Thermal Physics Solids, Liquids & Gases Matter can exist in one of three different states: ‘SOUD uauD | oS, ‘A SOLD HAS FIXED ® UQUD HAS FDED ‘A GAS WILL EXPAND SHAPE AND. VOLUME VOWWME, BUT Wit TO COMPLETELY FIL Flow TO TAKE THE ‘A. CONTAINER SHAPE OF A CONTAINER + Diagram showing the 3 states of matter in terms of shape and volume. Solids; * Solids have a definite shape (they are rigid). Solids have a definite volume. Liquids; ‘Liquids have no definite shape - they are able to flow, and will take the shape of a container. Liquids have a definite volume. Gases; ‘© Gases have no definite shape ~ they will take the shape of their container. * Gases have no fixed volume — if placed in an evacuated container they will expand to fill the container. They are also highly compressible. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyArrangement & Motion of Molecule ‘ Diagram showing the arrangement and motion of different states of In asolid: * The molecules are very close together and arranged in a regular pattern, * The molecules vibrate about fixed positions. Ina liquid: ‘+ The molecules are still close together (no gaps) but are no longer arranged in a regular pattern. ‘+ The molecules are able to slide past each other. Ina gas: ‘+The molecules are widely separated - about 10 times further apart in each direction. ‘+ The molecules move about randomly at high speeds. 1 1 Mol In asolid: ‘+ The molecules are held in place by strong intermolecular bonds. ‘+ These bonds prevent the molecules from moving, giving the solid its rigid shape and fixed volume. In a liquid: * The molecules have enough energy that they are able to break the bonds between them. * The bonds are still there, but they no longer hold the molecules in place and asa result, the molecules can move around (by sliding past each other) allowing the liquid to flow. In agas: ‘+The molecules are now moving around randomly at high speeds. ‘+The molecules have broken the bonds between them: They are widely separated with no long-range forces binding them together and as a result, the molecules are able to move freely and so the gas can flow freely. ‘+ Because of the large spaces between the molecules (along with the absence of long-range forces) the gas can easily be compressed and is also able to expand Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyKinetic Theory The molecules in a gas move around randomly at high speeds. The temperature of a gas is related to the average speed of the molecules; © The hotter the gas, the faster the molecules move. “Gas molecules move about randomly at high speeds. ‘As the molecules move around, they collide with the surface of nearby walls. Each col ion applies a force across the surface area of the walls. Pressure is the force per unit area: PRESSURE = pRORCE. AREA and hence a pressure will be exerted on those walls. Molecule Momentum When molecules collide against a wall, they bounce off, changing their momentum, MOMENTUM =+mv MOMENTUM = mv 4 When molecules (in a gas) collide against a wall, they Q-— —O undergo a change in momentum. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyThere are many such collisions every second, resulting in a large change in momentum each second. This change in momentum each second results in a force being exerted against the wall: mu The pressure exerted by the gas is equal to this force divided by the area of the wall. Brownian Motion ‘When small particles (such as pollen or smoke particles) are suspended in a liquid or gas, the particles can be observed through a microscope moving around in a random, erratic fashion. 4 \ “Brownian Motion: the erratic motion of small particles when observed through a microscope. \ Cat 4 hon This movement is called Brownian Motion. This motion is caused by molecules in the gas (or liquid) colliding at high speeds with the small particles. “© Gas molecules move at high speeds, collide with larger particles, giving . them a little nudge. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyThese collisions give the particles a little nudge, causing them to change their speed and directions randomly, each time they are struck by a molecule. This effect provides important evidence concerning the behaviour of molecules in gases. Massive Particles Moved by Small Molecules ‘The small particles observed in Brownian motion are significantly bigger than the molecules that cause the motion. The molecules are able to affect the particles in this way because they are travelling at very high speeds (much higher than the particles) and so have a lot of momentum, which they transfer to the particles when they collide. Evaporation Evaporation is a change in state of a liquid to a gas that can happen at any temperature from the surface of a liquid. NoMa) Colic) CHANGE OF STATE? | LIQUID. GAS. LIQUID > GAS ‘TEMPERATURE? ANY TEMPERATURE ONLY AT BOILING POINT FROM WHERE? FROM THE SURFACE THROUGHOUT THE LIQUID The molecules in a liquid have a range of different energies: © Some have lots of energy, others have very little. Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules near the surface of the liquid have enough energy to escape. When this happens energy is lost from the liquid: © The average energy of the remaining molecules decreases. © This means that the temperature of the remaining liquid will also decrease. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyFactors Affecting Evaporation ‘A number of factors affect the rate of evaporation: + The temperature of the liquid ~ At higher temperatures, more molecules have enough energy to escape. * The surface area of the liquid ~ If the liquid has a greater surface area there will be more area from which the molecules can escape. * The movement of air across the surface of the liquid - The presence of a draft can help to remove less energetic molecules (which might not have quite enough energy to escape) from the liquid The process of evaporation can be used to cool things down: «fan objectis in contact with an evaporating liquid, as the liquid cools the solid will cool as well. * This process is used in refrigerators and air conditioning units. Pressure & Temperature ‘The molecules in a gas move around randomly at high speeds, colliding with surfaces and exerting pressure upon them, Gas molecules collide with surfaces, exerting pressure. When the temperature of a gas is increased, the speeds of the molecules increases. This causes them to collide harder against surfaces, increasing the pressure. Increasing the temperature of a gas (whilst keeping its volume fixed) will increase the pressure Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyPressure & Volume When a gas is compressed, the density of the gas increases This means there will be more collisions against surfaces, which will also increase the pressure. Decreasing the volume of a gas (whilst keeping the temperature fixed) will increase the pressure. WORKED EXAMPLE: PLUNGER FILLED WITH GAS IS COMPRESSED ‘AND ITS. VOLUME THE PRESSURE OF THE CAST PARTICLES BEFORE OF IME SYRINGE MORE FREQUENT | cousins 1 LESS nenease memmessane Pee Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyBoyle's Law Ifa gas has an original pressure, P1, and volume, V1, then its final pressure and volume (P2 and V2) will be given by the relationshi PiVi=P2V2 Note: The above equation only works if the temperature of the gas remains constant. WORKED EXAMPLE: WHEN THE PLUNGER IN THE ABOVE EXAMPLE IS COMPRESSED THE VOLUME OF THE GAS IS REDUCED FROM 75cm? TO 50cm’ IF THE PRESSURE BEFOREHAND WAS ‘00kPa WHAT WAS THE PRESSURE OF THE GAS AFTER COMPRESSION? PLUNGER GAS =o PM = PN 100 *75 = p,=100*75/50, p= 150 kPa ‘Thermal Expansion When (most) materials are heated, they expand. This expansion happens because the molecules start to move around (or vibrate) faster, which causes them to knock into each other and push each other apart. Note: When this happens, it is the space taken up by the molecules that increases, The molecules themselves remain the same size. Prepared by Naveen Appuhamy‘Thermal Expansion in Solids, Liquids & Gases ‘When solids, liquids and gases are heated: ey ee) ‘SOLIDS EXPAND SLIGHTLY (QUE TO THE STRONG BONDS HOLDING THE MOLECULES TOGETHER) wus _| EXPAND MORE THAN SOLIDS (DUE TO THE WEAKER BONDS BETWEEN THE MOLECULES) GASES [EXPAND SIGNIFICANTLY. (DUE TO THERE BEING NO BONDS HOLDING THE MOLECULES TOGETHER) Applications and Consequences ‘The thermal expansion of materials can have some useful applications, but also has some undesirable consequences. Applications: ‘* The expansion of a a thermometer can be used to measure temperature. ‘+ Abimetallic strip, consisting of two metals that expand at different rates, can be made to bend at a given, temperature, forming a temperature-activated switch. BNETALIG STAB CONTACT “The bimetallic strip will bend upwards when heated, closing the circuit. Consequences: '* The expansion of solid materials can cause them to buckle if they get too hot. © This could include: © Metal railway tracks. © Road surfaces. © Bridges. Things that are prone to buckling in this way often have gaps built into them providing some room for them to expand into. