PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

CONSCIOUSNESS IN PSYCHOLOGY CHANGES IN CONSCIOUSNESS

Some of these changes occur naturally or as a result
Consciousness is the individual awareness of your of factors such as drugs or brain damage -- can be a
unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and sign of medical conditions or they may even be a sign
environments. of an immediate medical emergency.

Essentially, your consciousness is your awareness of For example, sudden changes in consciousness might
yourself and the world around you. be a sign of: Aneurysm, Brain infections, Brain tumor
or injury, Alzheimer's disease, Drug use, Epilepsy,
This awareness is subjective and unique to you. If you Heart disease, Heatstroke, Lack of oxygen to the
can describe something you are experiencing in brain, Low blood sugar, Poisoning, Shock & Stroke
words, then it is part of your consciousness.
HISTORY OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Your conscious experiences are constantly shifting The French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced
and changing. the concept of mind-body dualism or the idea that
while the mind and body are separate, they do
STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS interact.

 Dreams Structuralists used a process known as introspection

 Hallucinations to analyze and report conscious sensations, thoughts,
 Hypnosis and experiences. Trained observers would carefully
 Meditation inspect the contents of their own minds. – A very
 Sleep subjective process, but it helped inspire further
 States induced by psychoactive drugs research on the scientific study of consciousness.

The two normal states of awareness are The American psychologist William James compared
consciousness and unconsciousness. consciousness to a stream—unbroken and
continuous despite constant shifts and changes.
Higher states of consciousness are often associated
with spiritual or mystical experiences. It involves an Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud focused on
elevated state of awareness where people are able to understanding the importance of the unconscious
gain a greater sense of themselves, their role, and the and conscious mind.
world. Examples of this include meditation,
mindfulness and a "runner's high” While the focus of much of the research shifted to
purely observable behaviors, research on human
Altered levels of consciousness also can occur, which consciousness has grown since the 1950s.
may be caused by medical or mental conditions that
impair or change awareness. Altered types of THEORIES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
consciousness include: Coma, Confusion, Delirium, One of the problems with the study of consciousness
Disorientation, Lethargy and Stupor is the lack of a universally accepted operational
definition.
Doctors use scores on these assessments to guide
diagnosis and treatment decisions Descartes proposed "I think, therefore I am", which
suggested that the very act of thinking demonstrates
WHAT ARE THE 5 LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS? the reality of one’s existence and consciousness.

 Conscious: Everything you are aware of Today, consciousness is generally defined as an

 Preconscious: Information you are not awareness of yourself and the world. However, there
currently aware of that you can pull into are still debates about the different aspects of this
awareness if needed awareness.
 Unconscious: Memories that are outside of
awareness and inaccessible Scientists have even utilized brain-scanning
technology to seek out specific neurons that might be
 Non-conscious: Automatically bodily
linked to different conscious events.
functions that occur without awareness and
sensation
Modern researchers have proposed two major
 Subconscious: Information that is out of
theories of consciousness:
consciousness and not immediately
available to consciousness
Integrated Information Theory
 This approach looks at consciousness by
FUNCTIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS
learning more about the physical processes
 Consciousness has several biological and
that underlie our conscious experiences.
social purposes. It allows us to process
 The theory attempts to create a measure of
information, choose our actions, set
the integrated information that forms
priorities, learn and adapt to new
consciousness.
information, make decisions, and more.
 The quality of an organism’s consciousness is
 Consciousness is an essential state in
represented by the level of integration.
philosophy, spirituality, and religion. All of
these require self-awareness, which is  This theory tends to focus on whether
impossible without consciousness. something is conscious and to what degree it
is conscious.
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Global Workspace Theory THE FREUDIAN SLIP

 This theory suggests that we have a memory Another example of the unconscious mind can be
bank from which the brain draws seen in what are known as slips of the tongue. These
information to form the experience of misstatements are believed to reveal underlying,
conscious awareness. unconscious thoughts or feelings.
 While integrated information theory focuses
more on identifying whether an organism is Freud believed that while the unconscious mind is
conscious, the global workspace theory largely inaccessible, the contents can sometimes
offers a much broader approach to bubble up unexpectedly, such as in dreams or slips of
understanding how consciousness works. the tongue.

THE UNCONCIOUS MIND, PRECONSCIOUS MIND An example of a Freudian slip is a man who
AND CONSCIOUS MIND (ARTICLE # 2) accidentally uses a former girlfriend's name when
referring to a current girlfriend. While most of us
The famed psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud believed might believe this to be a simple error, Freud believed
that behavior and personality were derived from the that the slip showed the sudden intrusion of the
constant and unique interaction of conflicting unconscious mind into the conscious mind, often due
psychological forces that operate at three different to unresolved or repressed feelings.
levels of awareness: the preconscious, conscious, and
unconscious minds. He believed that each of these
parts of the mind plays an important role in ACCESSING THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND
influencing behavior. According to Freud, thoughts and emotions outside of
our awareness continue to exert an influence on our
ABOUT SIGMUND FREUD behaviors, even though we are unaware
 Sigmund Freud was the founder of (unconscious) of these underlying influences.
psychoanalytic theory. The unconscious mind can include repressed feelings,
hidden memories, habits, thoughts, desires, and
 The term psychoanalysis is used to refer to reactions. Memories and emotions that are too
many aspects of Freud’s work and research, painful, embarrassing, shameful, or distressing to
including Freudian therapy and the research consciously face are stored in the enormous reservoir
methodology he used to develop his that makes up the unconscious mind.
theories.
To identify the roots of a psychological distress, Freud
FREUD'S THREE LEVELS OF MIND employed techniques like dream analysis and free
association (the sharing of seemingly random
1. The preconscious consists of anything that thoughts) to bring true feelings to light.
could potentially be brought into the
conscious mind. ROLE OF THE PRECONSCIOUS MIND
 The contents of the conscious mind include
2. The conscious mind contains all of the all of the things that you are actively aware
thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of of. The closely related preconscious mind
which we are aware at any given moment. contains all of the things that you could
This also includes our memory, which is not potentially pull into conscious awareness.
always part of consciousness but can be  The preconscious also acts as something of a
retrieved easily and brought into awareness. guard, controlling the information that is
allowed to enter into conscious awareness.
3. The unconscious mind is a reservoir of  Preconscious memories are not the same
feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that things as memories that are readily
are outside of our conscious awareness. The accessed, such as remembering your way
unconscious contains contents that are home. They are unrepressed memories that
unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings we extract for a specific purpose at a specific
of pain, anxiety, or conflict. time.

