MAT 212

Mathematical Methods I

Content: Taylor amd Maclaurin’s series.

Prerequisites: Before starting this work you should:

• have knowledge of power series

• be able to differentiate simple functions

• be familiar with the rules for combining power series

Learning Outcomes: At the end these course, the student should be able
to:

• State and apply Taylor and Maclaurin’s series

• find the Maclaurin and Taylor series expansions of given functions.

• find Maclaurin expansions of functions by combining known power se-

ries together

• find Maclaurin expansions by using differentiation and integration

Learning Style: To achieve what is expected of you;

• allocate sufficient study time

• briefly revise the prerequisite material

• attempt every guided exercise and most of the other exercises

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LECTURE ONE
1.1 Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series:
1.1.1 Introduction

We have learnt how to generate series for a given function by differentiating

it over and over again. In this section, we will establish a general form of
such a series, which can be applied to most functions with less effort. This

general series is known as the Maclaurin’s series/Taylor’s series .

Taylor series
1.1.2 Definitions

The Taylor series of a function f(x), that is infinitely differentiable in a neigh-

bourhood of a given value a, is defined by the infinite series of polynomials:
f 0 (a) f 00 (a) f 000 (a)
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a)2 + (x − a)3 + ... (1.1)
1! 2! 3!
which can be written in the most compact form:
∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n (1.2)
n=0
n!

where n! denotes the factorial of n, (n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)...1) and f (n) (a)

denotes the nth derivative of f evaluated at the point a; the zeroth derivative
of f is defined to be f itself. In the particular case where a = 0, the series is
also called a Maclaurin series and is defined as:
x 0 x2 x3
f (x) = f (0) + f (0) + . f 00 (0) + f 000 (0) + ... (1.3)
1! 2! 3!
And in its most compact form we get:
∞
X f (n) (0)
f (x) = xn (1.4)
n=0
n!

2
1.1.3 Examples:
√
1. Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = 1 + x.
In order to compute the coefficients of the power series, we need to use the

formula an = f (n) (0)/n!. Our goal is to compute several derivatives, and

then try to identify a pattern.
Derivatives Evaluated at 0

f (x) = (1 + x)1/2 f(0)=1

f 0 (x) = 12 (1 + x)−1/2 f 0 (0) = 12
f 00 (x) = 12 − 12 (1 + x)−3/2 f 00 (0) = 21 − 12

f (3) (x) = 21 − 12 − 32 (1 + x)−5/2 f (3) (0) = 12 − 12 − 32

f (4) (x) = 12 − 12 − 32 − 52 (1 + x)−7/2 f (4) (0) = 12 − 21 − 32 − 52

Examining the above, we see several patterns emerging. Starting with the

second line, there is a contribution of a minus sign each time the function is
differentiated. This means our signs will be alternating. Each derivative also
contributes a factor of 2 to the denominator, so our terms will have a 2n in the

denominator. In the numerator, we seem to be multiplying consecutive odd

numbers. Thus the numerator will look like 1.3.5....(2n + b). To determine
the unknown b term, notice that f (3) (0) stops at 3. Thus (2(3) + b) = 3

which means b = -3. Combining all of these yields:

f (n) (0) 1.3.5...(2n − 3)

an = = (1)n−1 .
n! 2n n!

Notice that this formula only works for n > 1. The reason for this awkward-
ness is that the exponent of (1 + x) changes from positive to negative and

3
alters the pattern slightly. To account for this, we write the Maclaurin series
√
for f (x) = 1 + x as:
∞
x X n−1 1.3.5...(2n − 3) n
f (x) = 1 + + (1) x
2 n=2 2n n!

1
P∞
2. Verify that 1−x = n=0 xn by computing its coefficients with Maclaurin’s

Theorem.
Let’s start by examining the derivatives of f(x), and evaluating them at 0:
Derivatives Evaluated at 0
1
f (x) = (1+x)
f(0)=1
f 0 (x) = 1
(1+x)2
f 0 (0) = 1
f 00 (x) = 1.2
(1+x)3
f 00 (0) = 1.2

f 000 (x) = 1.2.3

(1+x)4
f 000 (0) = 1.2.3
1.2.3.4
f 4 (x) = (1+x)5
f 4 (0) = 1.2.3.4
It is clear that f (n) (0) = n!, which means that an = f (n) (0) = n! = 1 for all

n. In conclusion we find that

∞
1 X
f (x) = = xn ,
(1 + x) n=0

which of course is the geometric series formula.

1
We seen that the power series (or Maclaurin series) for f (x) = (1−x)
was
valuable for finding the power series representation of ln(1+x). There are a

few more Maclaurin series that are important to memorize. First there is
ex = ∞ n
P
n=0 x /n!, which we found by demonstrating Taylor’s theorem. It

will also be important to store away the power series for sin(x) and cos(x).

