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S./Y. ‘23- ‘24  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WEEK NO: 8 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1.2 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

1.1 THE
Learning NERVOUS
Outcome SYSTEM
After reading this section, you 1. SENSORY INPUT
should be able to: Stimuli interpreted
A. Functions of Nervous System as touch, taste,
B. Division of Nervous System temperature, smell,
(Central and Peripheral Nervous System) sound, blood
C. Cells of the Nervous System
pressure, and body
D. Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
position.
E. Spinal Cord
F. Spinal Nerves
G. Brain 2. INTEGRATION
H. Sensory and Motor Functions CNS processes
I. Other Brain Functions
sensory input and
initiates responses
categorizing into
The nervous system is the body's command immediate response,
and control center, coordinating all functions memory, or ignore
and responses. It comprises the central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and
the peripheral nervous system (nerves and 3. HOMEOSTASIS
sensory receptors). maintains through
sensory input and
integration by
THE ANATOMY OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
stimulating or
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM inhibiting other
The central nervous system (CNS) systems
consists of the brain and the spinal
cord, which act as the command 4. MENTAL ACTIVITY
center for the entire body..
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Consciousness, memory,
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) thinking.
includes all the nerves that branch out
from the brain and spinal cord,
transmitting signals to and from the
CNS. 5. MENTAL ACTIVITY
3. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Controls skeletal muscle and helps
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) control/regulate smooth muscle, PAGE 1
controls involuntary functions like cardiac muscle, and glands
heart rate, breathing, and digestion,
1.3 DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
regulating the body's internal
environment.
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
4. SENSORY AND MOTOR PATHWAYS
Consists of the brain and spinal cord is
Sensory pathways transmit
the control center of the nervous
information from sensory receptors to
system.
the CNS, while motor pathways send
It transmits signals between the brain
signals from the CNS to the muscles
and the nerves that control the
for movement.
muscles and sensory organs.

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S./Y. ‘23- ‘24  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WEEK NO: 8 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1.4 THE CELLS OF NERVOUS SYTEM

2. CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
The nervous system is a complex network of cells that
The nerve network connecting
transmit signals throughout your body. These cells are
the CNS to the rest of the body. It
broadly classified into two main types:
carries sensory information from
the body to the CNS and motor  Neurons
signals from the CNS to the  Glial cells
muscles, glands, and organs.
NEURONS
PERIPHERAL NEURONS HAVE TWO TYPES:  Often called nerve cells,
neurons are the functional unit of
Sensory (afferent) neurons bring the nervous system that receive
information about the world within stimuli and transmit action
and around the body from sense potentials to other neurons or
organs to the brain and spinal cord, effector organs – consist of a cell
Motor (efferent) neurons carry body (soma/perikarion),
messages from the brain and spinal dendrites, and an axon – no
cord out to the muscles and glands. mitotic division
2 SUBDIVISION OF MOTOR

Somatic Motor System CELL BODY (SOMA)

Autonomic System contains a nucleus
(source of information on
SOMATIC MOTOR SYSTEM
protein synthesis/how to make
Controls skeletal neurotransmitters), Golgi
muscle only, controls the apparatus (packages vesicles of
voluntary muscles of the neurotransmitters),
body, such as the muscles mitochondria, a large number of
that you use to move your neurofilaments and microtubules (separate
arms and legs. the ER into distinct areas called nissl bodies
indicating a large amount of protein synthesis
as ribosomes are the workbenches upon
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM which protein synthesis takes place)
Controls/affects smooth muscle, cardiac DENTRITES
muscle, and glands control body into; unitary Short, often highly branching,
muscles, such as the muscles that control your cytoplasmic extensions of the soma –
heart rate, digestion, and breathing. function as the receiver of action
potentials and carry them toward the
2 SUBDIVISION OF MOTOR cell body
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
responsible for the "fight-or-flight" response.
It prepares the body for action in stressful AXON
situations. a long cell process extending from the soma -
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM carries the action potential away from the cell
responsible for the "rest-and-digest" body – may vary in length from millimeters to
response. It helps the body to relax and more than a meter (spine to foot)
conserve energy. a. axon hillock – attachment site of the axon

