ECE 2404 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING |QWERTY LL CC Mee aes PURPOSES Seo ISLANDS separation of conflicts control of angles of conflict regulation of traffic flow in the intersection area _ protection of pedestrians protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles ia 8. INTESECTION SIGHT TRIANGLE proaching an uncontrolled intersection should have a clear Itis important to ensure that drivers ap by the buildings or other solid objects across the comers view of the area which is unobstructed of the intersection. This should be clean as shown here below: 32] ECE 2404 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING |di & da = safe stopping sight distance NOTE: Minimum radius is governed by the speed of operation (design speed) and turning path ofthe design vehicle. = 9. CHANNELIZATION Channelization is the term given to the technique of attempting to guide traffic through an intersection on tracks which will avoid as far as possible points cf conflict. This is done by the proviston of kerbed or ghost islands (i.e. painted) which guide the traffic positively through the intersection. The intersections which are not channelized are referred to as non-channelized. The purpose of channelization is to achieve one or more of the following: os To diminish the numbers of possible vehicle conflicts by reducing the possible carriageway area of conflict. ECE 2404 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING ITo reduce the speed of traffic entering the intersection To provide refuge or protection for vehicles leaving or crossing the main stream or turning right. To regulate traffic movements by islands locate and shape. For example, a triangle shaped island is used to encourage drivers entering a one-way traffic stream to follow the correct direction of travel. v. 34|Pa ECE 2404 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING IINTERSECTION ISLANDS \s mentioned earlier, islands whether kerbed or ghost (painted) guide the traffic positively through the intersection, Islands are generally grouped into three major classes:- 1. Directional islands These are designed primarily to guide the motorists through the intersection by indicating the intended route e.g. triangle islands. These are usually placed so that crossing streams of traffic pass at approximate right angles and merging streams converge at flat angles. 2. Divisional islands Divisional islands are most frequently used to single carriageways approaching intersections. They serve to alert the drivers of the junction ahead and thus regulating the traffic flow into and out of the intersection. 3. Refuge/protection islands A refuge island is located at or near cross walks in order to aid and protect pedestrians crossing the roadway. Refuge islands are mostly used on wide streets in urban areas. 35|Page ECE 2404 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING INOTE: islands should be large enough to command attention to the motorists i.e. should be visible to drivers at sufficient distance to allow appropriate response by the motorists. 10. SIGHT DISTANCES A sight distance is the length of a carriageway that is visible ahead of the driver. Throughout the length of any road section, sight distances must be provided that are sufficient to enable drivers to absorb all relevant features of the road and the traffic conditions ahead. This will enable the driver to take the necessary action to avoid hazards and proceed in a safe, efficient and orderly manner. There are two forms of sight distances that are important to road designers i.e. passing sight distance and stopping sight distance. ; Available sight distances should be checked throughout the road length in the early stages of the _ design of the alignment, and any necessary adjustments to the line, should be made to meet the ’ ements for sight distances. The following guidelines for control of sight i é ight distances should be checked separately for each type of sight distance and for each direction of travel. The following should be used for determination of sight lines in vertical curves: a. Drivers eye height = 1.10m b. Object height for stopping sight distance = 0.10m_ c. Object height for passing sight distance = 1.10m In horizontal curves it may be necessary to remove obstructions or widen cuttings on the insides of the curves to obtain necessary sight distance. Sudden reductions of available sight distance should be avoided where reduction are necessary e.g. solid structures, they should be logical in relation to the physical surroundings. 36 | ECE 2404 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING |PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE. vehicles in safety (Table 1). When calculating the minimu _ the traffic behavior, 37|PageAlso commercial vehicles require lon e same initialDifferent people behay stimulate emotional responsesQWERTY 11, ROAD MARKINGS Road or carriageway markings are used to supplemen signs or signals. The markings are usually of reflk It should be noted that, road markings are n¢ traffic and may be obliterated by dirty wat ‘unpaved roads.QWERTY Delineators (reflectorising studs) are usually used along longitudinal markings in order to aid night driving to be confined to the required lanes. They are especially valuable where there is a change in horizontal and vertical alignment. cf ‘They normally consist of reflectors elements that have a minimum dimensi 75mm. NOTE: Yellow lines: separation of traffic in opposing direetio White lines: separation of traffic in same direction lines (single); restrictive Solid lines (doubl Broken lines: permissiveDen ad are the features of the road which form its effective width and nnstituent parts of a roads cross section are: oss sectional elements of a ro: lich affects the vehicle movements. The cot the volume and type of traffic that has to be handled. "Shoulders: this is the portion of a roadway adjacent t primarily used as a refuge area by short term stops Reserve: this is mostly found in dual ca Tt is usually not less than 1.75m i.e. ‘onLevel of Service D Approaching Unstablespeed falls, the motorist finds roads more crowded and frustrating. Finally as volume of traffic road, the level of service falls to its lowest ‘F” or ‘forced flow” reaches or exceeds capacity of the condition as shown below: DIAGRAMice E (Speed Restricted to 30kph or so, Unstable Flow) e described by speed alone but represents operations at even lower operating speeds a forced flow operation at low speeds where volumes are below capacity. In the , both speed and volume can drop to zero. These conditions usually result from queues of. -rrupted flowTRAFFIC/ HIGHWAY CAPACI ximum hourly rate at which vehicles sonably be expected to point or uniform section of a plane or roadway during a given time period under oad conditions, traffic and control conditions. This will depend on whether it is W facilities include two lane (single carriageway) road freeways and other jageways) in rural roads. i conditions may be grouped into three categories i.e.affic level at which the monetary benefits are equal to the current rate of return which would be ad construction or y: This is the number of vehicles on a one lane e sanding Pint c volumes for some future date (i.e. Design timates of the future traffic. levices which can automatically count and record the data. e traffic observers do the counting and recording.SPEEDS ‘Primary factor in traffic flow and is defined as the rate of movement i.e. the stravelled divided by the time speed to cover the distance. Mathematically, it is exp = Distance covered = Time spent criteria. (Of a vehicle will depend on several variables such as:- ic volumes on the road surface conditions ometric design standards e.g. curves, grades, intersections Weather conditions i.e. wet or dry Speed regulations depending on the enforcing authority re are four types of speeds and defined in different ways, depending on their function in ffic assessment. These speeds are:- i. Spot speed ii, Running speed iii. Journey speed iv. Design speed Each of these speeds (shown above) is briefly explained here below. 