Freud likened it to an iceberg. The top represents the STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS (Article # 3 and 4)
conscious mind. The part that is submerged below the Little lapses of attention are instructive when it comes
water is the preconscious. The bulk of the iceberg that to the topic of consciousness.
lies unseen beneath the waterline represents the
unconscious mind, often also referred to simply as the Consciousness is a term meant to indicate awareness.
unconscious. It includes awareness of the self, of bodily sensations,
of thoughts and of the environment.
HOW THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND AFFECTS BEHAVIOR
Some of the ways the unconscious can affect behavior Sigmund Freud understood that even while we are
include: Negative thoughts, Self-defeating thoughts awake, many things lay outside the realm of our
and behaviors, Feelings of anger, Compulsive conscious awareness.
behaviors, Childhood behavioral problems, Difficulties
in interpersonal relationships, Distressing patterns in In response to this notion, Freud introduced the
romantic relationships, Attitudes about others, concept of the “subconscious” and proposed that
Unhealthy habits, Distressing dreams, First some of our memories and even our basic
impressions of other people, prejudice & stereotypes motivations are not always accessible to our
conscious minds.
 PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

The way that your thoughts drift from one topic to Meditation is often used to reach this type of
another can feel effortless even when the thoughts awareness because the practice can help individuals
you're having are dramatically different. achieve an altered state of consciousness.

For example, if someone is in a half-asleep or drowsy Humans alternate between low and high thinking
state, they will typically experience a lowered level of states. That is, we shift between focused attention
awareness. Conversely, when exposed to a stimulant, and a less attentive default state, and we have neural
a person can experience a heightened level of networks for both.
awareness.
Interestingly, the less we’re paying attention, the
LEVELS OF AWARENESS more likely we are to be influenced by non-conscious
(Eat popcorn in 1957 and increase in sales, “subliminal stimuli. Although these subtle influences may affect
messaging” were regulated in the US. This influences us, we can use our higher conscious awareness to
on our subconscious persists. We have the “low protect against external influences.
awareness” of subtle or subliminal influences.)
In what’s known as the Flexible Correction Model,
LOW AWARENESS people who are aware that their thoughts or behavior
You are constantly receiving and evaluating sensory are being influenced by an outside source, can correct
information. Although each moment has too many their attitude against the bias. (Political parties)
senses to be consciously considered, our brains are
nonetheless processing all that information. For To help make the relationship between lower and
example, “Cocktail Party Effect” or instinctively grab a higher consciousness clearer, imagine the brain is like
blanket when feel cold a journey down a river. In low awareness, you simply
float on a small rubber raft and let the currents push
Similar to a reflex, some cues, or significant sensory you. It’s not very difficult to just drift along but you
information, will automatically elicit a response from also don’t have total control. Higher states of
us even though we never consciously perceive it. consciousness are more like traveling in a canoe. In
For example, Öhman and Soares: Fear of Snakes. this scenario, you have a paddle and can steer, but it
requires more effort. This analogy applies to many
Although our brains perceive some stimuli without states of consciousness.
our conscious awareness, do they really affect our
subsequent thoughts and behaviors?

In a landmark study, Bargh, Chen, and Burrows:

Solving puzzles pertained words = walked slowly.
OTHER STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
This effect is called priming -- readily “activating”
certain concepts and associations from one’s 1. Hypnosis
memory. For example, priming people by having Franz Mesmer (1734 – 1815) is often credited as
them drink from a warm glass (vs. a cold one) resulted among the first people to “discover” hypnosis, which
in behaving more “warmly” toward others. he used to treat members of elite society who were
experiencing psychological distress.
One way of side-stepping this difficulty can be found
in the implicit associations test, or IAT. This research “Mesmerize” meaning “to entrance a person’s
method uses computers to assess people’s reaction attention.” Mesmer attributed the effect of hypnosis
times to various stimuli and is a very difficult test to to “animal magnetism,” a supposed universal force
fake because it records automatic reactions that that operates through all human bodies. Hypnosis
occur in milliseconds. (Caucasians vs. Asians) was not scientifically supported and controversial.

In this regard, the IAT has been used for investigating Hypnosis is a mental state characterized by reduced
stereotypes as well as self-esteem. This method can peripheral awareness and increased focus on a
help uncover non-conscious biases as well as those singular stimulus, which results in an enhanced
that we are motivated to suppress. susceptibility to suggestion; leads to an alteration of
a person's state of consciousness.
HIGH AWARENESS
This includes effortful attention and careful decision For example, the hypnotist will usually induce
making. For example, when you listen to a funny story hypnosis by getting the person to pay attention only
on a date, you are engaging a state of consciousness to the hypnotist’s voice then begins to forget the
that allows you to be highly aware of and focused on context of the setting and responds to the hypnotist’s
particular details in your environment. (High level of suggestions as if they were his or her own. Some
awareness tends to be more in control of their people are naturally more suggestible, and therefore
thoughts.) more “hypnotizable” than are others, and this is
especially true for those who score high in empathy.
Mindfulness is a state of higher consciousness that
includes an awareness of the thoughts passing Dissociation is the separation of one’s awareness
through one’s head; focusing on the present moment from everything besides what one is centrally focused
(Snapped & reflect – expansion of your conscious on. (A person concentrates so much on the words of
awareness, less persuaded) the hypnotist that he loses perspective of the rest of
the world around them; daydreaming in class)
 PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

Modern hypnotherapy often uses a combination of Dreams are the most interesting aspect of sleep. They
relaxation, suggestion, motivation and expectancies have been thought to be predictions, hints, lessons or
to create a desired mental or behavioral state. opportunities to engage in impossible deeds.

