NERVOUS SYSTEM

(from Functional Biology Modular Approach pages 307-314)

CONTROL OF BODY PROCESSES THROUGH THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

This module is about the main mechanism of the body that controls or regulates its functions. It describes
the complementarity of structure and functions of man’s nervous system, and explains how the body receives
stimuli and responds to them within and beyond the control of his will.
Function of the Nervous System
Man controls or regulates his body processes in two ways:
• through a nervous system; and
• by means of chemicals known as hormones
The function of the nervous system may be deduced from these statements:
• We receive information from our surroundings from the sense organs (or receptors) by the way of sensory
nerves.
• We process that information in the brain and spinal cord.
• We react or respond to that information through a command from the brain or spinal cord by way of
motor nerves to the effectors.
The things in the environment that cause an organism to react or respond are referred to as stimuli (singular,
stimulus). A receptor is a cell or organ that perceives a stimulus, while an effector is a cell or organ that
demonstrates the body’s responds to whatever incites it to action.
Structure of the Nervous System
The main divisions of the man’s nervous system. These are:
• Central Nervous System (CNS) – consists of the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – consists of nerves which arise from the brain (known as cranial
nerves) and from the spinal cord (called spinal nerves)
The nerves of the peripheral nervous system end at the muscles and organs of the body.

NERVOUS
SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM (CNS) SYSTEM (PNS)

BRAIN Motor Neurons Sensory Neurons

receives and SPINAL CORD CNS to muscles sensory organs to
processes sensory and glands CNS
conducts signals
information, to and from the
initiates responses, brain, controls
stores, memories reflex activities
generates thoughts
and emotions

Somatic Nervous Autonomic

cerebrum cerebellum brain stem System Nervous System
controls voluntary control involuntary
movements response

spinal cranial Sympathetic Parasympathetic

nerves nerves Division Division
"Fight or Flight" "Rest or Digest"
The relationship of the parts of man’s nervous system at the
Central Processing Centers:
right. The sense organs detects the stimulus. Sensory nerves Nervous • Brain
relay the information to the spinal cord and/or the brain where System • Spinal cord
it is processed, the central nervous system then sends a Sensory Motor
command to the proper effector through motor nerves. Nerves nerves
Peripheral Receptor Effector
Nervous detects the Responds to
System stimulus stimulus
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THE FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE NEURON
Two types of cells makes up the nervous system:
a.) nerve cells, or neurons – for transmitting messages from one part of the body to another;
b.) supporting cells for protecting and assisting neurons
Structure and Function of a Neuron
The picture on the left shows a simplified structure of a neuron. It consists
of
a.) a cell body which contains the nucleus; and
b.) two types of projections called nerve fibers
i. the shorter, thinner, more numerous and highly branched dendrites
ii. longer and thicker with fewer branches called axons
• Dendrites relay signals towards the cell body.
• Axons, on the other hand, conduct signals away from the cell body, either
to another neuron or to an effector.
Neurons differ in the direction of the message and type of impulse
they carry:
a.) Sensory neurons carry impulses to the brain or spinal cord;
b.) Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain or spinal cord to
the muscles; and
c.) Associative neurons or interneurons, at the central nervous
system integrate data from sensory neurons and then relay
commands to motor neurons
While these three types of neurons share common features, their
basic structure may differ slightly according to their function. This
includes their length, cell body (soma) position and the comparative
distribution of dendrites and axon terminals.
Just as there are sensory and motor neurons, there are also
sensory and motor nerves. Neurons appear in bunches; the long
fibers of a bunch of neurons bundled together form a nerve.
a.) A sensory nerve consists of the longs fibers of a bunch of
sensory neurons.
b.) A motor nerve consists of the long fibers of a bunch of
motor neurons.
c.) A mixed nerve is a bundle of the long fibers of both
sensory and motor neurons.
Passage of an Impulse from One Neuron to Another
In transmitting a nerve signal such as from your hand to your brain,
several neurons are involved. Nerve cells can receive and transmit signals.
The dendrites of one neuron are close to the axon of another neuron. The
point where neurons meet is called a synapse. The two neurons are
connected. There is a gap in space at the synapse. However, the neurons
are close enough for signals to travel through. These signals pass over the
gap in only one direction, from the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of
the other neuron. A stimulus at the end of a nerve fiber starts a process of
chemical and electrical changes that travel like a wave over the length of
the fiber. This wave of change is called the nerve impulse. The chemical
reactions of the nerve impulse at any part of a fiber need energy and use
oxygen. The figure at the right illustrates how the fine branches at the end
of the axon of one neuron (the transmitting neuron) are located close to
(but not touching) the dendrites of another neuron (the receiving neuron).
Across this space, the nerve impulse is transmitted through a substance called nerve hormone or
neurohormone or neurotransmitter released by the transmitting neuron.
A neurotransmitter is released
a.) at the synapse between the axon of the sensory neuron and the dendrites of the associative neuron in
the spinal cord;
b.) at the synapse between the axon of the associative neuron and the dendrites of the motor neuron; and
c.) at the point where motor neuron ends in the muscle (the effector).
Scientist found that the neurotransmitter released by a motor neuron is acetylcholine, a small organic molecule
which slows down heartbeat and causes skeletal muscles to contract. Immediately after, the neuron releases
the enzyme cholinesterase which neutralizes acetylcholine, making the muscle cells relax. After some time,

