BIOCHEM REVIEWER Examples of prokaryotic cell : eubacteria,

archaebacteria, blue green algae

FROM QUIZZES Facilitated Diffusion - type of diffusion that
requires a protein carrier
CELL Osmosis - movement of water from high
water concentration to low water
Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis concentration
- Responsible for the
production of ATP CARBOHYDRATES
Cell membrane - contains lipid, protein,
and carbohydrates Fructose - ketose sugar
Rudolf Virchow - proposed the theory of Epimer/s of D-glucose: D-mannose and
biogenesis where cells only arise from D-galactose
pre-existing cells Branched homopolysaccharides - chitin
Prokaryotes - lack membrane enclosed and glycogen
organelles Sucrose - composed of D-glucose and
Nucleoplasm - surrounds the chromatin D-fructose
and the nucleoli C6H12O6 - molecular formula of
Cytoplasm - can be seen between the D-galactose, D-fructose, D-glucose
plasma membrane and the nucleus where Heparin - anticoagulant
the other cellular elements are embedded Polysaccharides - insoluble in water
Nucleus - contains the DNA that serves as Product of oxidation of
the genetic material for directing protein monosaccharides: aldonic acid, aldaric
synthesis acid, alduronic acid
pH of the fluid inside the lysosomes - 4.3 Polysaccharide that consists of one
or 4.5 / 5 monosaccharide unit: glycogen, amylose,
Anaphase - phase in mitosis where the amylopectin
chromatids separate at the centromere and Heparin - polysaccharides with a repeating
migrate to opposite poles 15-20 disaccharide residue
Cytosol - provides support for organelles B (1-6) - branched polysaccharide and has
and serves as the viscous liquid medium a glycosidic bond on its branch
Endocytosis - transport process that Sugar alcohol - produced by reduction of
requires energy in the form of ATP monosaccharide
Cell membrane - cell’s tough guardian 5 membered ring cyclic form: d-fructose
which regulates translocation of materials and d-ribose
Plasma membrane - cholesterol D-fructose - 3 chiral center
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
Peroxisomes - detoxifies specific harmful
substances either produced by the cell or
taken into the cell
Golgi Apparatus - organelle responsible for
the segregation of products such as protein,
carbohydrates, and lipids
LIPIDS CELL THEORY
● Cell is the basic structural unit of
Glycerophospholipid - contains 2 fatty living organisms
acid and a phosphate group esterified to ● Activity of an organism depends on
glycerol molecule and an alcohol esterified the collective activities of its cells
to the phosphate group ● Activities of cells are dictated by
Stearic acid - saturated fatty acid their structure (anatomy), why
Monounsaturated fat - good fat determines function (physiology)
Glycerol - products of complete hydrolysis
of triacylglycerol EUKARYOTIC VS. PROKARYOTIC
Glycerophospholipid - lipid that has 4
ester linkages Eukaryote
Alcohol attach to phosphate group in ● DNA is found in the nucleus of the
glycophospholipid: serine, choline, cell
ethanolamine ● Contain membrane bound
Triacylglycerols - non polar compounds organelles
Good antioxidant preservatives: Vit C and ● Cell division involves mitosis
Vit E Prokaryote
Cerebroside - contains 7 monosaccharide ● DNA is not enclosed within the
residue (occurs in the brain) membrane
Cholesterol - synthesis of long chain ● Lack membrane-enclosed
omega-6 and omega-3 organelles
Leukotriene - C-20 fatty acid that contains ● Usually divide by binary fission
three conjugated double bonds and
hydroxyl groups MOLECULAR COMPOSITION OF CELL
Biological waxes - contain saturated ● Water account for about 70-75% of
alcohol the weight of the cell
Lipids - insoluble to polar solvent ● Organic compounds accounts for
25-30% of the cell weight
● Nucleic acids, proteins,
CELL LECTURE polysaccharides (carbohydrates)
and lipids
