UNIT-2

SOURCES, CLASSIFICATION AND EFFECTS

IMPORTANT QUESTION’S AND ANSWER’S
PART-A
1) What are the sources of air pollution?
Natural Sources: wind-blown dust, forest fires, and volcanic actions
Mane-Made Sources: combustion products of fuels, coals, gases and exhaust
gases form vehicle
2) Mention the classification of air pollutants.
i. Classification based on the origin:
a. Primary Air Pollutants
b. Secondary Air Pollutants
ii. Classification based on the chemical composition:
a. Organic Compounds
b. In-Organic Compounds
iii. Classification based on the state of matter:
a. Particulate Pollutants
b. Gaseous Pollutants
3) Define primary pollutants. Give examples.
Pollutants directly emitted from the identifiable sources are called primary air
pollutants.
Examples: SO2, CO, CO2, NO, NO2.
4) What are secondary air pollutants? Give examples.
Primary pollutants react with one another or with water vapour in the presence
of sunlight forms, a new form of pollutant called secondary pollutants.
Examples: Acid (H2SO4). Ozone (O3) etc.
5) What are the major effects of air pollutants on human health?
i. Effects on Visibility
ii. Breathing Troubles
iii. Increases Blood Pressure
iv. Heart and Lung Diseases etc.
 6) Brief the effect of Carbon Monoxide on human beings.
Carbon Monoxide has a greater blood-affinity property ad which has been
affected by blood hemoglobin 200 times more than O2. This CO replaces the
O2 present in the hemoglobin and forms Carboxy-hemoglobin (CO.Hb)
7) List two effects of air pollutants on materials.
• Corrosion,
• Chemical attack,
• Abrasion,
• Deposition and removal.
8) List out the meteorological factors of air pollution.
1. Primary parameters:
a. Wind Speed and Direction
b. Temperature
c. Atmospheric Stability
d. Mixing Height.
2. Secondary Parameters:
a. Rainfall and Precipitation
b. Humidity
c. Solar Radiation
d. Visibility.

9) What is macro scale in air pollution?

Macro air pollution effects refer to those consequences of air pollution exhibited
on a large geographical scale, with the scale ranging from regional to global.
10) What is Meso scale in air pollution?
Meso-scale air pollution problems are those of a few hectares up to the size of a
city or county (local-to-regional)
11) What is micro scale in air pollution?
Micro-scale problems range from those covering less than a centimeter to those
the size of a house or slightly larger (few meters to 100s of meter).
 PART-B

1) Sources of air pollutant?

Causes of Air Pollution:
Air pollution is majorly caused by the presence of toxic substances in the
atmosphere and it is largely produced by human activities. Air pollution can
also be caused sometimes by natural phenomena like dust storms, wildfires, and
volcanic eruptions deteriorating air quality.
Sources of Air Pollution:
There are various sources of air pollution. They are as follows.
Fossil Fuel Combustion:
Fossil fuels like coal and oil are combusted for electricity and transportation on
road produces air pollutants such as nitrogen and sulphur- di-oxide.
Emission from Industries and Factories:
The factories and industries release massive amounts of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, chemicals plus other organic compounds in the air that results in
the contamination of the air.
Agricultural Activities:
The fertilisers, insecticides, and pesticides are utilized for agricultural activities
that can emit harmful chemicals in the environment.
Waste Production:
It is usually caused by methane generation in landfills.

