

 Ethical-principle orientation
At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and the person makes a personal
commitment to uphold universal principles of equal rights and respect.

Evaluate each the situations below. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer on the
space provided. Options can be answered more than once.
A. Pre-conventional B. Conventional C. Post Conventional
______________1. “If I listen to my parents, they’ll probably give me money for being good.”
______________2. “I am a conscious objector because killing is always wrong regardless of
what your country says.”
______________3. “I won’t cheat during exams because I’m afraid I will be caught and my
teacher will flunk me.”
______________4. “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”
______________5. “I always wear my school ID the moment I enter the school’s premises.”

18
______________6. “I should maintain my scholarship because my parents promised they will
buy me a new pair of shoes if I get high grades.”
______________7. “I will obey my parents about not having a boyfriend/girlfriend at his time.”
______________8. “I would rather follow what the sign that says “No jaywalking: or else I will
be penalized.
______________9. “I will not hurt any living thing, even this mosquito on my arm.”
______________10. “Don’t eat that because mom will get angry.”

19
 THE ACT

Diagnostic Exercise
Think about an instance in your life when you were faced with a moral dilemma. Answer
the following questions briefly.
1. How did your feelings influence your decision?
2. Do you agree to use only reason in making moral decision, and that feelings should be
ignored? Defend your viewpoint.
3. What is the difference between reason and will?

LESSON 1: FEELINGS AS INSTINCTIVE AND TRAINED RESPONSE TO MORAL DILEMMAS

Pre-discussion:
Cite a particular scenario where you based your own decisions on feelings. What could
happen when you based your decisions on feelings alone.
It’s time to learn!
This section will discuss some philosophical insights on feelings, and its influence in
decision making.
Philosophical Insights on Feelings

Hume and philosophy of the Mind

 Argued to regulate actions using reason and that reason has dominion over feelings
of emotions. Known for asserting four theses:
1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the “slave of the passions”.
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from reason.
3. Moral distinction s are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of approval
(esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame) felt by spectators who contemplate a
character trait or action.
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are artificial.
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016)
“Theory of the Mind”

 Passions (which he used to describe emotions or feelings).

 Direct and indirect.
Direct passions – are caused directly by sensations of pain or pleasure; the passion that “arises
immediately form good or evil, from pain or pleasure; that we experience or expect to
experience.
Indirect passions – caused by sensation of pain and pleasure derived from some other idea or
impression. Humility, ambition, vanity, love, hatred, envy, pity, malice, generosity. (Blattner,
2017).

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Scheler and the philosophy of Feelings

Max Ferdinand Scheler’s philosophy, the emotion is the most important aspect in human
existence (Dy, 1986).
Four Strata of Feelings:
1. Sensual Feelings – involve bodily pleasures or pain.
2. Vital Feelings – the life functions such as health, sickness, energy, fatigue, etc.
3. Psychic Feelings – about aesthetics, justice and knowledge.
4. Spiritual Feelings – deal with the Divine.
Difference between responses based on reason and feelings:
Professor Dr.James Rachels

 asserted that in moral reasoning, you could not rely on your feelings no matter how
powerful these feelings may be.
An argument is reasonable if:
a. The facts are correct.
b. The moral principles are correctly applied.
c. Each individual’s well-being is treated equally important.
What is the Role of feelings in Decision –Making
Reason – plays a role in making moral decision
Hume claimed that in the given situation a person would act based on emotions rather that
reason.
Philosopher Alfred Jules Ayer describe two elements in moral judgment:
a. “emotive” – meant expressing positive feelings towards a particular act. Ex. Kindness
b. “prescriptive” – an instruction or prescription of a particular behavior. “Be kind to others”.

Why feelings can be obstacles to making the right decisions

There are three central features as to why emotions can be obstacles in making the right
decision:
1. Its non-deliberate nature
 Deliberate means the act was intentional, planned, with conscious effort.
 Non-deliberate is the contrary term that denotes spontaneous actions.

Philosopher Aaron Be’en Zeev summarized the non-deliberate nature of feelings as follows:
a. Responsibility entails free choice; if we are not free to behave in a certain manner,
then we are not responsible for this behavior.

21
 b. Free choice entails an intellectual deliberation in which alternatives are considered
and the best one is chosen. Without such consideration, we clearly cannot
understand the possible alternatives and are not responsible for preferring one of
them.
c. Since intellectual deliberation is absent from emotions, we cannot be responsible for
our emotions.

2. Its partial nature

-Operates on the principle “the law of concern”.
-The sorrow that you feel for earthquake victims from other countries is nowhere near
the level of sorrow that you feel if your family were the victims.
Two aspects:
a. Decisions based on feelings focus only on a narrow area
b. It reflects personal and self-interest pespectives.

3. It is capricious
-Aspects or situations that have nothing to do in moral situations could rile up the
emotion, and this emotion will certainly influence your subsequent moral judgment
(Pizarro, 2000).

How emotion help in making the right decisions

 Three ways that feelings, especially negative feelings, help in making the right
decisions:
- It signals the need to adjust behavior.
- It can help us learn from our mistakes.
- Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by.

Assignment:

a. In what ways are feelings important in moral decision-making according to Hume and
Scheler?
b. In what way is a feeling detrimental in moral decision-making?
c. As human beings, we cannot help but be influenced by feelings. Based on what you have
learned about the role of feelings in decision making, what is the best approach in making
moral decisions?

LESSON 2. REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS REQUIREMENTS FOR ETHICS

It’s time to learn!

How do you make a rational, impartial decision? Aside from discussing reason and
impartiality, you will also learn the seven step technique in moral reasoning.

22
Is reason a requirement for morality?
Reason is the power of the mind to think, understand, and form of judgment by a
process of logic”.
-Immanuel Kant, argued that reason alone is the basis for morality, and once the person
understood this basic requirement for morality, he or she would see that acting morally is the
same as acting rationally (Beck, 1960).

Is impartiality or requirement for morality?

Impartiality is commonly understood as the principle of justice.
- It denotes that decisions should be “based on objective criteria rather than on the
basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring to benefit one person over another for
improper reasons” (Jollimore, 2011).

The 7 steps Moral Reasoning Model

Adapted form 2nd gen. CHED-GEC, XU Training

1. Gather the facts

- ask questions (who,what , when, how, and why).
-gather as many facts as you can. Clarify what assumptions you are making.
2. Identify the stakeholders
-Identify all the persons involved and will be affected in an ethical situation. Who are the
primary stakeholders? Who are the secondary stakeholders? Why are they stakeholders
in the issue? Get the proper perspective.
3. Articulate the dilemma
- Express the ethical dilemma.

4. List the alternatives

-Think creatively about potential actions.

5. Compare the alternatives with the principles

-specify the relevant values that you want to uphold in making your decision.
6. Weigh the consequence
-filter your choices to determine if your options will violate ethical values.

7. Make a decision
- to decide something that will reflect values that you want to uphold.

LESSON 3. MORAL COURAGE

Watch a movie depicting moral courage. Write a short reflection about the movie. What
was the moral dilemma that the main character faced? What did the main character go through

23
in standing up for his moral principles? Was the main character correct in showing moral courage
on such situation? Defend your answer.
It’s time to learn!
We now discuss our responsibility for our actions and the voluntary nature of moral
purpose.
Moral courage
The courage to put your moral principles into action even though you may be in doubt, are
afraid, or face adverse consequences. Moral courage involves careful deliberation and
mastery of the self. Moral courage is essential not for only a virtuous life, but also a happy
one because integrity is essential to self-esteem.
Moral Imagination
Ability in particular circumstances to discover and evaluate possibilities not merely
determined by that circumstance, or limited by its operative mental mode or merely framed
by a set of rules or rule-governed concerns (Werhane, 1999).
What is “will”?
o The mental capacity to act decisively on one’s desire.
Why is the will as important as reason?
o Aristotle believed that reason is the product of intellect and sensation; and that will
give the person the capacity for “exciting movement in space”.
Developing the will
o Using intellect to decide is just one part of the moral decision. The resolve to put
the decision into action is the role of the will.

Assignment:

What was your most important moral experience this year? How did you go
about formulating and coming up with a decision? What did you actually do?
Was your decision and action aligned with your moral principles? Why do you
say so?

Essay:
1. What is the role of feelings in moral decisions? What are the disadvantages of over-
reliance on feelings?
2. How can we make reasoned and impartial decisions?