HISTORICAL NOTES ● Inorganic compounds account for
the rest of the cell weight
Robert Hooke - first person to use the term
“cell”. Referred to the small empty NUCLEUS
chambers in the structure of cork as cells ● Structure: enclosed within a double
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor membrane called nuclear envelope:
Schwann - plant and animal tissues were contains nucleolus
composed of cells ○ Nucleolus: consists RNA
Rudolf Virchow - proposed the theory of and proteins which functions
biogenesis in ribosomal unit assembly
○ Nucleoplasm: surrounds the
chromatin and the nucleoli
 ● Function: contains the DNA that ○ Ribosomes: involved in the
serves as the genetic material protein synthesis
CYTOPLASM ○ Functions: modifies,
● Structure: can be seen between the transports, and stores
plasma membrane and the nucleus proteins produced by
● Organelles are membrane-bound attached ribosomes
structures which carry out specific ● Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
metabolic activities of the cell ○ Structure: extensive
● Cytosol - provides support for interconnected membrane
organelles and serves as the network
viscous fluid medium GOLGI APPARATUS
● Function: responsible for various ● Structure: series of several
cellular processes elongated, flattened saclike
MITOCHONDRIA membranous structures
● Structure: Double membrane bound ● Functions: modifies, packages,
organelles containing strand of DNA and sorts materials, that arrive from
○ Outer membrane - highly the endoplasmic reticulum in
permeable to small transport vesicles
molecules, due to the ● Vesicles: transport cellular material
presence of a pore-forming ● Secretory vesicles: mature vesicles
protein called porin PEROXISOMES
○ Intermembrane - contains ● Structure: smaller, spherical
many proteins that membrane bound organelles formed
participate in oxidative from the endoplasmic reticulum
phosphorylation ● Functions: detoxify specific harmful
○ Inner membrane - has substances either produced by the
multiple folds projecting in cell or taken into the cell
wards, called cristae CYTOSKELETON
LYSOSOMES ● Structure: organized network of
● Structure: spherical shaped protein filaments
membrane bound organelles formed ● Functions: maintains integral
from the golgi apparatus: contain structural support and organization
digestive enzymes of cells
○ Fluid inside lysosomes is ○ Microfilaments - maintain
much more acidic, at about cell shape
pH 4.8, than the normal ph ○ Intermediate filaments -
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM give mechanical support to
● Rough endoplasmic reticulum structures like nucleus and
○ Structure: extensive plasma membrane
interconnected membrane ○ Microtubules
network that varies in shape;
ribosomes attached on the
cytoplasmic surfaces
CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT ● Metaphase - chromosomes align at
the center of the cell
Passive transport process ● Anaphase - chromatids separate at
- Diffusion is the movement of a the centromere and migrate to
substance from an area of its higher opposite poles
concentration to an area of its lower ● Telophase - two new nuclei assume
concentration their normal structure, and cell
● Simple diffusion division is completed, producing two
- Type of diffusion of dissolved solutes new daughter cells
through the plasma membrane
● Facilitated diffusion
- Requires protein carrier CARBOHYDRATES
● Osmosis
- Diffusion of water point across a Functions
selective permeable membrane ● Carbohydrate oxidation provides
Active transport process energy
- Type of cell membrane transport ● Carbohydrate storage, in the form of
uses energy (ATP) provided by the glycogen, provides a short-term
cell energy reserve
● Exocytosis ● Supply carbon atoms for the
- Bulk movement of substance synthesis of other biochemical
out of the cell by fusion of substances (proteins, lipids, and