Types of Air Pollution:

The types of air pollution can be mainly divided into natural sources and
artificial sources.
Natural Sources:
The natural sources of air pollution are chemicals like sulphur, ash, and chlorine
which is released from volcanic eruptions, fires in the forest, methane
combustion caused by animal digestion such as cattle.
Human-made Sources:
The main reason behind artificial sources contributing to air pollution is due to
the combustion of some specific fuels. The majority of industrial sources burn
fuel using heating devices and the waste gets into the air. The major human-
made sources of air pollution are free sources such as automobiles, planes, and
water transportation.
Consequences of Air Pollution
Effects on the environment:
Air pollution has a big impact on plant evolution as it prevents photosynthesis
in various cases. It also has an impact on air purification and can lead to acid
rain, snow, fog, and frost which are mainly caused by the combustion of fossil
fuels.
Global warming:
Global warming is mainly caused by climate change. The presence of
greenhouse gases provides benefits to the planet however the concentration of
these gases in excess amounts results in climate change and global warming.
Impact on human health:
Air pollutants cause severe health risks even when they are present in small
quantities. The main causes of the air pollutants are mercury, lead, benzene, and
dioxins.

2) classification of air pollutant?

i. Classification based on the origin:
a. Primary Air Pollutants
b. Secondary Air Pollutants
ii. Classification based on the chemical composition:
a. Organic Compounds
b. In-Organic Compounds
iii. Classification based on the state of matter:
a. Particulate Pollutants
b. Gaseous Pollutants
Primary Pollutants:
The primary pollutants responsible for air pollution are the ones that directly
cause air pollution. These include harmful gases such as sulphur dioxide coming
from the factories. Primary pollutants are those that are produced as a direct
result of the process. Sulphur dioxide, generated by factories, is a classic
example of a primary pollutant.
➢ Fine (less than 100µ)
➢ coarse (more than 100µ) suspended particulatematter
➢ Oxides of nitrogen
➢ Carbon monoxide
➢ Halogens
➢ Organic compounds
➢ Radio active compounds
Secondary Pollutants:
The secondary pollutants are formed by the process of intermixing or
intermingling of primary pollutants. Smog, which is a combination of fog and
smoke, is a secondary pollutant.
➢ Ozone
➢ PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate)
➢ Photo chemical smog
➢ Acid mists
Aerosols or Particulate pollutant:
Aerosols refer to the dispersion of solid or liquid particles of microscopic size in
the air. It can also be defined as a colloidal system in which the dispersion
medium is gas and the dispersed phase is solid or liquid. The term aerosol is
applicable until it is in suspension and after settlement due to its own weight or
by addition with other particles (agglomeration) it is no longer an air pollutant.
The diameter of the aerosol may range from 0.01 (or less) micron to 100
micron.
The various aerosols( particulate pollutant) are as follows
Dust: Dust is produced by the crushing, grinding and natural sources like
windstorms. generally, the dust particles are over 20 microns in diameter. They
do not flocculate but settle under gravity, but smaller particles like 5 micron
form stable suspensions.
Smoke: Smoke is made up of finely divided particles produced by in complete
combustion. Generally, it consists of carbon particles of size less than
1.0micron.
Mists: Mist is a light dispersion of minute water droplets suspended in the
atmosphere ranging from 40 to 400-micron in size.
Fog: Fog is made up of dispersion of water or ice near the earth’s surface
reducing visibility to less than 500 m. In natural fog the size of particles ranges
from 1.0 to 40micron.
Fumes: Fumes are solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous
state after volatilization from melted substances. Fumes flocculate and
sometimes coalesce
Gaseous Pollutants:
Following are the main air pollutant gases
Sulphur dioxide: It is a major air pollutant gas produced by the combustion of
fuels like coal. The main source of electricity production is by burning of fossil
fuels in India and the whole world. The sulphur content of the coal varies from
1 to 4% and fortunately the Indian coal is low in sulphur content. SO2 is also
produced in the metallurgical operations.
Oxides of nitrogen: Oxides of nitrogen are produced either in the production of
nitric acid or in the automobile exhausts and as the effluent of power plants. Out
of the seven oxides of Nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5)
only nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are classified as the main pollutants. All
the oxides of nitrogen are collectively known as NOX.
Carbon monoxide: It is produced because of the incomplete combustion of coal
and other petroleum products. It is produced in the exhaust of automobiles. In
the pollution check of vehicles mainly CO and unburnt hydrocarbons are
measured.
Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen Sulphide is an obnoxious (bad smelling) gas. It
is produced mainly by the anaerobic (in absence of air) decomposition of
organic matter. Other air polluting sulphur compounds are methyl mercaptan
(CH3SH) and dimethyl sulphide (CH3-S CH3) etc.
Hydrogen fluoride: It is an important pollutant even in very low concentrations.
It is produced in the manufacturing of phosphate fertilizers.
Chlorine and hydrogen chloride: It is mixed in the air either from the leakages
from water treatment plants or other industries where it is produced or used.
Hydrogen chloride is also evolved in various industrial chemical processes. The
main effect of chlorine is respiratory irritation which may be fatal.
Ozone: It is a desirable gas in the upper layers of atmosphere as it absorbs the
UV radiation of sunlight. But near the earth surface it is a poisonous gas. It
makes poisonous chemicals by photo chemical reactions.
Aldehydes: They are produced by the incomplete oxidation of motor fuels and
lubricating oil. They may also be formed because of photochemical reactions.
Formaldehydes are irritating to the eyes