Although hypnotherapy can help with addiction Several competing theories of why humans dream:
reduction, it can be successful in treating sufferers of
acute and chronic pain. (Treatment of burn patient) One is that it is our non-conscious attempt to make
sense of our daily experiences and learning.
Trance states often occur in religious ceremonies,
where the person believes he or she is “possessed” by Another, popularized by Freud, is that dreams
an otherworldly being or force. represent taboo or troublesome wishes or desires.
Regardless of the specific reason we know a few facts
2. Sleep about dreams: all humans dream, we dream at every
Sleep is a unique state of consciousness; it lacks full stage of sleep, but dreams during REM sleep are
awareness but the brain is still active. especially vivid.

People generally follow a “biological clock”. The Sleep serves many functions, one of which is to give
hormone melatonin increases at night and is us a period of mental and physical restoration.
associated with becoming sleepy.
Children generally need more sleep than adults since
Your natural daily rhythm, or Circadian Rhythm, can they are developing. It is so vital, in fact, that a lack of
be influenced by the amount of daylight to which you sleep is associated with a wide range of problems.
are exposed as well as your work and activity
schedule. People who do not receive adequate sleep are more
irritable, have slower reaction time, have more
Changing location can disrupt your natural sleep difficulty sustaining attention, and make poorer
rhythms (jet lag). You can overcome by synchronizing decisions.
yourself to the local schedule by exposing yourself to
daylight and forcing yourself to stay awake even
though you are naturally sleepy.

While you are awake and alert your brain activity is

marked by betawaves. Beta waves are characterized
by being high in frequency but low in intensity. In
addition, they are the most inconsistent brain wave
and this reflects the wide variation in sensory input
that a person processes during the day.

As you begin to relax these change to alpha waves.

These waves reflect brain activity that is less frequent, 3. Psychoactive drugs
more consistent and more intense.
On April 16, 1943, Albert Hoffman accidentally
As you slip into actual sleep you transition through ingested a newly synthesized drug. Lysergic acid
many stages: rapid eye movement (REM) and those diethylamide (LSD) turned out to be a powerful
that are non-rapid eye movement (NREM). hallucinogen. He later reported the effects of the
drug, as seeing the world through a “warped mirror”
In addition, each stage is typically characterized by its and experiencing visions of “extraordinary shapes
own unique pattern of brain activity: with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors.” Hoffman
then discovered that there are substances that, when
 Stage 1 (NREM 1 or N1) is the “falling asleep” ingested, can have a powerful effect on perception
stage and is marked by theta waves. and on consciousness.

 Stage 2 (NREM 2 or N2) is considered a light Drugs operate on human physiology and can classify
sleep. There are occasional “sleep spindles,” drugs according to their effects.
or very high intensity brain waves. These are
thought to be associated with the processing a.) Hallucinogens
of memories. NREM 2 makes up about 55% Hallucinogens are the substance that have been used
of all sleep. the most widely and are substances that alter a
person’s perceptions, often by creating visions or
 Stage 3 (NREM 3 or N3) makes up between hallucinations that are not real.
20-25% of all sleep and is marked by greater
muscle relaxation and the appearance of Traditional societies have used plant-based
delta waves. hallucinogens for religious ceremonies.

 Finally, REM sleep is marked by rapid eye There is a wide range and many are used as
movement (REM) - similar to wakefulness. recreational substances in industrialized societies.
That is, the brain waves occur less intensely Examples: Marijuana, LSD, and MDMA (aka “ecstasy”)
than in other stages of sleep. REM sleep
accounts for about 20% of all sleep and is Marijuana is the dried flowers of the hemp plant and
associated with dreaming. is often smoked to produce euphoria.
 PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

The active ingredient in marijuana is called THC and STAGES OF SLEEP: WHAT HAPPENS IN A SLEEP CYCLE
can produce distortions in the perception of time, can (Article #5 and 6)
create a sense of rambling, unrelated thoughts, and is Sleep is not uniform. In a typical night, a person goes
associated with increased hunger or excessive through 4-6 sleep cycles – are not the same length,
laughter. The use and possession of marijuana is but on average they last about 90 minutes each.
illegal in most places but this appears to be changing.
Uruguay, Bangladesh, and United States, have
recently legalized marijuana. This may be due to
changing public attitudes or to the fact that marijuana
is increasingly used for medical purposes such as the
management of nausea or treating glaucoma.

b.) Depressants
Depressants are substances that slow down the
body’s physiology and mental processes. Alcohol is
the most widely used depressant. When we sleep, our bodies take time to: repair
muscles, grow bones, manage hormones and sort
Alcohol’s effects include the reduction of inhibition. memories
Its psychological effects are the result of it increasing
the neurotransmitter GABA. Its physical effects, such ARE ALL SLEEP CYCLES THE SAME?
as loss of balance and coordination. It is normal for sleep cycles to change as you progress
through your nightly sleep. The first sleep cycle is
First, alcohol is toxic - it acts like a poison because it is often the shortest, ranging from 70 to 100 minutes,
possible to drink more alcohol than the body can while later cycles tend to fall between 90 and 120
effectively remove from the bloodstream. When a minutes. In addition, the composition of each cycle –
person’s blood alcohol content reaches .3 to .4% there how much time is spent in each sleep stage – changes
is a serious risk of death. as the night goes along.

