Chapter 2 explores a complex system of cells, chemicals, and organs that work together to produce behavior, thoughts, and

actions. The
first part of this complex arrangement is the nervous system, a network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the
body. The field of neuroscience is a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and functioning of the brain and the neurons,
nerves, and nervous tissue that form the nervous system. Biological psychology, or behavioral neuroscience is the branch of
neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning, and it is the primary area
associated with the biological perspective in psychology.

This Chapter contains 12 learning objects that tackle different topics about the biological perspective. the first objective is all about the
nervous system, neurons, and nerves, and how do they relate to one another. The nervous system is a network of specialized cells that
transmit information to and from the body. Neuroscience focuses on the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue,
and their relationship to behavior. Neurons are the basic cells that make up the nervous system, with dendrites, soma, and axons being
key components. Glial cells, grey fatty cells, provide support, deliver nutrients, and produce myelin to coat axons. Myelin coats neurons'
axons, insulates, protects, and speeds up neural impulses. Neural impulses are generated by ions, resting potential, action potential, all-
or-none, and return to resting potential. Ions are negatively charged particles inside and positively charged outside neurons. The next
objective is all about How do neurons use neurotransmitters to communicate with each other and with the body. Neurons use
neurotransmitters to communicate with other cells, which are found in axon terminals and synaptic vesicles. Neurotransmitters are
chemicals found in these vesicles that affect the next cell. The synapse/synaptic gap is a microscopic space between the rounded areas
on the end of the axon terminals of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell. Receptor sites are holes in the surface of
dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters. Neurons must be turned on and off
by excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Chemical substances can affect neuronal communication, with agonists mimicking the
effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, and antagonists blocking or reducing a cell's response to the action
of other chemicals or neurotransmitters. the central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, which carry messages
to and from the body for fast, lifesaving reflexes. The next objective is about how do the brain and spinal cord interact, and what are
some misconceptions about the brain, and what is neuroplasticity. The reflex arc consists of three types of neurons: sensory (afferent)
and motor (efferent). The Reflex Arc outlines the interaction between the brain and spinal cord, focusing on three types of neurons:
interneuron, neuroplasticity, and peripheral nervous system. Interneurons, located in the spinal cord, receive sensory information and
send commands to muscles. Neuroplasticity allows cells to change structure and function in response to experience or trauma. The
peripheral nervous system, including somatic and autonomic nerves, runs through the body. The next objective is about How do the
somatic and autonomic nervous systems allow people and animals to interact with their surroundings and control the body’s automatic
functions. The Somatic Nervous System (PNS) is a division of the PNS that carries information from the senses to the central nervous
system (CNS) and from the CNS to voluntary muscles. It includes the sensory pathway and motor pathway. The Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS) is a division of the PNS that controls involuntary muscles, organs, and glands. It includes the sympathetic division,
responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal, and the parasympathetic division, responsible for restoring normal
functioning and maintaining the day-to-day functioning of organs and glands. The next objective is about how do the hormones released
by glands interact with the nervous system and affect behavior. Hormones interact with the nervous system and affect behavior through
various glands. Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, such as the pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid
gland, pancreas, gonads, adrenal glands, and ovaries. The pituitary gland secretes human growth hormone, while the pineal gland
secretes melatonin. The thyroid gland regulates metabolism, while the pancreas controls blood sugar levels. The gonads secrete
hormones regulating sexual development, behavior, and reproduction. The adrenal glands, located on top of each kidney, secrete over
thirty hormones to deal with stress and regulate salt intake. The next objective is about how do psychologists study the brain and how
it works. The study of the brain involves various clinical studies, including deep lesioning, electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB),
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), repetitive TMS, and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). The brain is mapped using
various imaging methods, including computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), electroencephalogram (EEG),
magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and
functional MRI (fMRI). These methods record the electric activity of the brain below specific areas of the skull, using radioactive sugar
injected into the subject. The mapping function is further enhanced by single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and
functional MRI (fMRI), which create a "movie" of changes in brain activity using images from different time periods. The next objective
is about what are the different structures of the hindbrain and what do they do. The bottom part of the brain, known as the hindbrain,
comprises the medulla, a large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, responsible for life-sustaining functions like breathing and heart
rate, and the pons, a larger swelling above it, involved in sleep, dreaming, body coordination, and arousal. The reticular formation (RF)
area of neurons runs through the middle of the medulla and pons, controlling selective attention. The next objective is about what are
the structures of the brain that control emotion, learning, memory, and motivation. The limbic system, a group of brain structures under
the cortex, controls emotion, learning, memory, and motivation. It includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and
cingulate cortex. The thalamus relays sensory information to the cortex, while the hypothalamus is responsible for motivational
behavior. The hippocampus forms long-term memories and stores object location information. The amygdala is responsible for fear
responses and memory. The cingulate cortex is the limbic structure found in the cortex and plays crucial roles in cognitive and emotional
processing. The next objective is about what parts of the cortex control the different senses and the movement of the body. The cortex,
the outermost covering of the brain, is responsible for higher thought processes and sensory interpretation. It undergoes cortex
development, allowing for a larger area of cortical cells to exist in the skull. The cerebral hemispheres consist of two sections of the
cortex on the left and right sides of the brain, with the corpus callosum connecting them. The brain has four lobes: occipital, parietal,
somatosensory, temporal, frontal, and motor. The occipital lobe contains the visual centers, while the parietal lobes process touch, taste,
and temperature sensations. The temporal lobes contain neurons responsible for hearing and meaningful speech. The frontal lobes are
responsible for higher mental processes, decision-making, and fluent speech production. The motor cortex sends motor commands to
the muscles of the somatic nervous system. The next objective is about what parts of the cortex are responsible for higher forms of
thought, such as language. The association areas of the cortex are responsible for coordination, interpretation, and higher mental
processing. Damage to these areas can lead to conditions like Broca's aphasia, Wernicke's aphasia, and spatial neglect. Broca's aphasia
affects fluency, mispronunciation, and halting speech, while Wernicke's aphasia causes language comprehension and meaningful
language production. Spatial neglect results from damage to the right hemisphere's association areas, causing inability to recognize
objects or body parts. The next objective is about how does the left side of the brain differ from the right side. Split-Brain Research, a
study of patients with severed corpus callosum, reveals that the left side of the brain controls language, writing, logical thought, analysis,
and mathematical abilities, while the right-side controls emotional expression, spatial perception, recognition of faces, patterns,
melodies, and emotions. The left side processes information sequentially and enables speech, while the right-side processes
information globally and cannot influence speech. The next objective is about what are some potential causes of attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ADHD may have multiple causes and brain routes, with research exploring environmental factors like
lead exposure, genetic influences, heredity, familial factors, and personality. Current research is exploring various factors.