24
 FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES
BEHIND OUR MORAL DISPOSITION FRAMEWORKS

This section addresses the following questions:

 What are the overarching frameworks that dictate the way we make our individual
moral decisions?
 What is my framework in making my decision?
The basic concepts that will discussed are:
A. Virtue Ethics
1. Aristotle
i. Telos
ii. Virtue as habit
iii. Happiness as virtue
2. St. Thomas: Natural Law
i. The natural and its tenets
ii. Happiness as constructive of moral and cardinal virtues
B. Kant and Rights theorists
1. Kant
i. Good will
ii. Categorical imperative
2. Different kinds of rights
i. Legal
ii. Moral
C. Utilitarianism
1. Origin and nature of theory
2. Distributive justice
i. Egalitarian
ii. Capitalist
iii. Socialist
 The state and citizens: responsibilities to each other: The principles of
taxation and inclusive growth.
Diagnostic Exercise
Can you recall some good habits you acquired in school and at home? What is your
favorite good habit from your teachers and from your parents? Are they helpful in doing moral
things?
Habits from School Habits from Home
_________________________________ _____________________________
__________________________________ _____________________________
_________________________________ _____________________________

25
Favorite Habit: ______________________ Favorite Habit: _________________

Are they helpful in doing the right things? If yes, why? If no. Why?
Are they helpful in doing the right things? If yes, why? If no, why?

LESSON 1: VIRTUE ETHICS: ARISTOTLE

Pre-discussion
Watch a short video presentation about Aristotle’s virtue theory. Know the concept of the
Golden Mean and how it exists as the midpoint between vices of excess and deficiency.
Furthermore, know about moral exemplars and what “eudaimonia” is about. After watching the
video, come up with the scenario that will depict the concept of “eudaimonia”.
It’s time to learn!
What to expect:
What is virtue ethics? What framework should you use in making ethical decisions? In this
lesson, you should be able to articulate what virtue ethics is, critique virtue ethics, and eventually
make it a part of your decision-making process.
What is virtue ethics and who is Aristotle?
Virtue ethics is the general term for theories that put emphasis on the role of character
and virtue in living one’s life rather than in doing one’s duty or in acting to bring about good
consequences. For virtue ethicist, their moral code would be: “Act as a virtuous person would act
in your situation.”
Most virtue ethics theories take their inspiration from Aristotle who declared that a virtuous
person is someone who has ideal character traits. There is also St. Thomas Aquinas who asserted
that no human act is morally good (or “right”, in the sense of “not wrong” unless it is in line with
love of self and neighbor (and thus with respect for the basic aspects of the wellbeing of each and
all human beings) not only:
i. In the motives or intentions with which it is chosen, and
ii. In the appropriateness of the circumstances, but also
iii. in its object (more precisely the object, or closest-in intention of the choosing person).

(The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017)

ARISTOTLE AND VIRTUE ETHICS
Virtue Ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequence, and
particular acts. Instead, virtue ethics focus on the quality of the person.

Although action and consequence are significant, virtue ethics does not focus on whether
an action is right and wrong; nor on whether an action is right or wrong; nor on whether the

26
consequence are good or bad. It is more concerned with whether the person is acting as a virtuous
person should act in the situation.

The Virtuous man

The kind of man who is able to satisfy both inclinations and rational desires because his
or her inclinations and desires are aligned. The virtuous man wants to do what is good and does
it because he/she derives pleasure from choosing and doing what is moral.

Why we have to be virtuous?

The reason according to virtue ethics, is eudaimonia.

27
 Eudaimonia can be translated as “happiness”, “well-being” or the “good
life” and that’s the goal of human life.

- How often do you always prepare yourself before going to school?

Telos - For Aristotle, what we do entails direction.
- The direction that we foresee as the outcome of our act.

Virtue as a Habit

- Character means the development of personality that resulted in the application

of virtues, while the word habit means that certain human acts are being carried
out frequently.
- Virtues are good acts habitually put into action.
There are two kinds of virtues:

1. Moral Virtue
2. Intellectual virtue

Aristotle suggests that the moral virtues are in the middle between too much and too little.
- It is also called the Doctrine of the Golden Mean

Happiness as a virtue

- The understanding of the term happiness is sometimes subjective since we

interpret according to our own needs.
- For Aristotle, happiness is a pleasant activity or excellent rational action where
one judges his whole life as successful and worth living. Thus, eudaimonia also
means success.

What makes you happy in life? How do you achieve it that involves human acts? Is it in
accordance with the idea of Aristotle?

LESSON 2. VIRTUE ETHICS: ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

Pre-discussion
Discuss the possible results if respect for human life and telling the truth
are not respected.