Second, the lack of judgment and physical control WHAT ARE THE SLEEP STAGES IN A NORMAL SLEEP
associated with alcohol = more risk taking behavior or CYCLE?
dangerous behavior such as drunk driving. There are four sleep stages, including one for rapid
eye movement (REM) sleep and three that form non-
Finally, alcohol is addictive and heavy drinkers often REM (NREM) sleep. These stages are determined
experience interference with their ability to work in based on an analysis of brain activity during sleep,
their close relationships. which shows distinct patterns that characterize each
stage.
Other common depressants: opiates aka “narcotics”,
which are substances synthesized from the poppy
flower. Opiates stimulate endorphin production and
they are used as pain killers by medical professionals.

Unfortunately, because opiates such as Oxytocin,

they are increasingly used—illegally—as recreational
substances. Opiates are highly addictive.

c.) Stimulants
Stimulants are substances that “speed up” the body’s
physiological and mental processes. The breakdown of a person’s sleep into various cycles
and stages is commonly referred to as sleep
Two commonly used stimulants are caffeine—the architecture.
drug found in coffee and tea—and nicotine, the active
drug in cigarettes and other tobacco products. NREM SLEEP PATTERNS
NREM sleep is composed of three different stages.
These substances are both legal and relatively (Happens first and includes three stages.) The higher
inexpensive, leading to their widespread use. the stage of NREM sleep, the harder it is to wake a
person up.
Many people are attracted to stimulants because
they feel more alert when under the influence of 1. STAGE 1 aka N1
these drugs.  This stage normally lasts just one to
seven minutes; lightest stage
For example, excessive consumption of these types of  Body has not fully relaxed, though
stimulants can result in anxiety and insomnia. the body and brain activities start to
Similarly, smoking cigarettes is associated with higher slow periods of brief movements.
risks of cancer. For instance, among heavy smokers  Light changes in brain activity
90% of lung cancer is directly attributable to smoking. associated with falling asleep.
 It is easy to wake someone up
There are other stimulants such as cocaine and during this sleep stage, but if a
methamphetamine aka “crystal meth” or “ice” that person is not disturbed, they can
are illegal substances that are commonly used. move quickly into stage 2.
 PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

 As the night unfolds, an REM sleep is believed to be essential to cognitive

uninterrupted sleeper may not functions like memory support that is clear,
spend much more time in stage 1 as actionable, and rich with real-world insights.
they move through further sleep
cycles. REM sleep is known for the most vivid dreams, which
 Eye movements are typically slow, is explained by the significant uptick in brain activity.
Heartbeat and breathing slow Dreams can occur in any sleep stage, but they are less
down, Muscles relax, produce low common and intense in the NREM periods.
amplitude mixed frequencies
waves in the theta range (4 to 7 Hz) Under normal circumstances, you do not enter a REM
2. STAGE 2 or N2 sleep stage until you have been asleep for about 90
 A more subdued state minutes. As the night goes on, REM stages get longer,
 Largest percentage of total sleep especially in the second half of the night. While the
time first REM stage may last only a few minutes, later
 Brain waves show a new pattern stages can last for around an hour. In total, REM
and eye movement stops. stages make up around 25% of sleep in adults.
 Brain activity slows with short
bursts of activity that actually help There are two phases of REM sleep: phasic and tonic.
resist being woken up. Phasic REM sleep contains bursts of rapid eye
 10 to 25 minutes during the first movements, while tonic REM sleep does not.
sleep cycle, this stage can become
longer during the night. Stage R occurs about 90 minutes after you fall asleep,
 A person typically spends about half and is the primary “dreaming” stage of sleep.
their sleep time in N2 sleep.
 Heartbeat and breathing slow down
further, No eye movements Sleep
disturbances
3. STAGE 3 or N3 or deep sleep
 It is harder to wake someone up if
they are in this phase.
 Deepest sleep stage
 Muscle tone, pulse, and breathing
rate decrease as the body relaxes.
 The brain activity has a pattern of
delta waves.
 Delta sleep or slow-wave sleep.
 Critical to restorative sleep - for
bodily recovery and growth.
 Contributes to insightful thinking,
creativity, and memory.
 Most time in deep sleep during the
first half of the night.
 Commonly last for 20-40 minutes.
 Stages get shorter, and more time
gets spent in REM sleep instead.

WHY DO THE SLEEP STAGES MATTER?