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acetylcholine decomposes. It is interesting to note that several neurotransmitters are also hormones, e.g.
epinephrine, norepinephrine and endorphins (a natural painkiller).
LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME SECTION DATE
February 16, 2024
COMPETENCY CODE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL LEARNING MATERIAL ACTIVITY 1 TEACHER
S10LT-IIIa-33-34 IMSCI10-07 LMSCI10-07 BREAK IT DOWN N. A. M. ESTORQUE
(Adapted from DepEd Project EASE, Module 9: Life Support Systems, pp. 4-6)

Objective: Identify the parts of the nervous system

Procedure: Using the given graphic organizer, fill in the missing parts to complete the entire concept showing
the structure of the nervous system.

NERVOUS
SYSTEM

Guide Questions:
QUESTION 1. How will you differentiate the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS) in terms of their functions?
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QUESTION 2. What might happen to the human body if one part of the nervous system fails to carry out
its function properly?
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QUESTION 3. Give a personal detailed account of how the central nervous system and peripheral nervous
system reacts to the earthquake that had happen in Davao City.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
(from Functional Biology Modular Approach pages 316-321)

CONTROL OF BODY PROCESSES THROUGH THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

This module is about hormones, chemical produced by the body which, together with the nervous system,
control and regulate the functions of the body. The endocrine system is composed of glands that secrete different
types of hormones that affect almost every cell, organ, and function of our body. It is essential in regulating
growth and development, metabolism, as well as reproductive processes and mood.
Functions of the Endocrine System
The nervous system and the endocrine system have the same function – control and regulation of the
body processes.
The body receives information about the environment through the sense organs. The information is relayed
by nerves to the central nervous system where it is processed. The central nervous system sends messages
through nerves to the body organs for appropriate response such that
• The body’s internal balance or equilibrium; and
• The organism’s survival is ensured.
How does your endocrine system function?
Endocrine glands secrete chemicals known as hormones into the bloodstream, which carries them
throughout the body. Hormones are substances produced by ductless glands. These substances diffuse from
the secreting cells through the walls of the blood vessels directly into the blood. Hormones belong to four classes
of chemicals: proteins, amines, peptides, and steroids. When a hormone in the blood reaches the target organ,
it produces a notable effect. The endocrine system sends signals all over the body, much like the nervous
system, but unlike the instant responses activated by the nervous system, the effects can take a few hours or
even weeks.
Endocrine Glands and their Secretions
The endocrine system contains a group of glands that release hormones into the body. The following table
lists all the major glands in the body, with their functions, locations, and the hormones they release.
Hormones Diagram of the Endocrine Glands
Gland Location Function
Released in the Body
Pituitary at the Oxytocin, stimulates growth, and
base Vasopressin, controls the functions of
of the Growth other glands Figure 6. The major endocrine organs in
brain Hormone, the body.
Adrenocorticot
ropic
Hormone
(ACTH),
Prolactin,
Luteinizing
Hormone,
Follicle
Stimulating
Hormone
(FSH)
Thyroid below Thyroxin, regulates body
the Calcitonin metabolism, and causes
voice box storage of calcium in
bones
Parathyroid in the Parathyromon controls the calcium
neck e levels in your body, and
normalizes bone growth
Thymus in front Thymosin enables the body
of the to produce certain
heart antibodies
Adrenal on top of Adrenaline prepares the body for
the action, controls the
kidneys heart rate and
breathing in times of
emergency