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to the soma – devoid of nissl bodies – where processes reaching out and wrapping around
excitable postsynaptic potentials (electrically capillaries
charged ions) gather OLIGODENDROCYTES-
produce myelin, the
TYPES OF NEURONS
fatty sheath that
1) MULTIPOLAR – insulates axons and
These are the most speeds up the
common type of transmission of nerve
neuron. They have impulses.
multiple dendrites MICROGLIA-
and a single axon . (macrophages/”janitor
2) BIPOLAR – have one cells”) of the CNS.
dendrite and one axon Theimmune cells of the
– located in some nervous system. They
sensory organs (retina scavenge debris and
of the eye & nasal help to defend the
cavity)These have two nervous system from
processes - one axon infection.
and one dendrite - EPENDYMAL CELLS -
extending from form myelinated
opposite ends of the sheath (multiple
cell body. layers of
3) UNIPOLAR phospholipid cell
NEURONS: These are membrane) around
rare and have a axons by wrapping
single process themselves around
extending from the axons – found in the
cell body. They are PNS
found in the
SATELLITE CELLS
embryonic nervous
system and some PNS only – support,
sensory neurons. nourish, and protect
4) Glial cells: also known neurons in the
as neuroglia, are much ganglion
more numerous than
neurons. They provide
1.5 ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND & NUERAL PATHWAYS
support and
nourishment for
neurons and help NEURONS
maintain the nervous These are the fundamental units of the
system’s health. nervous system, acting like biological
There are several different types of glial cells, each wires.
with a specific function: Action Potential
ASTROCYTES - Major When a stimulus is detected by a sensory
support of the CNS – receptor or a decision is made in the
common site of CNS brain, an electrical signal called an action
tumors – looks like a potential is generated.
star with some of their

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ION CHANNELS BUNDLES OF AXONS:

The action potential is created by the Neurons don't operate in isolation.

opening and closing of ion channels in the Groups of axons with similar functions are
neuron's membrane. These channels bundled together to form neural
allow charged particles (ions) like sodium pathways (tracts or fascicles).
and potassium to flow in and out of the
cell.
MYELIN SHEATH:
SYNAPSE
Many axons are wrapped in a fatty
The a junction where the axon of one substance called the myelin sheath.
neuron interacts with another neuron or
effector organ.
SPECIFICITY:
REFLEXES
Neural pathways connect specific brain
involuntary reactions in response to a
regions to muscles, glands, or other areas
stimulus that’s applied to a sensory organ
of the nervous system. This allows for
and transmitted to the CNS (not
targeted communication and coordinated
necessarily the brain)
responses.
1. REFLEX ARC – simplest neural pathway by
which a reflex occurs – basic functional 1.6 SPINAL CORD
unit/smallest and simplest pathway capable of
receiving a stimulus and yielding a response. The spinal cord is a
vital part of the
Components of Reflex Arc
human body,
a. Sensory receptor – initial stimulation happens connecting the brain
b. Sensory neuron – transports message to the rest of the
c. Interneuron – located in the CNS (usually the nervous system. It
spinal cord) not part of all reflexes acts as a conduit for
d. Motor neuron – transports response message communication,
e. Effector organ – effects a change (skeletal, transmitting sensory
cardiac, or smooth muscle or glands) information and
motor commands
NEURAL PATHWAYS
between the brain
a. Converging – two or more neurons synapse
and the rest of the
with a single neuron
body.
b. Diverging – one neuron with branching axon
synapses with two or more neurons

INFORMATION HIGHWAYS: ANATOMY OF SPINAL CORD

Neural pathways are the specific routes VERTEBRAE

that electrical signals follow within the
The spinal cord is protected by a series of
nervous system.
small bones called vertebrae, which form
BUILDING AND STRENGTHENING PATHWAYS: the spinal column.