Sleep stages are important because they allow the
brain and body to recuperate and develop. Failure to
obtain enough of both deep sleep and REM sleep may
explain some of the profound consequences of
insufficient sleep on thinking, emotions, and physical
health. Sleepers who are frequently awoken during
earlier stages, such as people with sleep apnea, may
struggle to properly cycle into these deeper sleep
stages. People with insomnia may not get enough
REM SLEEP PATTERNS: WHAT IS REM SLEEP? total sleep to accumulate the needed time in each
During REM sleep, brain activity picks up, nearing stage.
levels seen when you are awake. At the same time,
the body experiences atonia, which is a temporary WHAT AFFECTS SLEEP STAGES?
paralysis of the muscles, with two exceptions: the  Age: Time in each stage changes dramatically
eyes and the muscles that control breathing. Even over a person’s life. Newborns spend far
though the eyes are closed, they can be seen moving more time in REM sleep and may enter a
quickly, which is how this stage gets its name. REM stage as soon as they fall asleep. As they
get older, their sleep becomes similar to that
of adults who spend less time in REM sleep.
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 Recent sleep patterns: If sleep is irregular or Shift work disorder- a condition that commonly
insufficient sleep over a period of days or affects those who work outside of a regular 9-to-5
more, it can cause an abnormal sleep cycle. schedule. It can cause an imbalance in the natural
 Alcohol: and some other drugs can alter circadian rhythm, or sleep-wake cycle. People with
sleep architecture. For example, alcohol this disorder are at a higher risk for increased daytime
decreases REM sleep early in the night, but sleepiness and health issues. (Strategic napping,
as the alcohol wears off, there is a REM sleep avoiding stimulants and reducing the number of
rebound, with prolonged REM stages. hours worked. For people who sleep during the day,
 Sleep disorders: Sleep apnea, restless legs it can also help to use light-blocking tools like eye
syndrome (RLS), and other conditions that shades or curtains)
cause multiple awakenings may interrupt a
healthy sleep cycle. Narcolepsy - a chronic CNS disorder that causes
extreme daytime sleepiness with “sleep attacks”
HOW CAN YOU HAVE A HEALTHIER SLEEP CYCLE? along with poor sleep at night. Type I narcolepsy also
 A key step is to focus on improving your causes cataplexy - a sudden, physical collapse caused
sleep hygiene or habits by loss of muscle control; an overwhelming need to
 Achieving a more consistent sleep sched, move the legs
getting natural daylight, avoiding alcohol,
and eliminating noise and light can help you Both type I and type II narcolepsy often experience
get uninterrupted sleep and promote proper extreme disruptions in their daily life; associated with
alignment of your circadian rhythm. (ADHD) and Parkinson’s
 Your mattress, pillows, and sheets can also
contribute. (Stimulants and SSRIs; good sleep hygiene, diet and
exercising regularly, can help to have healthful sleep)
SLEEP DISTURBANCES/DISORDERS (Article 7 also) Parasomnias - a class of sleep disorders that cause
Sleep disorders are a group of conditions that affect abnormal movements and behaviors during sleep.
the ability to sleep well on a regular basis. They include: sleepwalking, sleep talking, nightmares,
bedwetting, teeth grinding or jaw clenching
In fact, more than one-third of adults report getting
fewer than 7 hours of sleep in a 24-hour period. More WHAT ARE THE SYMPTOMS OF SLEEP DISORDERS?
than 70 percent of high school students report getting General symptoms of sleep disorders include:
fewer than 8 hours of sleep on weeknights. • Difficulty falling or staying asleep
• Daytime fatigue
Insomnia - a chronic sleep condition characterized by • Strong urge to take naps during the day
difficulty sleeping. The disorder is most prevalent • Unusual breathing patterns
among older adults and women. • Unusual urges to move while falling asleep
• Unintentional changes to your sleep/wake schedule
Insomnia is usually classified as one of three types: • Irritability or anxiety
• Chronic, when on a regular basis for at least 1 month • impaired performance at work or school
• Intermittent, when periodically • Lack of concentration
• Transient, when insomnia lasts for few nights • Depression
• Weight gain
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the primary
treatment for insomnia. WHAT CAUSES SLEEP DISORDERS?
 Allergies and respiratory problems
Sleep apnea or Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) - a  Frequent urination (Nocturia)
condition in which the body stops breathing during  Chronic pain (like arthritis)
sleep. These periods of no breathing, called apnea,  Stress and anxiety
happen because the airways of the throat become too HOW ARE SLEEP DISORDERS DIAGNOSED?
narrow to allow air flow. First, a physical exam and gather information about
your symptoms and medical history and:
There are two types: Obstructive sleep apnea, where • Polysomnography (PSG) - lab sleep study that
the flow of air stops because airway space is evaluates oxygen levels, body movements, and brain
obstructed or too narrow, and Central sleep apnea, waves to determine how they disrupt sleep vs. home
where there is a problem in the connection between sleep study (HST) that is performed in your own and
the brain and the muscles that control your breath. is used to diagnose sleep apnea.
• Electroencephalogram (EEG) - a test that assesses
CONTINUOUS POSITIVE AIRWAY PRESSURE (CPAP) electrical activity in the brain and detects any
machine. The CPAP creates enough airflow to allow a potential problems associated with this activity. It’s
person with sleep apnea to breathe properly during part of a polysomnography.
sleep; If the CPAP doesn’t help, BILEVEL POSITIVE • Multiple sleep latency test (MSLT): This daytime
AIRWAY PRESSURE (BiPAP or BPAP) may be napping study is used in conjunction with a PSG at
considered to help patients tolerate the pressures. night to help diagnose narcolepsy.

Restless leg syndrome - is a neurological disorder that HOW ARE SLEEP DISORDERS TREATED?
causes an uncomfortable feeling in the legs, which Treatment for sleep disorders can vary depending on
occurs in the evening as bedtime approaches and the type and underlying cause. However, it generally
when the individual is resting or trying to fall asleep. includes a combination of medical treatments
(Medications to manage RLS) (sleeping pills) and lifestyle changes (reducing stress)
 PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