secretory vesicles with the nucleic acids)
plasma membrane ● Form part of the structural
● Endocytosis framework of DNA and RNA
- Bulk movement of substance molecules
into the cells by vesicles ● Linked to lipids are structural
forming at the plasma components of cell membranes
membrane ● Linked to proteins function in a
CELL LIFE CYCLE variety of cell and cell-molecule
recognition processes
INTERPHASE
- Longer phase of the cell cycle Carbohydrate - is a polyhydroxy aldehyde
- DNA molecule is duplicated (DNA
replication) occurs toward the end of CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
the interphase Monosaccharide
CELL DIVISION ● Contain single polyhydroxy aldehyde
- Cells arise from the division of other or ketone unit
cells ● Can’t be broken down into simpler
MITOSIS substances by hydrolysis (reaction
● Prophase - each chromosomes with water) reactions
consists of two chromatids joined at ● Contains 3-7 C atoms
the centromere ● 5 and 6 carbon species are more
common
 ● Water soluble white crystalline solids Stereoisomers
● Example: Glucose and fructose - Isomers that have the same
molecular and structural formulas
but differ in the orientation of atoms
● Enantiomers - whose molecules are
nonsuperimposable. Molecules with
chiral center
● Diastereomers - whose molecules
are not mirror images of each other

Fischer projection formulas

● Method for giving molecular chirality
specifications in two dimensions
Oligosaccharides ● D and L system used to designate
● Contains 2-10 monosaccharide the handedness of glyceraldehyde
units, covalently bonded to each enantiomers
other
● Disaccharide: contain 2
monosaccharide unit
● Table sugar (sucrose) and milk
sugar (lactose) common
disaccharide
● Upon hydrolysis they produce
monosaccharide
Polysaccharide
● Contains many monosaccharide CLASSIFICATION OF
units covalently bonded MONOSACCHARIDES
● Polymers: may contain 100s of ● Aldohexose - six carbon
1000s of monosaccharide units monosaccharide with an aldehyde
● Cellulose: paper, cotton, wood functional group
● Starch: Bread, pasta, potatoes, rice, ● Ketopentose - five carbon
corn, beans, peas monosaccharide with a ketone
functional group
Superimposable mirror images
- Images that coincide at all points D-glucose
Nonsuperimposable mirror images - Most abundant in nature
- Images where not all points coincide - Most important from a human
nutritional standpoint
Chirality D-fructose
● Chiral center: C atom attached to 4 - Most important ketohexose
different groups - Also known as levulose and fruit
● Chiral molecule: molecule whose sugar
mirror images are not
superimposable
D-Galactose (aldohexose) Glycoside
● Milk sugar ● General name for monosaccharide
● Synthesize in human acetals
● Used to differentiate between blood ● Acetal formed from a cyclic
types monosaccharide by replacement of
● Six membered cyclic form the hemiacetal carbon OH group
D-ribose (aldopentose) with an OR group
● Part of RNA BLOOD TYPES AND
● Part of ATP MONOSACCHARIDES
● Part of DNA ● Involves monosaccharides present
● Five membered cyclic form on plasma membranes of red blood
cells
2 forms of D-glucose: ● D-galactose: monosaccharides
● Alpha form: OH of C1 and CH2OH responsible for blood groups
of C5 are on opposite sides (can be
hydrolyzed) PHOSPHATE ESTER FORMATION
● Beta form: OH of C1 and CH2OH of ● Phosphate Ester Formation:
C5 are on same sides (cannot be hydroxyl groups of a
hydrolyzed) monosaccharide can react with
● Pyranose: 6 carbon inorganic oxyacids to form inorganic
● Furanose: 5 carbon esters
● Phosphates esters of various
HAWORTH PROJECTION FORMULAS monosaccharides are stable in
- Two dimensional structural notation aqueous solution and play important
that specifies the three dimensional roles in the metabolism of
structure of a cyclic form of carbohydrates
monosaccharide
REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDES AMINO SUGAR FORMATION
● Oxidation to acidic sugars ● Amino sugar formation: amino
● Reduction to sugar alcohols sugar is one of the hydroxyl groups
● Glycoside formation of a monosaccharide is replaced
● Phosphate ester formation with an amino group
● Amino sugar formation ● Important building blocks of
OXIDATION polysaccharides
● Acidic sugars: redox chemistry of
monosaccharides is closely linked to DISACCHARIDES
the alcohol and aldehyde functional ● Two monosaccharides
groups present in them ● Glycosidic linkage: bond that links
SUGAR ALCOHOLS the two monosaccharides of a
● Reduction to sugar alcohols: disaccharide (glycoside)
Carbonyl group in a monosaccharide
is reduced to a hydroxyl group using
hydrogen as the reducing agent
CELLOBIOSE ● Heteropolysaccharide - more than
● Produced as an intermediate in the one (usually two) type of
hydrolysis of the polysaccharide monosaccharide monomer is
cellulose present
● Contains two D-glucose STARCH
monosaccharide units linked through ● Homopolysaccharide containing only
a b (1-4 glycosidic linkage) glucose monosaccharide units
● Cannot be digested by humans ● Energy storage polysaccharide in
plants
● Amylose: linear
● Amylopectin: branch
GLYCOGEN
● Is a polysaccharide containing only
glucose units
● Liver cells and muscle cells are the
storage sites for glycogen in humans
MALTOSE ● Glycogen is an ideal storage form for
● Also known as malt sugar, is glucose
produced whenever the CELLULOSE
polysaccharide starch breaks down ● Linear homopolysaccharide with
● Happens in plants when seeds glycosidic bond
germinate and in human being ● Humans don’t have enzymes that
during starch digestion hydrolyze
● Made up of two D-glucose units, one ● Serves as dietary fiber in food
of which must be a D-glucose CHITIN
LACTOSE ● Linear polymer with glycosidic
● Made up of D-galactose unit and a linkages. Has N-acetyl amino
D-glucose unit derivative of glucose
● Major sugar found in milk ● Gives rigidity to the exoskeletons of
● Lactose intolerance: condition in crabs, lobsters, shrimp, insects, and
which people lack the enzyme other arthropods
lactase needed to hydrolyze lactose ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES
● Lactase hydrolyzes b (1-4) ● Polysaccharides with a repeating
glycosidic linkages disaccharide
THE POLYMER CHAIN ● Present in connective tissue
● Polysaccharide is a polymer that ● Example: Hyaluronic acid and
contains many monosaccharide Heparin
units HYALURONIC ACID
● Homopolysaccharide - one type of ● Alternating residues of N-acetyl
monosaccharide monomer is bD-glucosamine and D-glucuronic
present acid
● Highly viscous and serves as
lubricants in the fluid joints and part
of humor of the eye
HEPARIN SATURATED AND UNSATURATED FATTY
● An anticoagulant-prevents blood ACIDS
clots ● Fatty acids are naturally occurring
GLYCOLIPIDS AND GLYCOPROTEINS monocarboxylic acids
● Glycolipid: is a lipid molecule that ● Even # of Carbon atoms:
has one or more carbohydrate units ● Long chain fatty acids: C12-C26
covalently bonded to it ● Medium chain fatty acids: C6-C11
● Glycoprotein: protein molecule that ● Short chain fatty acids: C4-C5
has one or more carbohydrate units
covalently bonded to it ● Two types:
● Saturated all C-C bonds are single
bonds
LIPIDS ● Unsaturated
● Organic compound found in living ● Monounsaturated: one C=C bond
organisms ● Polyunsaturated: 2 or more C=C
● Insoluble or sparingly soluble in bonds present - up to six double
water bonds are present in fatty acids
● soluble in non-polar organic solvents
● Do not have a common structural SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
features ● Numbering starts from the end of
● Classification: classified on the -COOH group
basis of solubility not on any ● See structural notation: it indicates
functional groups number of C atoms
FIVE CATEGORIES OF LIPIDS ● Example: Lauric acid has 12 C