Neural pathways are not fixed structures. GREY AND WHITE MATTER
They can be strengthened or weakened
The spinal cord is composed of grey
based on experience and activity.
matter, which contains the nerve cell

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bodies, and white matter, which contains SPINAL CORD REFLEXES

the nerve fibers.
stretch reflexes are the simplest reflexes,
NERVE ROOTS in which muscles contract in response to
stretching force
Nerve roots extend from the spinal cord,
allowing it to communicate with the rest WITHDRAWAL REFLEX
of the body.
(flexor reflex) removes a body part from
1. ASCENDING TRACTS – consist of axons that painful stimulus
conduct action potentials toward the brain –
neurons of these axons located in the grey matter
of the spinal cord
2. DESCENDING TRACTS – consist of axons that
conduct action potentials away from the brain –
neurons of these axons are usually in the primary
motor cortex of the brain.

FIGURE 1. The nerve root consisting of white and grey

matter, dorsal, ventral root. Figure 2. The Spinal Cord
SPINAL NERVE
1.7 SPINAL NERVE
mixed nerves (both afferent and efferent)
formed by the joining of the ventral and
dorsal roots laterally to the spinal cord – SPINAL NERVES
they exit from the vertebral column at the 31pair categorized by region (8 cervical,
intravertebral foramen (lateral space 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccygeal
between individual vertebrae) – which spit into dorsal and ventral rami
1. VENTRAL ROOT – nerves protruding from the after exiting the vertebral column at the
anterior horn – motor axons form rootlets that intervertebral foramen, these then rejoin
exit the spinal cord and bundle together to form and are organized into 3 plexuses
the nerve (switchboard; reorganization of spinal
2. DORSAL ROOT – nerves protruding from the nerves)
posterior horn – sensory axons from a bundle
separate into rootlets that enter the spinal cord
carrying action potentials to the CNS originate in
the periphery of the body

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A. CERVICAL PLEXUS

originates from spinal nerves C1 thru C4 –

branches of this plexus innervate muscles
of the hyoid bone, neck skin, and
posterior head skin – most important
branch is the phrenic nerve which
innervates the diaphragm

Figure 4: The Cervical Plexus

B. BRACHIAL PLEXUS

originates from spinal nerves C5 thru T1 -

controls the upper limbs – contains 5
major nerves.
1. AXILLARY NERVE – innervates 2
shoulder muscles along with the skin
covering them
2. RADIAL NERVE – innervates muscles of
the posterior forearm along with the skin
covering it and the hand
3. MUSCULOCUTANEOUS NERVE –
innervates the anterior muscles of the
arm and the skin covering the radial
surface of the arm
4. ULNAR NERVE – innervates two
anterior muscles, and most intrinsic hand
muscles, and skin covering the ulnar side
Figure 3: The spinal nerve and their functions. of hand
5. MEDIAN NERVE – innervates most
anterior forearm muscles, some intrinsic

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hand muscles, and skin covering the radial

side of hand.

Figure 5:The Brachial Plexus

C. LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS
Figure 6: The Lumbosacral Plexus
originates from spinal nerves L1 thru
S4 – controls lower limbs – 4 major SACRAL PLEXUS
nerves
The sacral plexus is a network of nerve
1. OBTURATOR NERVE – innervates the fibers that supplies the skin and muscles
muscles of the medial thigh and skin covering of the pelvis and lower limb. It is located
on the surface of the posterior pelvic wall,
them
anterior to the pisiforms muscle.
2. FEMORAL NERVE – innervates the anterior
thigh muscles and skin over the anterior thigh
and medial leg
3. TIBIAL NERVE – innervates posterior thigh
muscles, anterior and posterior leg muscles,
most intrinsic foot muscles, and skin covering
the sole
4. COMMON FIBULAR NERVE – innervates
lateral thigh and leg muscles, some intrinsic
foot muscles, and skin covering the anterior
and lateral leg well dorsal surface (top) of the
foot *sciatic nerve – tibial and common
fibular nerves bound together in a connective
tissue sheath
Figure 7: The Sacral Plexus structure.