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 Gland Location Hormones Released Function
Pancreas between the kidneys insulin, glucagon regulates blood sugar
Reproductive: Testes lower abdomen androgen, testosterone control maturation and
(males) male characteristics
Reproductive: ovaries lower abdomen estrogen, progesterone influence female
(females) traits, and support
reproductive function
Some interesting characteristics of hormones cited below.
1. Hormones act in very small amounts. An increase or decrease in said amount may result in a body
disorder. An example is the case of thyroxin, which controls (a) physical and mental growth, and (b)
metabolic rate or oxidation in the cells. A vital component of this hormone is iodine. If iodine is lacking
in the diet, not enough thyroxin is produced. The condition is called hypothyroidism. The thyroid gland
enlarges in an effort to produce more thyroxine. The result is simple goiter, which characterized by a
swelling in the front part of the neck.
The opposite condition is hyperthyroidism, where there is more than the normal amount of
thyroxine in the blood. The result is exophthalmic goiter, which is characterized by protruding eyeballs.

2. Hormones are secreted by ductless glands directly into the blood.

3. Hormones may be proteins, peptides, amines or steroids. Only a few endocrine glands produce
steroids; the rest produce non-steroids hormones.

4. Some hormones have many targets. Such hormones affect most tissues of the body. Some affect only
a few targets. The growth hormone, for example, from pituitary gland, promotes protein synthesis and
other metabolic functions in practically all tissues. In contrast, prolactin, also from the pituitary glands,
stimulates only milk production in the mammary glands.

5. Some hormones affect other endocrine glands. For instance, the thyroid-stimulating hormone of the
pituitary stimulates the thyroid gland, while the adrenocorticotropic hormone, also of the pituitary,
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids.

6. Hormones function closely with the nervous system.

How does the nervous system and endocrine system work together?
Neurotransmitters and hormones act together to regulate activities of the cell or the organ. Nerves receive
stimuli and transmit impulses over nerve fibers to sensitive tissues. At the end of the nerve fiber,
neurotransmitters are released. These chemicals, not the nerve impulse, actually cause the tissue to respond.
Endocrine glands receive stimuli and secrete hormones. These hormones circulate in the bloodstream to a
sensitive tissue where they regulate the activity of the tissue.

In many cases, both the nerves and the hormones control the activity of a single organ. For example, danger
situations cause your hypothalamus to send nerve signals to your adrenal glands which releases epinephrine.
This hormone stimulates faster breathing (lungs) and heart rates.

KEY CONCEPTS
Hormones affect various processes in the body as they regulate and balance the functioning of organs,
tissues, and cells. Hormones have great impact on your growth, appearance, emotions, and reproductive
functions. These determine whether or not you develop disorders such as diabetes, thyroid disease, growth
disorders, or sexual dysfunction. Hormones act in very small amounts. An increase or decrease in hormonal
levels may result in body disorder due to hormonal imbalance.