3) Pollution due to automobiles?

Introduction:
This chapter discusses the contribution of automotive emissions in aggravating
the air pollution menace. Various causes of the genesis and exodus of these
pollutants have been identified and methods to control them have been outlined.
Certain modifications in the engine design and operating variables are
suggested. The possibilities of some alternatives as suitable substitutes for
modern automobiles are also explored and future strategy in the Indian context
has been proposed.
Types of automobile pollution:
The automobile pollution can be classified into three types according to the
emission they are as follows:
Emissions from gasoline powered vehicles are generally classified as:
a. Exhaust emissions,
b. Crank-case emissions
c. Evaporative emissions.
Exhaust emissions:
The important exhaust emissions from a gasoline engine are carbon monoxide,
unburnt hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and particulates containing lead
compounds. These emissions vary with the air-fuel ratio, spark timings and the
engine operating conditions.
To meet the exhaust emission standards for carbon monoxide and hydro-
carbons, automobile manufacturers have used two basic methods.
➢ The first is to inject air into the exhaust manifold near the exhaust valves,
where exhaust gas temperature is highest, thus inducing further oxidation
of unoxidized or partially oxidised substances.
➢ The second basic method is to design cylinders and adjust the fuel-air
ratio, spark timing, and other variables to reduce the amounts of
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide in the exhaust to the point where air
injection is not required.
Devices and methods to control hydrocarbon emissions fall into three classes
I. devices that modify engine operating conditions such as
intake manifold vacuum breakers, carburation mixture
improvers, throttle retarders, etc.,
II. devices that 'treat' exhaust gases such as after burners,
catalytic converters, absorbers and adsorbers and filters,
III. use of modified or alternate fuels.
Crank Emission:
Crank-case emissions consist of engine blowby which leaks past the piston
mainly during the compression stroke, and of oil vapours generated into the
crank-case. The quality of blowby depends on engine design and operating
conditions. Worn out piston rings and cylinder liner may greatly increase
blowby. These gases mainly contain hydrocarbons and account nearly for 25%
of the total hydrocarbon emissions from a passenger car.
Emissions of hydrocarbons from the crank-case of automobiles can be largely
eliminated by the positive crank-case ventilation (PCV) system. These systems
recycle crank-case ventilation air and blowby gases to the engine intake instead
of venting them to the atmosphere.
Evaporative Emissions:
Through a short-term experimental determination at the Indian Institute of
Petroleum, it has been estimated that an average Indian passenger car would
emit about 20 kg of hydrocarbons through evaporation, annually. For
controlling evaporation of fuel from the carburettor and fuel system. Systems
are being developed that store fuel vapours in the crank-case or in a charcoal
canister that absorbs hydrocarbons for recycling to the engine. Evaporative
emissions might also be dealt with by changing the properties of gasoline such
as reducing the volatility of fuel and replacing the C. and Cs olefinic
hydrocarbons in the fuel with the less reactive C, and Cs paraffinic hydro-
carbons. Mechanical methods can also be used to control evaporative emissions.
The exhaust gasses. pollutants comprise of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides and lead compounds. Evaporative emissions essentially
constitute the fuel evaporation from the fuel tank and carburettor and consist of
hydrocarbons alone. The chief constituents of crank-case emissions are also
hydrocarbons. Thus, exhaust emissions contribute 100% to CO, (NO), and lead
compounds. Regarding hydrocarbons, the typical break up is exhaust 55%,
evaporative emissions 20% and crank-case emission 25%. The exhaust and
crank-case emissions also depend upon engine load conditions.
Control of Exhaust Emissions:
Two main approaches to minimize exhaust emissions are:
➢ Modifications in the engine design and operating variables
➢ Treatment of exhaust gases after emission from the engine.
The following modifications may help in cleaner exhaust.
1. Use of leaner idle mixtures
2. Use of leanest possible mixture and maximum spark retard compatible
with good power output and drivability.
3. Use of minimum valve-over-lap necessary.
4. Pre-treatment of the mixture to improve vaporisation and mixing of fuel
with air. Among the methods employed for the purpose are:
a. Use of narrower venturis to produce higher air speeds and better
fuel atomisation,
b. Provision of exhaust-heated hot spots to vaporise the heavier liquid
droplets in the air stream.
c. Use of exhaust heat to pre-heat the mixture at part-loads.
d. Use of automatic transmission
e. Special devices for reducing or cutting off fuel supply during
deceleration.
5. Low quench combustion chambers.
6. Piston and ring variable.

4) Briefly explain the Analysis of air pollution?

Introduction:
Since the aim of analysis in the special field of air pollution is to obtain
information which can give an overall picture of the whole problem, it is
evident that certain requirements should be satisfied as regards concordance
between sampling and analytical techniques. These requirements are as follows:
➢ The efficiency of the sampling device used should be known as
accurately as possible
➢ The sampling device chosen should cause the minimum of change in
the composition of the various substances to be detected
➢ The sampling method should supply the analyst with a quantity of
 pollutants within the quantitative limits called for by the sensitivity
of the analytical technique to be used
➢ The methods employed for determination should be as sensitive as
Possible.
Types of Analysis:
The various analytical methods require, in addition to a specialized and skilled
technical staff, a special high precision equipment.
The methods used for analysis of atmospheric samples can be divided into three
basic groups.
▪ Chemical methods
▪ Instrumental methods
▪ Biological methods
Chemical methods:
1. Gravimetric method
2. Volumetric method
a. Acidimetric and alkalimetric method
b. Oxidation and reduction method
c. Precipitation method
3. Colourimetric method
4. Turbidimetric and nephelometric method
5. Chromatographic method
Gravimetric Method
In this method the weight of the substance (pollutant) is determined directly
(where possible) or indirectly in the form of one of its compounds. From the
weight of the compound, the quantity of the substance concerned can be
calculated.
I. The gravimetric method is a very simple analytical technique and can
be used for
II. Determination of a gas-sensitivity: approx. 1 mg. For this very large
samples are usually required.
III. Determination of dusts and soot collected in sedimentation jars
following long sampling periods (1 month)-sensitivity: approx. 1 mg.
IV. Determination of particulate matter dispersed in the air, sampled by
collection on filter paper by means of the impinger or electrostatic
precipitators. Here also, large samples are necessary.
Volumetric Method
In volumetric analysis, the components are not weighed but determined by
means of reagents of known concentrations.
Acidimetric and Alkalimetric Method
This is for the determination of acids and bases, using solutions of a base or an
acid respectively, in the presence of indicators which undergo a colour change
according to the acidity or alkalinity of the medium. The method is very
sensitive (0.01 ppm sensitivity)
Oxidation and Reduction Method
These are based on the oxidation or reduction of the compound to be analysed
by means of a standardised substance, the quantity of oxygen given up or
consumed being measured according to the colour change developed in the
reaction, in the presence or absence of an indicator.
Precipitation Method
This is especially suitable for halogens. Here silver nitrate solution of known
strength, which precipitates the halogen in the form of silver halides is used.
This method is not very sensitive.
Instrumental Methods:
1. Emission spectrometric method
2. Absorption spectrometric method (spectrophotometry)
3. X-ray diffraction method
4. Mass spectrometric method
5. Polarographic method (polarography)
6. Methods using microscopy
7. Refractometric method
8. Thermal conductivity method
9. Radioactivity method
10. Sound absorption method
11. Automatic (recording) apparatus (for sampling and analysis)
12. Atomic absorption spectroscopy
Emission Spectrometric Method:
Principle
Any element, when in an excited state, has its own special emission spectrum.
Spectrometric analysis (quantitative) involves the spectroscopic characterisation
(qualitative) of the elements, based on identification of the characteristic lines in
their emission spectrum.
Objective:
Such identification can be made by means of a comparator microscope for the
measurement of the distance between the lines themselves, while quantitative