atoms and no double bonds so it is
● Energy storage lipids - (12:0)
triacylglycerols UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
● Membrane lipids - phospholipids, ● A monounsaturated fatty acid is a
sphingoglycolipids, and cholesterol fatty acid with a carbon chain in
● Emulsification lipids - bile acids which one carbon-carbon double
● Chemical messenger lipids - bond is present
steroid hormones and eicosanoids ● Different ways of depicting the
● Protective coating lipids - structure
biological waxes
STRUCTURAL FORMULAS
● Lipids exhibit structural diversity
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS ● Ideal ratio: Omega 6 : Omega 3
(PUFAs) (4-10g: 1g)
● A polyunsaturated fatty acid is a fatty WATER SOLUBILITY
acid with a carbon chain in which ● Soluble: short chain fatty acids
two or more carbon-carbon double ● Insoluble: long chain fatty acids
bonds are present MELTING POINT
● Up to six double bonds are found in
biochemically important PUFAs
● Two types of unsaturated fatty
acids:
● Omega 3 fatty acids - unsaturated
fatty acids with its endmost double
bond three carbon atoms away from
its methyl end
● Omega 6 fatty acids - unsaturated
fatty acid with its endmost double
bond six carbon atoms away from its
methyl end

SELECTED UNSATURATED FATTY

ACIDS OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE SPACE-FILLING MOLECULES
● Numbering starts from the other end ● Number of bends in a fatty acid
of COOH chain increase as the number of
● Structural notation: indicates number double bonds increase
of C atoms ● Less packing occurs
● Example: 18:2 - 18 carbons, 2 ● Melting point is lower
double bonds ● Tend to be liquids at room
OMEGA ACIDS temperature
● Nutritionally important Omega-3 and
Omega-6 fatty acids
● Linolenic acid - Omega 3
● Linoleic acid - Omega 6
LINOLEIC ACID DEFICIENCY
● Skin redness
● Infections and dehydration
● Liver abnormalities
● Children need it the most
● Human milk has more than cow’s
milk
AMERICAN DIET
● Sufficient in omega 6 fatty acids
● Deficient in omega 3 fatty acids
● Fish - good source for omega 3 fatty
acids
 ● Polyunsaturated fats: can be good
ENERGY-STORAGE MATERIALS or bad fats
● Notable exception of nerve cells, ● Important good fats: Omega 3 and
human cells store small amounts of 6
energy providing materials
● Carbohydrate glycogen: most ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
widespread energy storage material ● Two most important essential fatty
● Storage material is the acids:
triacylglycerols: ● Linoleic acid (18:2) - omega 6
● Triacylglycerols: concentrated ● Linolenic acid (18:3) - omega 3
primarily in special cells (adipocytes)
● Nearly filled with the material PARTIAL HYDROLYSIS
● Chemical properties due to two
SIMPLE TRIACYLGLYCEROLS functional groups: esters and
- Three identical fatty acids are alkenes
esterified ● Hydrolysis: Partial hydrolysis of
- Naturally occurring simple triacylglycerols
triacylglycerols are rare ● Breaking of 1-2 ester bonds to give
MIXED TRIACYLGLYCEROLS rise to mono or diacylglycerol and
- Triester formed from the fatty acids
esterification of glycerol ● Carried out by enzymes produced by
- Mostly mixed triacylglycerols are the pancreas
found and different SAPONIFICATION
DIFFERENCE OF FATS AND OILS ● Hydrolysis in basic solution:
● Physical state produce salt of fatty acid and
● Fats glycerol
○ Predominantly saturated ● RCOOR + NaOH -> RCOONa
○ Solids or semi solids at room (soap) + R’OH
temperature
● Oils
○ Predominantly unsaturated
○ Liquids at room temperature
● Source
○ Fats: Animal source and
tasteless
○ Oils: Plants and fish oil HYDROGENATION
○ Pure oils and fats are ● Addition of hydrogen across double
colorless, odorless (=) bond - increases degree of
GOOD VS BAD FATS saturation
● Saturated fats: bad fats OXIDATION
● Monounsaturated fats: good fats ● Double bonds in triacylglycerols are