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1.8 BRAIN
CEREBELLUM

The cerebellum is divided into

hemispheres with three lobes in each. The
section between hemispheres is called the
vermis.
Functions
*Coordinate somatic motor function
*Fine muscle control (adjusts the output
of somatic motor centers resulting in
smooth operation)
*Balance and coordination

BRAIN

The brain is the most complex organ in

the human body, and it acts as the control
center for the entire nervous system. It's
the mastermind behind everything you
do, from thinking and feeling to moving
and sensing your environment.

Three major parts of Brain:

1. Forebrain or Pros encephalon
The cerebrum or telencephalon Diencephalon
2. Cerebellum
3. Brainstem

 Midbrain or mesencephalon
 Pons Figure 9: The Cerebellum
 Medulla oblongata
BRAINSTEM

Connects the spinal cord to the brain, and in

turn contains 3 parts:
Midbrain or mesencephalon
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
contains several nuclei which control vital
functions like heart rate, blood pressure,
breathing – damages to small areas can result
in death.

MIDBRAIN OR MESENCEPHALON

helps to control eye movements and allows

the brain to communicate with the rest of the
Figure 8: The Brain nervous system

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PONS FRONTAL LOBES

(2, one for each hemisphere) – important in
relays messages from the cerebrum to the
control of voluntary motor functions,
cerebellum and spinal cord, and helps control
motivation, aggression, mood, and olfactory
the movement of the face
reception.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA

it regulates vital functions, such as heartbeat PARIETAL LOBES

and breathing
(again 2, one for each hemisphere) – principle
center for reception and conscious perception
of most sensory information (touch, pain,
temperature, balance, and taste)

OCCIPITAL LOBES

(2) – function in reception and perception of

visual input

TEMPORAL LOBES

(2) – involved in olfactory & auditory

perception and in memory – also abstract
thought and judgment

THALAMUS

The thalamus acts as a relay station for most

sensory information (except smell) traveling to
the cerebral cortex for interpretation.

EPITHALAMUS

The epithalamus is the smallest of the three.

It's best known for containing the pineal
gland, which produces the hormone
melatonin, regulating sleep-wake cycles based
Figure 10: The Brain stem on light exposure.
CEREBRUM HYPOTHALAMUS
The cerebrum is the largest and most The hypothalamus is the control center for the
developed part of the human brain, body's homeostasis, maintaining a stable
accounting for about two-thirds of its total internal environment.
weight. It's like the grand central station of
the brain, responsible for higher functions like 1.10 SENSORY & MOTOR FUNCTIONS
thinking, learning, memory, and
consciousness.
Sensory functions encompass all the ways we receive
has two hemispheres (right and left)
information about our internal and external
separated by the longitudinal fissure
environments.
connected at the base by the corpus callosum
– gyri (raised fold) and sulci (intervening Touch: Feeling texture, pressure, and
grooves) increase the surface-to-volume ratio temperature through receptors in our skin.
– divided into 8 lobes Taste: Detecting different flavors on the
tongue.

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Smell: Identifying odors through receptors in

the nose. 1.9 OTHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN
Sight: Seeing shapes, colors, and light with the
eyes. BASIL NUCLEI
Hearing: Perceiving sounds and their
properties through the ears. group of functionally related nuclei – have
Balance: Maintaining equilibrium and body two primary nuclei corpus striatum (located
position through inner ear structures. deep in the cerebrum) and substantia nigra
(darkly pigmented cells in the midbrain)
Motor functions are involved in generating important in planning, organizing, and
movement. Motor functions include walking, running, coordinating motor movement and posture
grasping objects, speaking, and maintaining posture.
LIMBIC SYSTEM
Locomotion: Moving from one place to
another, such as walking, running, or jumping. control responses necessary for survival
Manipulation: Using our hands and fingers to (hunger, thirst, visceral responses to emotion,
grasp objects, write, or perform other skilled motivation, mood)
actions.
MEMORY
Facial expressions: Moving facial muscles to
convey emotions or communicate Sensory – brief retention of sensory input
nonverbally. received by the brain for short evaluation
Posture: Maintaining the body's upright then acted on
position against gravity. B. Short-term – within the temporal lobe –
Speech: Producing sounds for communication information retained for a few seconds to a
through the coordination of vocal cords, few minutes – limited to about 7 bits of info
tongue, and diaphragm. (why phone numbers are 7 digits)
C. Long-term – involves physical change in
neurons by reaching out and making new
connections – these neurons are called
memory engrams.