4
3.Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = sin(x).
The series for sin(x) (and cos(x)) does not have a single pattern, rather it has
two. This will become apparent as we take derivatives of sin(x). One pattern

will correspond only to the odd coefficients, while the other will correspond
to the even ones. We start again by taking derivatives and evaluating them
at 0:

Derivatives Evaluated at 0
f (x) = sin(x) f(0)=0
f 0 (x) = cos(x) f 0 (0) = 1

f 00 (x) = −sin(x) f 00 (0) = 0

f 000 (x) = −cos(x) f 000 (0) = −1
f 4 (x) = sin(x) f 4 (0) = 0

f 5 (x) = cos(x) f 5 (0) = 1

Here we see that all the even coefficients are 0, leaving only the odd terms
of the power series. The reason for this is straight forward: f(x) = sin(x) is

an odd function. Thus the Maclaurin series for f(x) = sin(x) is:
∞
x3 x5 x7 X (−1)n x2n+1
f (x) = sin(x) = 0 + x + 0 − +0+ +0− +
3! 5! 7! n=0 (2n + 1)!

Having 2n+1 in the exponent indicates that we are only listing the odd
terms of the power series. We can apply the same routine in order to find
the Maclaurin series for cos(x). However, we already know the relationship

between cos(x) and sin(x) as a derivative/antiderivative pair, which makes

our job much easier.

5
 P∞ (−1)n x2n
4. Show that cos(x) = n=0 (2n)!

Here we simply differentiate the power series of sin(x):

∞ ∞ ∞
d d X (−1)n x2n+1 X (−1)n (2n + 1)x2n X (−1)n x2n
cos(x) = sin(x) = = =
dx dx n=0 (2n + 1)! n=0
(2n + 1)(2n)! n=0
(2n)!

Here we see that cos(x) is an even function, and it only has even exponents
in its power series.
5. Find the Maclaurin Series for f (x) = 3sin(x2 ).
(−1)n x2n+1
Since we already know sin(x) = ∞ 2
P
n=0 (2n+1)! , we replace x with x and

multiply the series by 3 to find:

∞ ∞
2
X (−1)n (x2 )2n+1 X 3.x4n+2
f (x) = 3sin(x ) = 3 = (−1)n
n=0
(2n + 1)! n=0
(2n + 1)!
3
6. Find the Maclaurin Series for xe2x .
Again we use the Maclaurin series for ex and replace x with 2x3 . Then we
multiply the resulting series by x.
R
7. Express sinx2 dx as a power series.
Solution. We know that from Example 3 and 5
∞
X (−1)n x2n+1
sinx =
n=0
(2n + 1)!

and
∞
2
X x4n+2
sin(x ) = (−1)n
n=0
(2n + 1)!
Therefore,
∞ ∞
x4n+2 x4n+3
Z Z X X
2 n
sinx dx = (−1) dx = (−1)n +C
n=0
(2n + 1)! n=0
(4n + 3)(2n + 1)!

6
 2 /2
8. Evaluate limx→0 cosx−1+x
x4
.
Solution. We know that
∞
X (−1)n x2n x2 x4 x6
cos(x) = =1− + − + ...,
n=0
(2n)! 2! 4! 6!

so
x2 x4 x6 x2
cosx − 1 + x2 /2 (1 − 2!
+ 4!
− 6!
+ ...) − 1 + 2
4
=
x x4
x4 x6
4!
− 6!
+ ...
=
x4
1 x2
− + ...
4! 6!
1 1
As x → 0, this quantity approaches 4!
= 24
, so this is the limit.
9. Find the first four nonzero terms of the Taylor series centered at x = 2
for the function lnx

Solution: Let f (x) = lnx. Then

f (x) = lnx, f (2) = ln2

f 0 (x) = 1/x, f 0 (2) = 1/2

f 00 (x) = −1/x2 , f 00 (2) = −1/4

f f 000 (x) = 2/x3 , f 000 (2) = 1/4

substituting in (1.1) we have

f 0 (2) f 00 (2) f 000 (2)

f (x) = f (a) + (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3 + ...
1! 2! 3!
1 1 1
= ln2 + (x − 2) − (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3 .
2 8 24

7
Exercises:
1. Find the first four nonzero terms of the Taylor series centered at x = 0
for the function f (x) = tanx.
2
2. Evaluate e−x dx as an infinite series.
R

3. Evaluate
ex − 1 − x
limx→0 .
x2
References

• Mathematical Methods for Physics Engineering by Riley, Hobson Bence.

• Mathematical Methods for Science Engineering Students. Volume 1 by

J. S. Gyakya Jackson.

• Mathematical Methods for Science Students. Second Edition by G

Stephenson, 1977, Longman group Limited, U. K.

INTRODUCTION