● Trans-monounsaturated fats: bad subject to oxidation with oxygen in
fats air (an oxidizing agent) - leads to
C=C breakage
GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS GANGLIOSIDES
● Lipid that contains two fatty acids ● Complex sphingoglycolipids
and a phosphate group esterified to ● Contains up to seven branched
a glycerol molecule and an alcohol chain of monosaccharide residues
esterified to a glycerol molecule and ● Occur in the gray matter of the brain
an alcohol esterified to the as well as in the myelin sheath
phosphate group CHOLESTEROL THIRD MAJOR TYPE OF
● Attachment bonds: ester linkages MEMBRANE LIPID
● Have four ester linkages as ● Lipids: fused rings
contrasted to three ester linkages in ● Cholesterol: C27 steroid molecule
triacylglycerols ● Steroid: lipid whose structure is
● Functions as components of cell based on a fused ring system of
membranes three 6 carbon rings and one 5
● Triacylglycerols: non polar carbon ring
● Glycerophospholipids: polar CHOLESTEROL IN FOOD
SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS ● Animal food: lot of cholesterol
● Structures based on the 18-carbon ● Plant food: no cholesterol
monounsaturated aminoadialcohol CHOLESTEROL
sphingosine ● Helps regulate membrane fluidity
● Contains one fatty acid and one ● Fits between fatty acid chains of the
phosphate group attached to a lipid bilayer: Make it rigid
sphingosine molecule and an ● Cholesterol thus acts a membrane
alcohol attached to the phosphate plasticizer
group PROTEINS
● Sphingomyelins: ● Responsible for moving substances
sphingophospholipids in which the such as nutrients and electrolytes
alcohol esterified to the phosphate across the membrane
group is choline ● Receptors for hormones and
● Sphingoglycolipids: contains both neurotransmitters
a fatty acid and carbohydrate EMULSIFIER
● Cerebrosides: simple ● Substance that can disperse and
sphingoglycolipids contains a single stabilize water-insoluble substances
monosaccharide unit as colloidal particles in an aqueous
● Occur primarily in brain (7% of dry solution
mass) BILE ACIDS
● Tri or dihydroxy cholesterol
derivatives
HORMONES
● Biochemical substance produced by
a ductless gland that has messenger
function
● Some hormones are lipids
 ● Steroid hormones: derivatives of - Inhibiting the secretion of
cholesterol gastric juices
● Eicosanoids: derivatives of - Increasing the secretion of a
arachidonic acid protective mucus layer into
● Sex hormones - control the stomach
reproduction and secondary sex - Relaxing and contracting
characteristics smooth muscle, directing
● Adrenocorticoid hormones - water and electrolyte
control numerous biochemical balance, intensifying pain,
processes in the body and enhancing inflammation
SEX HORMONES responses
● Estrogens - female sex hormones 2. Thromboxanes: C20 fatty acid
● Androgens - male sex hormones derivative containing cyclic ether ring
● Progestins - pregnancy hormones and oxygen-containing functional
ADRENOCORTICOID HORMONES groups
● Produced by the adrenal glands - Promote platelet aggregation
● 28 different hormones have been 3. Leukotrienes: C20 fatty acid
isolated from the adrenal cortex derivative containing three
● Mineralocorticoids - control the conjugated double bonds and
balance of Na and K ions in cells hydroxy groups
● Glucocorticoids - control glucose - Promote inflammatory and
metabolism and counteract hypersensitivity (allergy)
inflammation responses
BIOLOGICAL WAXES
● Monoester of a long chain fatty acid
and a long chain alcohol
FATTY ACIDS FOUND IN BIOLOGICAL
WAXES
● Saturated fatty acids
● Contain 14 to 36 carbon atoms
ALCOHOLS FOUND IN BIOLOGICAL
WAXES
● Saturated or unsaturated
● May contain 16 to 30 carbon atoms

THREE PRINCIPLE TYPES

1. Prostaglandins: C20- fatty acid
derivative containing cyclopentane
ring and oxygen containing
functional groups
- Involved in raising body
temperature