TIPS TO GET QUALITY SLEEP fall ill when exposed to the common cold virus than
Practicing good sleep hygiene is the best way to get those who had 8 or more hours of sleep every night.
quality sleep at night:
The theory is further supported by research findings
 Spend time outside in the sun during the day. which have shown that many of the major body
 Exercise your body throughout the day. restorative functions mostly or, in some cases, only
 Limit your nap time (20-30 minutes.) occur during sleep. These include restorative
 Avoid stimulants and foods before bed. functions such as, protein synthesis, tissue repair,
 Limit screen time an hour before sleeping. muscle growth, and growth hormone release.
 Create a comfy bedroom environment.
The theory explains that sleep has an essential
FACTS ABOUT SLEEP function in relation to production of adenosine; a
o Human beings spend 1/3 of their lives chemical produced by neurons in the brain as a by-
sleeping, cats spend roughly 2/3 of theirs product of regular cellular activity. When one is
asleep. Others sleep up to 22 hours a day. awake, adenosine accumulates in the brain and
o Newborn babies need 14 to 17 hours of scientists think that this build-up may be one of the
sleep, teenagers require about 8 to 10 hours factors that contributes to our perception of feeling
each night & adults need 7 to 9 hours. tired and eventually promotes the "drive to sleep.
o Sleep deprivation can have a hugely negative However, during sleep, the body gets a chance to
impact on health. (even just 24 hours) clear this chemical from the system, and as a result,
o Energy levels naturally dip at two distinct the feeling of tiredness goes away which in turn
times of the day: 12-2 p.m. and 8-9 p.m. leaves you feeling more alert when you wake up.
Post-lunch fatigue that some people feel
during the middle of the day. Evolutionary Theory of Sleep
o Higher altitudes can have a negative impact
on sleep quality. Maybe because of a Also referred to as the Adaptive Theory or Inactivity
reduced amount of slow-wave (deep) sleep. Theory, the Evolutionary theory is one of the earliest
o The biggest thing we know is that sleep is just theories that tries to explain the necessity of sleep. It
as crucial to good health as nutrition and suggests that periods of inactivity at night or during
exercise. the daytime is an adaptation which served a survival
function by ensuring that animals remained out of
FOUR THEORIES AS TO WHY WE NEED TO SLEEP danger during times of vulnerability.

Mander Bryce, a neurologist at Neuroimaging Lab and That is, according to the theory, animals that were
UC Berkeley’s Sleep says, “There have been a lot of able to stay quiet and still during those times when
medical researchers who have put forward theories they were particularly vulnerable had a greater
about why we sleep, but most of these theories are chance of survival than those species which remained
largely incomplete. Sleep affects almost all organs in active.
the body and as such, it’s hard to study. There are
numerous theories of sleep, but none of them has Sleeping animals were able to evade predators, stay
been proven correct.” safe from possible accidents that could happen during
activities in the dark, and other risks that affect
However, there’s no clear cut answer to this mobile creatures. As a result, through natural
challenging question, one thing these experts all selection, these animals survived in greater
agree on is that sleep plays a very critical role in our proportions and eventually this behaviour or survival
overall health and wellness. tactic presumably evolved to become what is now
recognized as sleep.
Repair and Restoration Theory of Sleep
However, the evolutionary theory of sleep is not
Based on a long held belief that somehow sleep widely accepted and several flaws in this hypothesis
“restores” something that is spent in our bodies while have been cited by those who challenge it. In a simple
we are awake, the repair and restoration theory is counter-argument, some people argue that when an
perhaps one of the most popular theories of sleep. animal is sleeping, it is not able to respond promptly
to potential threats, and this makes it extremely
According to it, sleep affords the body the much vulnerable and the perfect prey for predators.
needed opportunity it requires to repair and
rejuvenate itself, which involves restoring and Brain Plasticity Theory
revitalizing the physiological processes which keep
your body and mind healthy and functioning properly. Brain Plasticity Theory is probably one of the more
recent, and rather compelling, theories of sleep. It is
Lately, this theory has gained ample support following based on research findings, which suggest that sleep
considerable empirical evidence gathered from is correlated to changes in the organization and
human and animal studies. Several of these structure of the brain.
experiments suggest that in some ways, sleep allows
the body’s immune system to function better. In earlier days, the brain was perceived as a static
organ, but many studies have since disproved this
For instance, in one experiment it was shown that notion by showing that, the brain has the ability to
people who regularly had less than 7 hours of sleep a adapt and change over time.
night were approximately three times more likely to
 PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