determination is based on the consideration that the energy emitted for a given
spectral line of an element is proportional to the number of excited atoms and
consequently to the concentration of the element in the sample.
Emission spectrometry can be applied to the analysis of more than 70 of the
known elements. The alkaline and alkaline-earth elements can be detected with
as high an accuracy as 0.1 ppm. Today, it is widely used to determine the
composition of mixtures or compounds and is indispensable in the exploratory
examination of particulate matter.
Apparatus required
1. Source of radiation
2. A means of splitting up the radiation, which may be either a prism or a
grating
3. A receptor, which can be either a photographic plate or a series of photo
tubes
Application
In research work, especially for identification of the elements present in
particulate matter. This method is particularly suited for Beryllium, Sodium,
Potassium, Calcium, Lead, Cadmium and Antimony.
Sound Absorption
It is used for measuring particle size.
Principle
It is based on the fact that particles subjected to the influence of a sound field of
a particular frequency are affected by those vibrations whose amplitude is
related to their size.
Apparatus
1. Sound generator (which can be adjusted for the desired frequency)
2. An observation cell (towards which the sound is directed and into which the
sample is introduced)
3. Photographic recording
Objectives
The photographs obtained show the paths corresponding to the vibratory
movements of the particles, and by measuring them the particle sizes can be
determined. However, very dilute samples are necessary, since only a few
particles should be present in the cell, if clear and interpretable photographs are
to be obtained.
It is seen that the same substance can be determined by a variety of methods.
Some procedures are suitable for routine work but not practicable for research
work and vice versa. Only those procedures should be selected which give the
best accuracy, highest sensitivity, highest selectivity, and the best precision. Of
course, rapidity of analysis is also an important factor.
It is difficult to find a combination of all these properties in their highest degree
in one and the same method. However, it is probable that by combining a wide
range of techniques optimum results can be obtained.
Biological Methods
By studying effects on plants and animals It is often possible to identify a
pollutant and a source of pollution by analysis of vegetation and of the body
fluids of animals bred in the infected area. In certain cases, the tissues and
organs of dead animals are very useful for the identification of toxic substances.
The visible nature of the harm caused to plants and animals depends on the
chemical nature of the pollutant, time of exposure, and climatic conditions.
This method can be used for studying the effect of both gases and particulate
matter. Many tests are extremely sensitive and specific. Beryllium. Can be
detected in amounts as low as 0.0003 μg and lead as small as 0.01 µg.
Sensory tests
Some substances can be detected because of their organoleptic properties;
odour, lacrimation, and irritant effects on the respiration can be important
factors, making it possible to assess the extent of pollution. But sensitivity of
such methods is very limited.
5) Explain air pollution and its effect on human health?
Introduction:
Air pollution is one of the greatest environmental evils. The air we breathe has
not only life-supporting properties but also life-damaging properties. Under
ideal conditions the air we inhale has a qualitative and quantitative balance that
maintains the well-being of man. But when the balance among the air
components is disturbed, or in other words, if it is polluted, it may
affect human health.
Primary factor:
Therefore, the prime factors affecting human health are:
▪ Nature of the pollutants
▪ Concentration of the pollutants
▪ Duration of exposure
▪ State of health of the receptor