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 It’s time to learn!

What to expect?
No, natural law does not refer to the laws of nature. How so? Take part in the discussion to
understand more about the ideas of St. Thomas Aquinas in making ethical decisions.

WHO IS ST. THOMAS AQUINAS?

 Great Italian Philosopher and Theologian of the Medieval period.

 Foremost classical proponent of Natural Theology at the peak of scholasticism in

Europe.

 Founder of the Thomistic School of Philosophy and Theology

Virtue ethics- grounded on Natural Law

Natural Law –
expresses moral
requirements

- contains rules, - adhere to the will

commands, action and plan of God
guiding requirement.

Happiness as constitutive of Moral and Cardinal Virtues

The Four Cardinal Virtues:

1. Prudence - A practice of understanding that helps us know the best means in

solving moral problems in which we encounter in the concrete
circumstance.
2. Justice - An exercise of the will to give or render things be it intellectual or
material to anyone who owns it.

3. Fortitude - Exercise of courage to face any danger one encounters without fear
especially when life is at stake.

4. Temperance - Getting indulged into strong pleasures has undesired

consequences either excess or disorder.

29
 What particular moral and cardinal virtue you would like to develop at this point in your
life? What are other virtues you think will follow as consequence of practicing your
chosen virtue?

LESSON 3: KANT AND RIGHT THEORISTS

Pre-discussion
Watch a video on Kant and Categorical Imperatives. After the video
presentations, state honestly as you can, what were your motive (s) behind the
following actions:
1. When you help your classmates in doing his/her assignment.
2. When you give money to the beggar outside the Church or somewhere in the market.

It’s time to learn!

What to expect?
This will be an exciting journey on understanding what rights theory is. By the end of this topic,
you should be able to differentiate a legal from a moral right. Critique rights theory and make
use of it in real life.

Immanuel Kant
 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804

 Believes that the human mind creates the structure of human experience, that reason is
the source of morality, that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment,
that space and time are forms of human sensibility, and that the world as it is "in-itself" is
independent of humanity's concepts of it.

 An ethics with an a priori principle

 Genuine morality is based on moral law which is valid for all people because it is
completely rational

 Kant’s test for Rational Consistency- to look for the basis of morality in an objective
manner- not reliant on personal character, a supernatural mandate, nor the
consequences an action produces

30
Good Will, Moral Worth and Duty
 the only thing good without qualification is a “good will”
 fortune, power, intelligence, and other traditional virtues are not enjoying the status of
highest goods
 Closer to the idea of “good person” or a “person of good will”

Good Will

 Kant claims that the only good without qualification is the good will. He treats the good
will as the highest good since its end will always be good.
 Kant says that the role of reason, particularly in ethics, is to produce a will that is good,
and this becomes good only when it is motivated by duty. So, when we act from duty, we
exhibit the good will.
 It is an indispensable condition to order to achieve the rightness of act. This kind of motive
has nothing to do with anything as subjective as pleasure. To do right out of principle is to
recognize an objective right that poses an obligation on any rational being (Abbot, 88).
But what makes the will good is simply by virtue of volition. To quote:
To act morally is to act from no other motive than the motive of doing what is right. The
kind of motive has nothing to do with anything as subjective as pleasure. To do right out of
principle is to recognize an objective right that poses an obligation on any rational being (Abbot,
88).

Categorical Imperative

- One ought to do the moral law in the absence of conditions since it is simply done
out of duty.
- Comes from the nature of the law, a sort of imposing obligation.
Two formulas written by Kant:
1. “act only according to a maxim by which you can at the same time will that is shall
become a universal law.”
2. “act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in
the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an
end.”
From the two formulas are the two principles or determiners of moral imperative, the
respect for person and the universalizability.

The respect of person

– is the basic thing about how we treat people we encounter in our daily living.
- Any act that is good happens only when we deal with other people not as merely
means.

31
Universalizability

- an act is capable of becoming a universal law.

- An act is considered morally good if a maxim or law can be made universal. That
maxim or law is made only for our self but also for others as well to perform or to
prohibit.

Different Kinds of Rights: Legal versus Moral Rights

Legal rights refer to all rights one has by simply being a citizen of a particular country like
the Philippines. Being a Filipino, one is entitled to all rights and privileges accorded by the
constitution.