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 LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME SECTION DATE
February 16, 2024
COMPETENCY CODE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL LEARNING MATERIAL ACTIVITY 3 TEACHER
S10LT-IIIa-33-34 IMSCI10-09 LMSCI10-09 Who’s In Control? N. A. M. ESTORQUE

Objective: Identify the major endocrine glands in the human body and their functions.
Procedure: Study each picture that depicts the involvement of a particular gland in the endocrine system.
Write down the name of the endocrine gland and explain its effect, according to its function.
Activity Gland Involve Function
Example:

Athletes burn calories It regulates the metabolism of the

Thyroid Gland
during exercise. body.

a pregnant woman

a tall boy

a girl shares her extra

sweet cupcake to eat

a boy running away from

danger

a sick girl on her bed

Guide Questions:
QUESTION 4. Which gland of the endocrine and nervous system controls the other glands in the body?
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QUESTION 5. How will you differentiate thyroid and parathyroid glands in terms of location and function?
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QUESTION 6. If a person’s blood sugar level becomes unstable, what glands might be involved in the
problem?
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QUESTION 7. How important is the thymus gland in keeping your body free from diseases?
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QUESTION 8. What might happen to a person born without a thymus gland?

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QUESTION 9. How will you explain the sudden boost of energy, increased strength and extraordinary ability
to lift very heavy objects especially during emergency situations?
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QUESTION 10. Why is injecting insulin an essential part of the daily regime for most people with diabetes?
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QUESTION 11. Why does the menstrual cycle stop during menopause?
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QUESTION 12. How do oral contraceptives, specifically birth control pills, prevent pregnancy? Breastfeeding
releases oxytocin and prolactin, hormones that relax the mother and make her feel more
nurturing toward her baby. On the other hand, how does the baby benefit from the
production of these hormones in the mother’s body?
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KEY CONCEPTS:
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete chemicals called hormones to control various body
processes. This control system usually brings about slow changes in the body because chemical messengers
move more slowly than nerve impulses. The major glands in the body are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
thymus, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.
DID YOU KNOW?
a.) Amino acids are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen that occur
naturally in plant and animal tissues. They are the chief constituents of proteins; thus, the end product
of protein digestion are amino acids.
b.) Peptides are a class or organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen that yield
two or more amino acids on hydrolysis. They are short chains of amino acids that form the constituent
parts of the larger protein molecules. They are known dipeptide, tripeptide, etc depending on the number
of amino acids in the molecule. Polypeptide means the molecule has several amino acids.
c.) Proteins are a group of organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; their large
molecules consist of one or more polypeptides, which are in turn made up of amino acids.
d.) Amines are another class of organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
e.) Lipids are a group of organic compounds consisting mainly of carbon and oxygen atoms, and are insoluble
in water. They include fats, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
f.) Example of steroids are cholesterol, testosterone and estrogen.
g.) Cholesterol is the main building block of steroid hormones in the body; it is converted into bile salts by
the liver.
h.) Glycogen is a polysaccharide (“poly” means many, “saccharide” means sugar) with the general formula
(C5H10O5)X. It is the form in which carbohydrates is stored in animal tissue, mostly in the liver and less in
muscles. It is also called animal starch.
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 LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME SECTION DATE
February 16, 2024
COMPETENCY CODE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL LEARNING MATERIAL ACTIVITY 4 TEACHER
S10LT-IIIa-33-34 IMSCI10-10 LMSCI10-10 What Went Wrong? N. A. M. ESTORQUE

Objective: Explain the effect of a particular hormone in the body if not properly regulated.
Procedure: Identify which gland in the endocrine system is involved in each dysfunction and explain the
effect of hormonal imbalance that was observed.
Condition Reason