1. SPOT SPEED Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle as it passes a specified point along a road. It may be measured manually by measuring the time required for a vehicle to traverse a relatively short specified distance. Also a variety of electronic devices are used e.g. vehicle detectors (used by police) pneumatic tubes, etc. Spot speed is used as a measure of traffic flow constrictions e.g. at intersections or narrow bridges. It can also be used in determining enforceable speed limits (by police). 49|Page ECE 2404 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Ithe distance covered by vehicle between two points when in motion i.e. ed of traffic under conditions if uninterrupted flow. ey speeds are normally measured by means of a test vehicle that is driven ‘a road, The result may be used to improve the geometric design elements. idered as the highest speed that can be maintained by a vehicle in a road determined for the design and correlation of the physical features of a road d when weather conditions are favorable, traffic density is low and design tures of the road are the governing conditions for safety, it is also given as the le) of the expected speed distribution of cars. um speed of cars expecting the top 15% of fast drivers. Usually, the first stage gn process is to fix the design speed. From this, the limits of curvature, , sight distance and most other features of the geometric design elements are ite he choice cf the design speed will depend on the terrain and functional class of the road classes A....E in Kenya) other factors influencing the choice of the design speed are t olume and composition, costs of right of way (Road Reserve) and construction and Jonsiderations, Currently the design speed ranges from 40 kph to 140 kph and interme ‘chosen in increment of 10 kph i.e. 40, 50, 60 where feasible, a constant design speed Fused in the design of the road of substantial I 1. Drivers on long distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local This should be taken into considerations when selecting design speed for major t kj sually adjust their speeds to the importance of a road, but to the typical limitations and prevailing traffic conditions. A low design speed should not be assumed for a road where the topography is such that drivers are apt to travel at high speeds. - 50|Page ECE 2404 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Ins (i.e, road users savings vs construction costs) may justify a | road carrying large volumes of traffic than for a less heavily similar, The table below gives a guide values for selection of design ‘terrain and the functional class of a road (Rural) D CLASSIFICATION a phy | C (kph) Dand E (kph) 90-100 80 60-90 50-80 30-50 ES ind road surface, a minimum speed at which a curve of a given radius ind safety. Beyond this speed, the vehicle despite the superelevation ‘on horizontal curves in order to counteract the centrifugal her turn over or skid off the road. Long before such a speed is yy the passengers. is designed a radius may be selected from the recommended tal radius for a particular design speed, the following equation However difficult the location of a curve bi a as a minimum at any change in direction. It is unlikely that the speed o of the curve covered followed will be in all circumstances ‘be combined that, the centrifugal force and the weight of the vehicle results in a force exact f the road. There will generally be a residual lateral force parallel to the sur This force is restricted by the tyre friction and must be kept to an agreed safe min )TI Maximum S supereli {IGHWAY ENGINEERING |normal private car. The private car vhich « oad t time exceeding the safe dist ion basis. . tie one igs lines of traffic streams while the remaining lines are ovement of one or more raised islands, or other th vehicu far and pederhe highest number of vehicles found to be passing over a section of lane or carriageway during 60 consecutive minutes. Traffic capacity (possible capacity) les which has a reasonable expectation of passing over a given direction or in both directions for a two lane single cod under prevailing road and traffic conditions. The maximum number of vehi section of a lane or carriageway in one carriageway road, during a given time peri Design capacity ‘The maximum number of vehicles period without operating conditions Level of service sige ve rating of the effectiveness of a road in serving traffic, measured in terms of that can pass over a lane or a carriageway during a given time falling below a pre-selected design level. a road should be based upon factual data on.“The {otal traffic volume during a given time fone day and less than one year divided by the fume roads is AADT in year 10 after opening envisaged socio-economic development pattern ill moderate traffic volumes, it may be su! ‘opening as ADT during the peak months of the fraffic volumes throughout the year (current for determination of the design volume. However, it for the maximum peak hour traffic in the design ‘Volume would occur only during one or a very few hours of the year. As a ly trafficked rural roads should b> designed to accommodate the 30" to 50 lume in year 10 after opening (DHV=Design Hourly Volume), depending on Jign volume exceeds 8000 peu’s a dual carriageway may be considered, particularly | traverses through a typical rural area such as do “The Mombasa-Nairobi” and Nakuru” roads, Close to major towns a single carriageway road may carry a design 1¢ of up to 15000 peu’ : : sou “Although most new roads in Kenya will carry traffic volumes far below capacity, the designer must be aware of the Basic and Design Capacities of the new road. - The Basic Capacity of a road is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass over given section of lane or carriageway, in one direction (or in both directions for two-lane highway), during a given period (one hour unless otherwise specified) under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. The traffic flow at this level is unstable and minor disturbances in the traffic streams ‘may cause stop-go operations. i 54|Page 2404 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING |