Flying model craft and stories of manned flight go back many centuries; however, the first

manned ascent — and safe descent — in modern times took place by larger hot-air balloons
developed in the 18th century. Each of the two World Wars led to great technical advances.
Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras:

 Pioneers of flight, from the earliest experiments to 1914.

 First World War, 1914 to 1918.
 Aviation between the World Wars, 1918 to 1939.
 Second World War, 1939 to 1945.
 Postwar era, also called the Jet Age, 1945 to the present day.

Methods of lift[edit]
Lighter than air – aerostats[edit]
Main article: Aerostat

Hot air balloons

Airship USS Akron over Manhattan in the 1930s
Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water.
They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density
gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the
weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same weight as the
air that the craft displaces.
Small hot-air balloons, called sky lanterns, were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd
century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, and were only the second type of aircraft
to fly, the first being kites, which were first invented in ancient China over two thousand years
ago (see Han Dynasty).
A balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft
designs — usually fixed-wing.[3][4][5][6][7][8] In 1919, Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring
to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts." [9] In the 1930s, large
intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships".
[10][11]
— though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons,
and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words
were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate
aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, the Zeppelins being the largest and
most famous. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be
called airships, so "airship" came to be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents,
such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a
"balloon" is an unpowered aerostat and an "airship" is a powered one.
A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible. Sometimes this term is applied only to non-
rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship (which
may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a
moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known
as blimps. During World War II, this shape was widely adopted for tethered balloons; in windy
weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The
nickname blimp was adopted along with the shape. In modern times, any small dirigible or airship
is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered.
Heavier-than-air – aerodynes[edit]
Heavier-than-air aircraft, such as airplanes, must find some way to push air or gas downwards so
that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic
movement through the air is the origin of the term. There are two ways to produce dynamic
upthrust — aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust.
Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the air
by the forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes
called "rotary wings." A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as
an aerofoil. To fly, air must flow over the wing and generate lift. A flexible wing is a wing made of
fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is tethered to the ground
and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary.
With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downward. V/STOL aircraft, such
as the Harrier jump jet and Lockheed Martin F-35B take off and land vertically using powered lift
and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight.
A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne because it does not depend on the air for
its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered
or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift at very high
speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case.
Fixed-wing[edit]
Main article: Fixed-wing aircraft

An Airbus A380, the world's largest passenger airliner

The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its
forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on
the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly and were
invented in China around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test
aircraft, wind tunnels, and computer modelling programs became available.
The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free-flight were gliders. A glider designed
by George Cayley carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853. The first powered
and controllable fixed-wing aircraft (the airplane or aeroplane) was invented by Wilbur and Orville
Wright.
Besides the method of propulsion (if any), fixed-wing aircraft are in general characterized by
their wing configuration. The most important wing characteristics are:

 Number of wings — Monoplane, biplane, triplane, or multiplane.

 Wing support — Braced or cantilever, rigid or flexible.
 Wing planform — including aspect ratio, angle of sweep, and any variations along
the span (including the important class of delta wings).
 Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any.
 Dihedral angle — positive, zero, or negative (anhedral).
A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight.
A flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this is
a lifting body, which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control surfaces.
Wing-in-ground-effect vehicles are generally not considered aircraft.[12] They "fly" efficiently close
to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the
Russian ekranoplan nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster". Man-powered aircraft also rely
on ground effect to remain airborne with minimal pilot power, but this is only because they are so
underpowered—in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher.
Rotorcraft[edit]
Main article: Rotorcraft

The Mil Mi-8 is the most produced rotorcraft.

Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil cross-section blades (a rotary
wing) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros, and various hybrids such
as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft.
Helicopters have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to
create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust for
forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas
jets at the tips. Some have a tail rotor to counteract the rotation of the main rotor, and to aid
directional control.
Autogyros have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is
tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it
spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor kites are
unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static anchor
in high-wind for kited flight.
Compound rotorcraft have wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They are
nowadays classified as powered lift types and not as rotorcraft. Tiltrotor aircraft (such as the Bell
Boeing V-22 Osprey), tiltwing, tail-sitter, and coleopter aircraft have their
rotors/propellers horizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight.
Other methods of lift[edit]

The Lunar Landing Research Vehicle relies on powered

lift.

 A lifting body is an aircraft body shaped to produce lift. If there are any wings, they
are too small to provide significant lift and are used only for stability and control.
Lifting bodies are not efficient: they suffer from high drag, and must also travel at
 high speed to generate enough lift to fly. Many of the research prototypes, such as
the Martin Marietta X-24, which led up to the Space Shuttle, were lifting bodies,
though the Space Shuttle is not, and some supersonic missiles obtain lift from the
airflow over a tubular body.
 Powered lift types rely on engine-derived lift for vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL).
Most types transition to fixed-wing lift for horizontal flight. Classes of powered lift
types include VTOL jet aircraft (such as the Harrier jump jet) and tiltrotors, such as
the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, among others. A few experimental designs rely entirely
on engine thrust to provide lift throughout the whole flight, including personal fan-lift
hover platforms and jetpacks. VTOL research designs include the Rolls-Royce
Thrust Measuring Rig.
 Some rotor wings employ horizontal-axis wings, in which airflow across a spinning
rotor generates lift. The Flettner airplane uses a rotating cylinder, obtaining lift from
the Magnus effect. The FanWing uses a cross-flow fan, while the mechanically more
complex cyclogyro comprises multiple wings which rotate together around a central
axis.
 The ornithopter obtains thrust by flapping its wings.