BRAIN WAVES

recorded by an electroencephalogram (ECG) –

different types of electrical activity of the
brain.
Alpha waves, often seen in a relaxed
individual with eyes closed
Beta waves, typical of an alert individual
Theta waves, seen in the first stage of sleep
Delta waves, characteristic of deep sleep

MENINGES AND CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

A. Meninges connective tissue membranes covering

and protecting the brain and spinal cord (CNS)

3 layers
Figure 11: The process of sensosry and motor functions.
1. Dura mater – (tough mother) – outermost covering
Subdural space – contains a small amount of serous
fluid

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2. Arachnoid mater – very thin wispy and web like

Subarachnoid space – filled with cerebrospinal fluid References
(CFS)
3. Pia mater – (affectionate mother) – tightly bound Nemours KidsHealth. (2023). Nervous system (for
to the surface of the brain and spinal cord Parents). KidsHealth

OpenStax. (2024, February 28). 12.1 Basic structure

B. Cerebrospinal Fluid – (CSF) is a clear blood filtrate and function of the nervous system. In Anatomy &
that bathes the brain and spinal cord – helps create a Physiology (2nd ed., Chapter 12). OpenStax.
protective cushion around the . *openstax.org+
C. Ventricles – (4) CNS fluid filled cavities Bayram-Weston, Z., Andrade-Sienz, M., & Knight, J.
(2022, May 23). Nervous system 4: the peripheral
Lateral ventricles – (2, one in each
nervous system – spinal nerves. Nursing Times.
hemisphere) – formed by the corpus callosum
https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-
and fornix – separated by a thin membrane
archive/neurology/nervous-system-4-the-peripheral-
called the septum .
nervous-system-spinal-nerves-23-05-2022/
Third Ventricle – small midline cavity located
in the center of the diencephalon between Reece, J. O., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A.,
the two halves of the thalamus Minorsky, P. V., & Jackson, J. B. (2014). Nervous tissue.
Fourth Ventricles – located at the base of the In Anatomy & physiology (p. 281-287). Lumen
cerebellum – continuous with the central Learning. *courses.lumenlearning.com+
canal of the spinal cord.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Bi
ology_for_Majors_II_(Lumen)/17%3A_Module_14-
3 BIG IDEAS
_The_Nervous_System/17.14%3A_Introduction_to_th
1. Information Processing and Communication e_Central_Nervous_System

The nervous system acts as a vast https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Bi

communication network, gathering ology_for_Majors_II_(Lumen)/17%3A_Module_14-
information from the internal and _The_Nervous_System
external environment (sensory function),
https://www.nursinghero.com/study-
processing it in the brain and spinal cord,
guides/boundless-ap/introduction-to-the-nervous-
and transmitting signals to muscles,
system
glands, and organs (motor function) to
generate responses. It's the body's
information highway, constantly sending
and receiving electrical signals.

2. Control and Coordination

The nervous system acts as the control

center for the entire body. It regulates
essential functions like breathing, heart
rate, digestion, and hormone production.

3. Homeostasis and Adaptation

The nervous system plays a crucial role in

maintaining homeostasis, a stable internal
environment despite external changes.

Prep. By: ABALLA F. GO, ANGELIKA & HERMOSO JT Instructor: Ms. Raquel J. Togores, PhD MC BIO 4