▪ Age group of the receptor
Mechanism of action of air pollutant:
The effects of air pollution on human health generally occur as a result of
contact between the pollutants and the body. Normally, bodily contact occurs at
the surfaces of the skin and exposed membranes. Contact with exposed
membranous surfaces is of utmost importance because of their high absorptive
capacity compared to that of the skin. Air-borne gases, vapours, fumes, mist,
and dust may cause irritation of the membranes of the eyes, nose, throat, larynx,
trachea-bronchial tree and lungs.
Some irritants even reach the mucosa of the digestive tract. The details of the
mechanism involved is beyond the scope of this book, as greater attention has
been given to the engineering aspects.
Health Effects by air pollution:
1. Eye Irritation.
2. Nose and throat irritation.
3. Irritation of the respiratory tract.
4. Gases like hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and mercaptans cause odour
nuisance even at low concentrations.
5. Increase in mortality rate and morbidity rate.
6. A variety of particulates particularly pollens, initiate asthmatic attacks.
7. Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma, are aggravated by a
high concentration of SO2, NO2, particulate matter and photochemical smog.
8. Carbon monoxide combines with the haemoglobin in the blood and
consequently increases stress on those suffering from cardiovascular and
pulmonary diseases.
9. Hydrogen fluoride causes diseases of the bone (Guorosis), and mottling of
teeth.
10. Carcinogenic agents cause cancer.
11. Dust particles cause respiratory diseases. Diseases like silicosis, asbestosis,
etc., result from specific dusts.
12. Certain heavy metals like lead may enter the body through the lungs and
cause poisoning.
Investigation of Health Effects of Air Pollutants
Three methods are available for determining the effect of various pollutants
on people. They are:
1. Experimental exposures of men and animals
2. Clinical studies
3. Epidemiology
 I. The experimental exposure of different types of animals under
controlled conditions to various concentrations and dosages of air
pollutants, can give valuable information regarding the mode of action of
a pollutant and its effects. Of course, results must be subjected to rigorous
statistical analysis. But the main problem here is, the extrapolation of
results to human population.
II. Experimental exposures of men should be limited to concentrations and
dosages of pollutants that will not result in serious illness. Types of
effects noticed and measured include detection of odour, irritation of
eyes, nose and throat, change in pulse rate, breathing frequency, reduction
in physical activity and many other physiological responses.
III. Clinical studies mainly involve observations made on subjects who are or
were exposed to atmospheric pollutants under uncontrolled conditions.
Studies of truck drivers, traffic policemen, factory workers and other
occupational groups may give valuable information. Also, patients
visiting physicians to complain of symptoms supposedly caused by living
in polluted areas may upon observation yield clinical data of great
importance. Further, information has been collected by the follow up of
the acute air pollution episodes. The data collected has indicated a
relationship between air pollution and disease, particularly pulmonary
disease.
IV. In epidemiological studies, the relationships between the distribution of
specific diseases in a human population and the factors that determine the
distribution are found out. For example, one may compare morbidity
records, mortality records, hospital admissions, absenteeism, and other
health related data from various geographical areas with levels of air
pollutants in the same areas to determine a correlation, if any. To avoid
misinterpretation, the population under study must be carefully observed
for smoking habits, occupational exposures, and any other factor that
might prejudice the results of the study.

*THE END*