1. Dwarfism

2. Gigantism

3. Goiter

4. Diabetes

Guide Questions:
QUESTION 1. What condition may arise if the pituitary gland is not producing enough growth hormones?
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QUESTION 2. What will happen to a person with excessive secretion of growth hormones from the pituitary
gland?
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QUESTION 3. Why is there a noticeable swelling in the front part of the neck of a person who has goiter?
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QUESTION 4. How does using iodized salt help in preventing thyroid problems?
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QUESTION 5. How does the medical condition of a person with endocrine dysfunction affect his or her way
of life?
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QUESTION 6. Write a one-paragraph essay about how one of these conditions will affect your life if you
have dysfunction due to the effect of hormonal imbalance
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Structural and Functional Connection between the Nervous and Endocrine System
This close association is best demonstrated by the relation between the hypothalamus and the pituitary
gland. The hypothalamus is made up of nervous tissue and is part of the forebrain. The pituitary gland is just
below the hypothalamus.
The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) consists of three lobes. The anterior and middle pituitaries (collectively
called adenohypophysis) are made up of glandular tissue. The posterior pituitary (also called neurohypophysis)is
an extension of the hypothalamus and is made up of nervous tissue.

Hormones Hormones
released at the released at the
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
PITUITARY PITUITARY

The posterior pituitary does not secrete hormones. It simply stores and release two of the hormones secreted
by the hypothalamus, which are oxytocin and vasopressin. In contrast, the anterior pituitary secretes hormones
that control the activities of other endocrine glands.
How does the hypothalamus control the activity of the anterior pituitary? It does so by secreting two kinds of
hormones:
a.) Releasing hormones – makes the anterior pituitary secrete its hormones
b.) Inhibiting hormones – makes the anterior pituitary stop secreting hormones
The location of the hypothalamus in the forebrain is vital in controlling the activity of the pituitary gland as
well as the other endocrine glands. It sends out both nerve signals and endocrine signals (principally through
the pituitary). Thus, the hypothalamus is truly the control center of the endocrine system.
Antagonistic Effects of Some Hormones
Recall that the thyroid hormone calcitonin lowers the calcium level in the blood, while the parathyroid
hormone raises the blood calcium level.
In the same manner, insulin (from the pancreas) causes the transformation of blood glucose into liver
glycogen, thereby lowering the blood sugar level. On the other hand, glucagon (also from the pancreas) causes
the transformation of liver glycogen into blood glucose, thereby raising the blood glucose level.
The above illustrations shows that the two pairs of hormones have opposite or antagonistic effect that some
hormones exhibits.
Question: How does the body know which to produce and when? Through the peripheral nervous system,
the hypothalamus receives information about the conditions both inside and outside the body. Said conditions
are stimuli to which the body must respond. By sending both nervous signals and glandular signals (through
the pituitary gland), the hypothalamus indirectly stimulates the particular organ(s) to secrete the appropriate
hormone in order to address the problem situation or stimulus. Thus, if the stimulus is a high level of blood
sugar, the pancreas secretes insulin.
Role of Hormones in Homeostasis
A healthy body, like other biological systems, tends to maintain conditions in its internal environment by
continuously adjusting to changes from within and outside the body or system. The term homeostasis is used
to refer to this state of internal equilibrium as well as the tendency of the body or system to attain such a
dynamic state of internal equilibrium.
In a healthy body, homeostasis is possible because the body has efficient control mechanisms that oppose
changes in its internal environment. For instance, the body keeps the following within normal range or level:
body temperature, amount of water in the body, amount of metabolic wastes in the cell, blood calcium level,
and hormones in the blood. These are few but a few of the thousands of control mechanisms in the body.
The following discussion illustrates homeostasis involving the sugar level in the blood. The normal level is
about 90 mg glucose per 100 mL of blood. Suppose a student plays basketball during noon break and
incidentally misses his lunch. What may happen inside his body as a result?
1. The level of his blood glucose may drop below normal.
2. The hypothalamus detects the situation and sends out appropriate signals.
3. The pancreas is stimulated to release glucagon directly into the blood.
4. The liver transforms glycogen into glucose and releases it into the blood.
5. The blood glucose level rises to normal; the pancreas stops releasing glucagon.

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