Size and speed extremes[edit]

Size[edit]
Main article: List of large aircraft
The smallest aircraft are toys/recreational items, and nano aircraft.
The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume (as of 2016) is the 302 ft (92 m) long
British Airlander 10, a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly
capable of speeds up to 90 mph (140 km/h; 78 kn), and an airborne endurance of two weeks
with a payload of up to 22,050 lb (10,000 kg).[13][14][15]
The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft ever built, as of 2016, was
the Antonov An-225 Mriya. That Soviet-built (Ukrainian SSR) six-engine transport of the 1980s
was 84 m (276 ft) long, with an 88 m (289 ft) wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after
transporting 428,834 lb (194,516 kg) of goods, and has flown 100 t (220,000 lb) loads
commercially. With a maximum loaded weight of 550–700 t (1,210,000–1,540,000 lb), it was also
the heaviest aircraft built to date. It could cruise at 500 mph (800 km/h; 430 kn).[16][17][18][19][20] The
aircraft was destroyed during the Russo-Ukrainian War.[21]
The largest military airplanes are the Ukrainian Antonov An-124 Ruslan (world's second-largest
airplane, also used as a civilian transport),[22] and American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy transport,
weighing, loaded, over 380 t (840,000 lb).[20][23] The 8-engine, piston/propeller Hughes H-
4 Hercules "Spruce Goose" — an American World War II wooden flying boat transport with a
greater wingspan (94m/260ft) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest
(Airbus A380-800 at 24.1m/78ft) — flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out
of ground effect.[20]
The largest civilian airplanes, apart from the above-noted An-225 and An-124, are the Airbus
Beluga cargo transport derivative of the Airbus A300 jet airliner, the Boeing Dreamlifter cargo
transport derivative of the Boeing 747 jet airliner/transport (the 747-200B was, at its creation in
the 1960s, the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum weight of over 400 t (880,000 lb)),
[23]
and the double-decker Airbus A380 "super-jumbo" jet airliner (the world's largest passenger
airliner).[20][24]
Speeds[edit]
Main article: Flight airspeed record
The fastest fixed-wing aircraft and fastest glider, is the Space Shuttle, which re-entered the
atmosphere at nearly Mach 25 or 17,500 mph (28,200 km/h)[25]
The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing
powered aircraft was of the NASA X-43A Pegasus, a scramjet-powered, hypersonic, lifting
body experimental research aircraft, at Mach 9.68 or 6,755 mph (10,870 km/h) on 16 November
2004.[26]
Prior to the X-43A, the fastest recorded powered airplane flight, and still the record for the fastest
manned powered airplane, was the North American X-15, rocket-powered airplane at Mach 6.7
or 7,274 km/h (4,520 mph) on 3 October 1967.[27]
The fastest manned, air-breathing powered airplane is the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, a
U.S. reconnaissance jet fixed-wing aircraft, having reached 3,530 km/h (2,193 mph) on 28 July
1976.[28]

Propulsion[edit]
Unpowered aircraft[edit]
Main article: Unpowered aircraft

Sailplane (Rolladen-Schneider LS4)

Gliders are heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may
be by launching forward and downward from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-
line, either by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered "tug" aircraft. For a glider to
maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in
relation to the ground). Many gliders can "soar", i.e., gain height from updrafts such as thermal
currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist
and pioneer George Cayley, whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Common
examples of gliders are sailplanes, hang gliders and paragliders.
Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude, either by heating
the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes
with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a
spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control.
Kites are aircraft[29] that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that maintains
tension in the tether or kite line; they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to
generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon-kite hybrids that are shaped and tethered to obtain
kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than-air.
Powered aircraft[edit]
Main article: Powered aircraft
Powered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power, typically aircraft
engines although rubber and manpower have also been used. Most aircraft engines are either
lightweight reciprocating engines or gas turbines. Engine fuel is stored in tanks, usually in the
wings but larger aircraft also have additional fuel tanks in the fuselage.
Propeller aircraft[edit]
Main article: Powered aircraft § Propeller aircraft
 A turboprop-engined DeHavilland Twin Otter adapted as
a floatplane
Propeller aircraft use one or more propellers (airscrews) to create thrust in a forward direction.
The propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source in tractor configuration but can be
mounted behind in pusher configuration. Variations of propeller layout include contra-rotating
propellers and ducted fans.
Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. Early airships used man power
or steam engines. The more practical internal combustion piston engine was used for virtually all
fixed-wing aircraft until World War II and is still used in many smaller aircraft. Some types use
turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop or propfan. Human-powered
flight has been achieved, but has not become a practical means of transport. Unmanned aircraft
and models have also used power sources such as electric motors and rubber bands.