The term “brain plasticity” was coined to refer to this People in a hypnotic state often seem sleepy and
extraordinary ability of the brain to change zoned out, but in reality, they are in a state of hyper-
throughout an individual’s life; and proponents of this awareness.
theory believe that sleep contributes importantly to
the processes of brain plasticity. While there are many myths and misconceptions,
hypnosis is a very real process that can be used as a
To start with, the brain plasticity theory argues that, therapeutic tool. Hypnosis has been shown to have
people sleep so as to process the information they medical and therapeutic benefits, most notably in the
have acquired during the day and consolidate new reduction of pain and anxiety. It has even been
memories. suggested that hypnosis can reduce the symptoms of
dementia.
For instance, in one experiment a number of
volunteers were given aptitude tests such as TYPES OF HYPNOSIS
remembering a sequence of patterns presented to
them on a computer. Half of the volunteers were Guided hypnosis: This form of hypnosis involves the
shown these patterns during the morning session, use of tools such as recorded instructions and music
and the other half in the evening, after which, their to induce a hypnotic state. Online sites and mobile
memories were tested by the team of researchers. apps often utilize this form of hypnosis.
For the morning volunteers, the test was done after a
full day of being awake while the evening learners Hypnotherapy: Hypnotherapy is the use of hypnosis in
were tested after a night's sleep; and sure enough, psychotherapy and is practiced by licensed physicians
the individuals allowed to sleep had better and psychologists to treat conditions including
recollection of the test patterns. depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), and eating disorders.
Energy Conservation Theory Self-hypnosis: Self-hypnosis is a process that occurs
when a person self-induces a hypnotic state. It is
In natural selection, competition for and effective often used as a self-help tool for controlling pain or
utilisation of energy is extremely important – in that, managing stress.
if a species is able to make use of its given energy
resources in a slightly more effective manner, it would HYPNOSIS AS A THERAPEUTIC TOOL
have a great advantage over similar species. Using The following are just a few of the applications for
this line of thought, the energy conservation theory hypnosis that have been:
tries to explain why we need to sleep by suggesting
that sleep has something to do with saving an  Alleviation of symptoms associated with
individual’s energy. irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
 Control of pain during dental procedures
In general, it proposes that the primary function of  Elimination of skin conditions (psoriasis)
sleep is to lower ones demand for energy as well as  Management of certain symptoms of ADHD
reducing the amount expended during part of the  Treatment of chronic pain (arthritis)
night or day; especially during those periods when it’s  Treatment of pain during childbirth
least efficient to look for food. This would make some  Reduction of dementia symptoms
sort of sense, if you thought about the evolutionary  Reduction of nausea and vomiting in cancer
ancestors’ struggle to find enough to eat, and them patients undergoing chemotherapy
using sleep as a way of cutting down their energy
consumption, so as to be able to make the most of Hypnosis has also been used to help people with
their limited food. behavior changes such as quitting smoking, losing
weight, or preventing bed-wetting.
Research has shown that, when humans are asleep,
their energy metabolism is significantly lowered by IMPACT OF HYPNOSIS
about 10% (this figure is actually higher in other Some hypnotized individuals report feeling a sense of
species). It is such evidence which gives support to detachment or extreme relaxation during the
this intriguing hypothesis that, indeed, sleep does hypnotic state while others even feel that their
play a role in helping organisms to conserve their actions seem to occur outside of their conscious
energy resources. Some researchers actually consider volition. Other individuals may remain fully aware and
this idea to be part of and, correlated to, the able to carry out conversations while under hypnosis.
evolutionary theory of sleep. However, there are
those who doubt that this kind of reduction (the 10% Experiments by researcher Ernest Hilgard
drop in energy metabolism) can make a significant demonstrated how hypnosis can be used to
change in survival or even the overall energy dramatically alter perceptions.
consumption rates.
After instructing a hypnotized individual not to feel
HYPNOSIS AS A THERAPEUTIC TOOL pain in their arm, the participant's arm was then
Hypnosis is a trance-like mental state in which people placed in ice water. While non-hypnotized individuals
experience increased attention, concentration, and had to remove their arm from the water after a few
suggestibility. While hypnosis is often described as a seconds due to the pain, the hypnotized individuals
sleep-like state, it is better expressed as a state of were able to leave their arms in the icy water for
focused attention, heightened suggestibility, and several minutes without experiencing pain.
vivid fantasies.
 PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

TIPS FOR HYPNOSIS interest eventually shifted to a more scientific

approach.
 10% to 15% are responsive to hypnosis.
 10% of adults are considered difficult or Hypnotism became more important in the field of
impossible to hypnotize. psychology in the late 19th-century and was used by
 Children tend to be more susceptible Jean-Martin Charcot to treat women experiencing
 People who can become easily absorbed in what was then known as hysteria. This work
fantasies are much more responsive to influenced Sigmund Freud and the development of
hypnosis. psychoanalysis.

If you are interested in being hypnotized, it is More recently, there have been a number of different
important to remember to approach the experience theories to explain exactly how hypnosis works. One
with an open mind. People who view hypnosis in a of the best-known theories is Hilgard’s neo-
positive light tend to respond better. dissociation theory of hypnosis.10

If you are interested in trying hypnotherapy, it is According to Hilgard, people in a hypnotic state
important to look for a professional who has experience a split consciousness in which there are
credentials and experience in the use of hypnosis as a two different streams of mental activity. While one
therapeutic tool. stream of consciousness responds to the hypnotist’s
suggestions, another dissociated stream processes
While there are many places that offer hypnosis information outside of the hypnotized individual's
training and certification, it may be helpful to look for conscious awareness.
a mental health professional who has been certified
by the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis. WHY DO WE DREAM VIDEO

While sleeping we go through different cycles of five

HOW DOES CLINICAL HYPNOTHERAPY WORK? stages of sleep -- REM and NREM sleep
Potential Pitfalls; Misunderstandings about the
subject of hypnosis are common. First four stages are NREM (restorative and
dreamless) initial brain activity slows and after 90
While amnesia may occur in very rare cases, people mins, we hit stage 5 -- REM sleep where dreaming
generally remember everything that transpired while gets going (body is paralyzed, heart rate goes up,
they were hypnotized. However, hypnosis can have a brain activity returns to near waking levels)
significant effect on memory. Posthypnotic amnesia
can lead an individual to forget certain things that Paralysis in REM sleep is caused by the release of
occurred before or during hypnosis. However, this glycine and amino acid from brain stem onto brain's
effect is generally limited and temporary. motor neurons --- way of preventing us from acting
on our dreams.
While hypnosis can be used to enhance memory, the
effects have been dramatically exaggerated in Limbic System -- responsible for processing emotions
popular media. Research has found that hypnosis and are very active during REM sleep.
does not lead to significant memory enhancement or Amygdala - fear
accuracy, and hypnosis can actually result in false or Hippocampus - formation of long term memory
distorted memories. Cingulate Gyrus - physical reactions to situations
Prefrontal cortex - deals with logic and self-control
Despite stories about people being hypnotized isn't really active during REM sleep
without their consent, hypnosis does require
voluntary participation on the part of the patient. Sleep Paralysis -- a terrifying concept. Brain does not
People do vary in terms of how hypnotizable and shut off when sleeping. In order for us not to act on
suggestible they are while under hypnosis, however. our dreams, the brain releases chemicals that leave us
Research suggests that people who are highly paralyzed. This paralysis should be lifted as soon as
suggestible are more likely to experience a reduced we wake up but sometimes it doesn't. You wake up,
sense of agency while under hypnosis. aware of your consciousness but can't move. This is
often most caused by disrupted REM sleep so some
While people often feel that their actions under people believe that they are still dreaming when in
hypnosis seem to occur without the influence of their fact, they are awake -- where nightmares come out to
will, a hypnotist cannot make you perform actions real world so in paralysis, you'll often see things
that are against your wishes. standing in the corners or ceiling or closer.