Moral rights are rights that belong to any moral entities such as human beings and
animals. What makes them moral entities are the following features such as freedom, rationality,
and sentence.
First, human beings are the only beings that enjoy freedom.
- With freedom, every act they execute accompanies moral consequences becomes
possible.
Second, human beings are the only beings gifted with rationality.
- With rationality, everything they do comes with rational deliberations whether
certain course of action would lead to a desired result without regrets or undesired
result with undesired consequence.

As a loving son or daughter to your parents, how do you relate with them according to
the principle of respect for person?

LESSON 4. UTILITARIANISM

Pre-discussion
Our next stop is utilitarianism. Watch a video that explains the principle of utility, and
the difference between act and rule utilitarianism. After the video presentation, analyze this
scenario: You bought a mobile phone that is worth 50 thousand pesos. Do you also get the benefit
exactly that is of equal worth? If yes, why? If no, why?

It’s time to learn!

What to expect?
If an act benefits a lot of people, even though some may suffer as a consequence, was it a
moral act? Explore the ethical theory of utilitarianism, founded by Jeremy Bentham and John
32
Stuart Mill. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to articulate what utilitarianism is.
Critique Utilitarianism; and make use of utilitarianism in a practical way.
John Stuart Mill
 He was born in London on May 20, 1806, and was the eldest son of James Mill.
 From his earliest years, he was subjected to a rigid system of intellectual discipline.
 “One person with a belief is equal to ninety-nine who have only interests”
 Mill accepted Bentham’s idea of the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
 Bentham’s pleasures are quantitatively different and Mill’s pleasures are qualitatively
different.

Utilitarianism – this framework focuses on happiness as the barometer of right morality

through the calculation of more pleasure produced over pain.
 Sometimes called consequentialism, focuses on the effect of a particular end or
telos called happiness.
 David Hume, a philosopher during the modern period the first who proposed the
idea but the ones who have made more depth and made it more profound were:
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
Three classical version of Utilitarianism as formulated by Bentham can be summed up into
three points.
1. The basis of an act to be treated morally right or wrong is in its consequence they
produced.
 It is the end or telos of every act, that is, to produce happiness.
2. What matters in every act that we do would be the amount of pleasure produced.
 Happiness is comparative, that is there will be great happiness, greater
happiness, and greater happiness. Likewise, there will be also great pain,
greater pain, greatest pain.
 Bentham uses felicific calculus, a method that can calculate or measure
happiness and pain.
3. The happiness experienced by every person is counted the same. It means that
every person’s happiness is taken into account and no one is left behind.
Amount of pleasure – amount of pain = moral or immoral act.

One has to consider in assessing an act the following factors:

a) Happiness/pleasure should be more intense
b) Happiness/pleasure should last longer.
c) Happiness/pleasure should be more certain to occur.
d) Happiness/pleasure should be happening sooner or later.
e) Happiness/pleasure will produce in turn many happiness and few pains.
f) Lastly, in determining the amount of happiness/pleasure, one has to consider how many
people will be affected. Greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, and fewer
affected negatively.

Happiness
Pleasures and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasures.

33
 Greatest Happiness Principle

Actions are right in the proportion to the extent as they tend to promote happiness,
wrong as they tend to promote the reverse of happiness.

Business Fascination and with Utilitarianism.

In the field of business, there is also ethics. It is one of the three points of view used by
people when it comes to decision making related to business in the corporate world. The other
two views are economic and legal.
There are also ethical issues that affect all stakeholders – employees and employees,
consumers and producers, and members of the public.
Cost-benefit amount of money spent versus the amount of benefit or drawback.
- If the benefit is lesser than the amount spent, then it is not worth it.
- Therefore, it is pain.

Cost benefit analysis

- Commonly used only as a means for making decisions such as major investments
and on matters of public policy. But is not limited to business matters alone.

a) Do you agree that the greatest happiness produced become the basis in
determining whether certain human act is moral? If yes, why? If no, why?
b) Everyone loves music including you. Let us presume that you love a particular loud
music and you have lots of neighbors nearby. Show the cost and benefit of such
activity between you and your neighbors.

LESSON 5: JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS: PROMOTING THE COMMON GOOD.

Pre-discussion:
Are you in favor that no matter what the financial status, upper class, middle class, and
lower class – of the students will be given the same privilege of RA 10931?

34
 It’s time to learn!

What to expect?
How will you know that your decision was just and fair? First, you need to understand
how some philosophers view justice and fairness. Later on, you should be able to critique
justice and fairness, and make use of these in your real life setting.

John Rawls

- One of the important political philosophers during the 20th century.

- His main work is A Theory of Justice published in 1971.
- His work has addressed some of the social issues especially in the name
of justice between the state and the citizens and among the citizens.
- Rawl’s proposes justice as fairness as an ethical framework. Proposes
justice as fairness as an ethical framework.
Two principles are followed:
1. Each person is to have an equal rights an equal right to the most expensive
scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for
others.
2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both a)
reasonably expected to be everyone’s advantage, and b) attached to positions
and offices open to all.
Principle of equality
- Rawl’s claims that every member of the society should have equal rights
and liberties.
- These rights and liberties refer to a political condition of every citizen.
Principle of Difference
- Rawls’ acknowledges that there cannot be just distribution in the society in
terms of socioeconomic goods because of unequal socioeconomic status
among members of the society.
- He highlights that these inequalities should benefit the least advantaged
members of the society, and that opportunities be given through
employments.

Distributive Justice
- Everyone in the society has to share both the burden and the benefit of
whatever the society offers. If one enjoys the benefits offered to them, one
has to also accept the burden.
Egalitarianism Distributive Justice

35
 - One is concerned with the distribution of terms of receiving an equal
share.
- Two types: 1.) Political egalitarianism where the legal rights of every
citizen are equally observed (e.g. exercise of the right of suffrage) and 2.)
economic egalitarianism where the distribution of socio-economic goods is
equally observed (e.g. “minimum wage law”).
The socio-economic goods refer to those basic necessities- primary food,
clothing, and shelter – that would enable each citizen to have and live a
decent life.
Capitalist Distributive Justice
- One is concerned with a just distribution in terms of receiving one’s share
according to how much one contributes to the over-all success of the
goals of the institution where one is employed.

Socialist Distributive Justice

- As socialist, one is concerned with a just distribution in terms of one’s
needs. We have various need in life, and if we want to achieve those needs,
we need to work hard according to the amount of needs we have.
The state and citizens: Responsibilities to each other: The Principle of Taxation and
Inclusive Growth.
“Each local government unit shall have the power to create its own sources of revenues and to
levy taxes, fees, and charges subject to such guidelines and limitations as the congress may
provide, consistent with the basic policy of local autonomy. Such taxes, fees, and charges shall
accrue exclusively to the local governments.”
Basis of taxation is necessity and reciprocal duties.
- As to necessity, the government should collect some amount of money from
its populace for its existence and its expenses.
- As to reciprocal duties, we see how the state and the citizens have
responsibilities towards each other.
As recipients of the benefits given by the State, we need to do our
responsibility by paying taxes so that social and physical projects of the government will
be carried put smoothly, and the existence of the State will be firmed.

Explain the role of veil of ignorance in setting up Rawl’s theory of justice.

36
 ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN
Diagnostic Exercise
View a video presentation of globalization. Answer the following
questions briefly and on point.
1. Why is globalization a positive development?
2. How do competitions and profit contribute to the negative effects
of globalization?
3. Are your personal moral principles still relevant in a globalized
world? Explain your answer.

LESSON 1. MORAL CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION

Pre-discussion:
From a scenario in a movie/drama that depicts ethical problems
arising from globalization. How ethical challenges should be resolved?

It’s time to learn!

What to expect?
This section will discuss what globalization, pluralism, and fundamentalism are. You
should also be able to identify the important moral challenges of globalization.

Globalization
- The opening of local and nationalistic perspectives to a broader outlook of an
interconnected and inter-dependent world with free transfer of capital, goods, and services
across national frontiers (Goggins, t2017; WEB).
Moral Challenges of Globalization

1. The rise of radical inequality

- As the world becomes more technologically advanced, the gap between the rich and the
poor is becoming even more pronounced. The global financial scenario is that wealth is
concentrated in the hands of the few, while it leaves the majority in poverty (Colado, 2006).
- Globalization is used by advanced capitalist countries to perpetuate their political
and economic leadership or dominance, Ali H. A. (2009).
- Both the consequentialist and deontological perspectives is an approach to ethics that
looks at the rightness and wrongness of the action itself (Mastin, 2008).

2. The problem of managing global environment to prevent global ecological collapse

37
 - Today’s world is confronted by a host of environmental problems that carry with them
potential planetary consequences (Peter Osimiri, 2015).

3. The intrusion of international economic organizations on indebted nations

- International financial institutions are corporations that act as a mediator to bring about
an agreement.
- The largest international financial institutions are the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund.
- International financial institutions are seen to have become so powerful it can forcibly
impose economic policies on societies (state, country, nation, government) in different
parts of the globe.

Calls for a Global Ethic

The global ethic perspective assumes that a set of shared ethical values and standards
will help lessen social injustices committed by a large global community; and that this ethic is
indispensable for global peace and justice (Gephardt, 2011).
Three Universal values shared by all cultures by James Rachels:
a) Caring for the young
b) Murder is wrong
c) Tell the truth

Moral Absolutism: an ethical perspective on universal value

Moral absolutism is the ethical belief that actions can be judged as right or wrong based
on absolute standards, regardless of the situational background or framework of the act. It holds
that there is a fundamental moral law inherent to the universe.
- Plato, Aristotle, who believed in a kind of moral absolutism.
- Immanuel Kant “So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in another,
always as an end, and never as only a means”.

Categorical Imperative “So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in
another, always as an end, and never as only a mean.”
- A concept of “good or goodwill without qualification”. In Kantian thought, all human
actions should be based on doing what is good for “others” (i.e. fellow human beings
and everything that exists in the natural world) without any conditions.
Advantages of Moral Absolutism

 It allows moral rules to be evaluated critically.

 It is fair as people are treated the same as the rules are the same for everyone.
 It is a moral rule is right, then there would be no need to have different rules for different
people because the absolute rules are universal.
Critical to Moral Absolutism

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  Sometimes it is not appropriate to treat people the same due to circumstances that arise
from different situations.
 Life is not simply “black and white”.

The Challenge of Pluralism

What is pluralism? Pluralism as process refers to ways of recognition. It is a state of society
in which members of diverse ethnic, racial, religious, or social group maintain an autonomous
participation in and development of their traditional culture or special interest, within the confines
of a common civilization (WEB).

Pluralism

The theory that there is more than one basic substance or principle (The Basics of
Philosophy 2008). In Ethics, Pluralism is the supposition that there are many independent sources
of value and that there is no single truth, even in moral matters (The Basics of Philosophy, some
points about pluralism claimed by pluralists in the Pluralism Project at Harvard University (Diana
L. Eck 2006) are:
1. Pluralism is not diversity alone, but the energetic engagement with diversity.
2. Pluralism is not just tolerance, but the active seeking of understanding across lines of
difference.
3. Pluralism is not relativism, but the encounter of commitments.
4. Pluralism is based on dialogue.

Ethical Pluralism
The idea that values may be equally correct, and that there is no single moral system that
can objectively judge an action to be right or wrong.

The Challenges of Fundamentalism

An approach to religion (and by extension moral philosophy) that literally and

strictly adheres to their religious doctrines. A collection of essays called “The Fundamentalist
Mindset” laid out the psychological structure or features of fundamentalism.
1. Dualistic thinking: Fundamentalists are inclined to see the world in clear categories. You
are either good or bad, right or wrong, for them or against them. There is no room for
context or probabilities in a fundamentalist’s view.
2. They are obsessed with the “ultimate end” for society and humanity. This mindset usually
has two components: first, the current system must “end”; and second, to witness a new
beginning.
3. Cult leadership. Fundamentalist groups are usually founded by a charismatic leader who
is able to wield total devotion from followers.
4. Total conversion and commitment. Members are fully immersed and committed to their
religious doctrine. Loyalty and commitment is not only expected, it is demanded.

Moral Absolutism versus Fundamentalism

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 Fundamentalism is a kind of Moral Absolutism but in a radical way. Moral absolutism is an
assertion that human beings should base their behavior on universal values or as Kant prescribed
“goodwill without conditions”. Fundamentalists, on the other hand, believe their doctrines are the
universal values that everyone should follow.

a. Are the moral problems due to globalization discussed affecting the political, social,
economic, and environmental conditions of the Philippines? If yes, in what way? If no,
why not?
b. It’s time to check your values. The saying “Treat others the way you want yourself to
be treated” is an example of moral absolutism. Thus, since all of us want to survive,
will you sacrifice yourself for the benefit of others even if it means your loved ones
will suffer too? Should you expect other people to sacrifice their life for you?