While hypnosis can be used to enhance performance, Freud theorized that dreams represent a window into
it cannot make people stronger or more athletic than the unconscious mind - a reservoir of feelings, urges
their existing physical capabilities. and thoughts beyond our conscious awareness
(submerged iceberg) – contains those unacceptable.
HISTORY OF HYPNOSIS
The use of hypnotic-like trance states dates back When sleeping, these feelings in check are weakened
thousands of years, but hypnosis began to grow allowing us to live out our desires and even fears
during the late 18th-century from the work of a through dreams. By exploring dreams, people's
physician named Franz Mesmer. The practice got off awareness will increase and an insight to their
to a poor start thanks to Mesmer's mystical views, but unconscious self that would help them deal with
problems in their day-to-day lives.
 PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

The true meaning of our dreams is hidden within the LUCID DREAMING
actual content and interpretation is needed to  coined by Van Eeden way back in 1913
understand of our unconscious fears or desires.  Describes a state in which the dreamer is
aware they're asleep and sometimes has the
Carl Jung also believed that dreams allows us to tap ability to control events and action.
into the unconscious but argue that it was the  Most commonly occurs during late stage
collective unconscious that we are able to access REM sleep and essentially allows your
through our dreams. conscious mind to control something your
unconscious mind normally controls.
Collective Unconscious is an information shared by  Dreamers report being able to fly, tastes,
everyone and that dreams are similar for all people and smell and touch everything they want.
regardless of culture or location. This is why many of  55% of people experience.
us share variations in common themes in our dreams  Starts with ocular movements and brain
like falling, being chased or teeth falling out. activities were recorded.
 brain also enter a specific altered physiology
Dream Interpretation is the process of assigning during lucid dreaming that constitute a
meaning to dreams. This plays an important role in hybrid state of consciousness
various forms of psychotherapy and has positive  Zones in the brain are activated which are
impact on mental health. responsible for higher order cognitive
functioning including working memory,
INTERPRETATION OF COMMON DREAM THEMES cognitive flexibility, planning inhibition,
abstract etc.
Falling Dream - warning from subconscious and is  Boost creativity and stress, meditation.
common in people who are having major problem
 Delta Sleep - the deep formlessness of sleep,
with work or relationships. It can be indication of
where a person become conscious of
insecurities, instability or worries. You might be
borders beyond the dream state.
feeling overwhelmed and out of control in some
 Semi wakefulness.
situation in waking life. This dream could also reflect
 May be sleep state dissociation - person is
a sense of failure and inferiority in some situation.
both awake and asleep.
Showing up in school or work naked - represents
Precognitive dreams - dreams that appear to predict
vulnerability anxiety. This is common in people who
the future in sixth sense. (Titanic Sinking)
accepted in promotion, new job or coming into public
view. Other believed that you might be hiding
Dreaming about own death - Abraham Lincoln
something and afraid others might see through you.
assassination. Premonition dream that something
close or personal might argue that subconscious mind
Someone chasing you - can be considered a positive
is accessing information that you weren't consciously
message. It would encourage us to face a problem
aware of in your waking state.
they've been avoiding. It suggests that who is chasing
you and how far away is important.
Future consist of many possibilities and which one
becomes reality is determined by the choices we
CONTEMPORARY THEORY OF DREAMING.
make in the future.
Activation-Synthesis Theory - rejects the idea of
dreams mean anything. They can be merely brain
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from
 Drugs that can alter our consciousness.
our memories. Humans could create dream stories
after they wake up.  Classified according to the effects they have
in our body.
Complex Maze study and Divorce study debunked this Four Main Groups:
theory and there might be solutions to problems we 1. Depressants - depress our CNS function. They
may not have been considered while awake. Sleep can decrease level of arousal or stimulation in certain
be influenced by pre-sleep emotions. brain Ares. Lower processing speed.
Types:
Continual-Activation Theory - proposes that the a.) Barbiturates - tranquilizer. Prescribed to help them
conscious and unconscious mind must remain sleep or calm down or as an anesthesia. Not
continually active in order to maintain proper brain prescribed commonly because of its side effect.
function. This means that if brain's activity falls below b.) Benzodiazepams - same as barbiturates for
a certain level such as during sleep, it is stimulated to insomnia of anxiety as well as seizure
maintain activity through dreams. c.) Alcohol - lowers inhibitions and decrease cognitive
control such as lack of Coordination.
Expectation-Fulfillment Theory - explains that
dreaming as a way to release emotional arousal that 2. Stimulants - stimulates our CNS. People become
haven't been expressed during the day. This free up awake and energetic.
space in the brain to deal with the emotional arousal Types:
the next day and allows instinctive urges to stay a.) Caffeine - help us keep awake
intact. The action we take is completed in a b.) Amphetamines like Adderall
metamorphic form and this prevents a false memory c.) Methamphetamines and MDMA or Ecstasy
being created because we precede the action as d.) Cocaine
dreams instead. Dreams then drawn memory instead e.) Nicotine
of motor or sensory activity.
 PSY 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY READINGS

They are opposite but they don’t work on same thing

in neurochemical level don't affect one another. You
don’t take one to counter effect the other. Ex.:
Drinking coffee after alcohol wont sober you but
make you high alert drunk.

3. Hallucinogens -- psychedelics. It causes individuals

to experience distorted perceptions. This includes
hallucinations -- seeing or hearing things that are
different. High end sensations. Can give energy or
calm -- they classified about perceptual changes they
bring about. Emotional responses. (LSD, Psilocybin (in
mushroom), PCP)

4. Opiates - can depress CNS function like

depressants. Different with depressants. They are
analgesic -- reduce the perception of pain.
(Morphine, Codeine and Heroin, Oxycodone and
Vicodine.)