LESSON 2: MILLENIALS AND “FILLENIALS”: ETHICAL CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES

Pre-discussion:

How different are you, Filipino millennials, from your parents? Watch a video that
shows some of the differences between baby boomers and millennials. Then, as a group, come
up with a scenario that shows the moral values of the older generation versus the moral values
of millennials. Discuss the factors that could have influenced these differences between
generations.

It’s time to learn!

What to expect?
Millennials are those born between 1981 and 2000. Authors William Strauss and Neil
Howe are credited for coining the term “millennials”. But who are the Filipinos millennials? Get
to know the qualities of the “fillennials” that make them different from their global
contemporaries. However, there is one thing not affected by generation gap – the Queen Bee.
The
SheFilipino Millennials
is still buzzing (“Fillenials”)
around.
Four generation working in the same workplace:
 Traditionalists – Those born from 1900-1945. The generation that lived through
two world wars. Their formative years were that of survival.
 Baby Boomers – Those born form 1946-1964. They are called “Baby Boomers”
because of the significant increase in population in their generation.

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  Generation X – Those born from 1965-1980. The generation born in the era of
video games and computers.
 Millennials – Those born from 1981-2000. They are so called the “digital natives”.
They grew up in the digital age, rather than acquiring familiarity of it as an adult.
The generation born in the internet era.
 Generation Z – the fifth classification. These are born who were born in 2001 to
the present. They are so called the iGeneration. They are also called the
iGeneration. They are the generation born in an era of individualized mobile
technologies (smartphones, tablets, iPad, iPhone, etc).
By 2025, millennials are estimated to account for 75% of the global workforce.

Qualities of Fillennials.
Some interesting statistics:
 83% of Filipino Youth rely heavily on their parents for advice.
 On adulthood, Fillennials value close family relationships.
 However, they also believe that the age limit for someone to continue living
with their parents is 30 years old. The global average was surveyed at 32
years old.
 Filipino millennials are more active in social media and are more easily
influenced by peers.
 61% feel pressured to portray themselves in the best way possible in social
media.
 90% feel it is important to a positive contribution to the community.
However, despite the fast moving world of social media and communication there
are three enduring human truths about being young that as true today as they
ever were in the previous generations.
1. The notion of needing to “find yourself”
Being young is still ridden with angst. They are at the stage wherein
identity is being formed.
2. Friends are everything
Finding your group, to hand out with is the key to establishing the sense of “self”
and happiness.
3. Finding your place in the world
This pursuit remains relevant across eras. The millennials still strive to
figure out their values, positions, and ideals, as well as establishing their
sense of personal justice of what is right and wrong.

What issues caused moral friction you and your parents? How did you resolve the
friction? Who was right? Why do you say that it was right?
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LESSON 3: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS AND RELIGION

Pre-discussion
Reflect the important contribution of religion to humanity.

It’s time to learn!

What to expect?
With the globalization of economics and politics, individuals may become insecure as
the life they once led is being contested and changed at the same time. Hence to maintain a
sense of psychological well-being and avoid existential anxiety, individuals turn to scripture
stories and teachings that provide a vision about how they can be bound to a meaningful world
is quickly changing day-by-day. In this lesson, find out what role religion plays in global
community.

What is Religion?
A system of beliefs and practices (Hopkins, et al., 2001).
Various religions claim that their belief systems are the best way to live and that their
faith represents a path to enlightenment and salvation.
Ethics is not dependent on religion.
While religion promotes proper social behavior based on the teachings of a deity or a
Supreme Being, ethics is a universal decision-making tool that may be used by any person from
any religion, and even by atheists.
The Role of Religion in a Globalized World
Globalization made possible for religions to come in direct contact with one another.
Through readily available modes of communication, shared religious values such as a
human dignity and human freedom can be relayed to each of their members at the shortest
time; and this can be used as means to manage religious diversity and avoid violence.

What role does your religion play in making the world a better place to live while co-
existing with other religions. Cite specific program, activities, or endeavors as an example.

Based on what you have learned, answer the following:

1. What are the challenges to ethical behavior in today’s world?
2. Is it meaningful to search for universal values? Elaborate your answer.
3. How do we respond to an increasingly pluralist and individualist globalized world?

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References:
Gallinero, Winston et al (2018). Ethics. Mutya Publishing House.Inc. www.publishinghouse.com.

Bulaong Jr, Oscar et al (2018). Ethics: Foundation of Moral Valuation. REX Bookstore.
www.rexpublishing.com.ph

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