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyMeasurement of Temperature When a substance is heated, some of its physical properties can change. ‘These properties include things such as: ‘© The volume (and density) of the substance. ‘© The electrical resistance of the substance. If these properties change in a well-defined way, by measuring the property you can determine the temperature. In order to build a thermometer based on one of these properties, you need to start by measuring the property at some well-defined fixed points. iable change occurs, such as the melting of ice (at 0 °c) )}, A fixed point is a temperature at which some e: or the boiling of pure water (at 100 °c). “Ice melts and water boils at well-defined temperatures (fixed points) which may be used to calibrate thermometers. ‘These fixed points allow you to know the temperature without having to measure it directly. Usually two fixed points are used: ‘© The lower fixed point: The melting temperature of ice. ‘+The upper fixed point: The boiling temperature of pure water. ‘Once a property (such as electrical resistance) has been measured at these two fixed points, the values of that property at other temperatures can be worked out. resstact \ Gowan Feed ron] carrera FT] Prepared by Naveen AppuhamySensitivity. Range & Linearity The above description has made a big assumption about the way in which the property changes with temperature: That it does so at a steady rate. Properties that change in this way are said to be linear, and linearity is a very useful property for something to have as it makes it easy to work out the relationship between that thing and the temperature. Other important properties when designing a device such as a thermometer include: © Sensitivity - if the thing you are measuring changes significantly when the temperature changes, it makes it easier to detect small changes in temperature: Your thermometer is more sensitive. * Range - What are the lowest and highest temperatures the thermometer can measure? If a liquid- ‘thermometer is too short, there may not be enough room for the liquid to expand into. Liquid Thermometers A liquid-in-glass thermometer consists of a thin glass capillary tube containing a liquid that expands with temperature. ‘At one end of the tube is a glass bulb, containing a larger volume of the liquid which expands when heated, moving into the narrower tube. Asscale along the side of the tube allows the temperature to be measured based on the length of liquid within the tube. THIN COLUMN OF LIQUD, GLASS CAPILLARY TUBE, WITH LINEAR SCALE Prepared by Naveen Appuhamy‘The Sensitivity of Liquid Thermometers ‘The liquids used in liquid-in-glass thermometers are chosen for their thermal expansion properties: ‘+ They expand linearly with temperature. ‘+ They expand significantly, giving them greater sensitivity ‘+ They have low freezing points and high boiling points, allowing them to be used over a greater range of temperatures. Sensitivity is another word for precision. Anything that makes it easier to detect small changes in temperature increases the precision, or sensitivity of a liquid thermometer. Some of the factors which increase sensitivity are: ‘* Using a thermometer with a larger glass bulb, as a larger bulb contains more liquid and therefore, allows for a larger change in the level of the liquid in the tube. ‘Using a narrow tube, as a small change in volume results in the liquid moving a larger distance along the tube. + Using a glass bulb with a thinner wall, as heat can be transferred to the bulb more easily and a small change in temperature can be more easily detected. ‘Thermocouples A thermocouple consists of two different types of wire attached together. When the joint between the two wires is heated, a potential difference (voltage) is created between the two wires. ‘The greater the temperature, the greater the potential difference. — DISSIMKAR METAL 4 JUNCTION DISSIMILAR METAL 2 Thermocouples are not as sensitive as liquid-in-glass thermometers, but because the metals have high melting points, they can be used to measure very high temperatures. ‘Thermocouples are also very responsive to rapidly changing temperatures. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyInternal Energy When a substance is heated, its internal energy (sometimes referred to as thermal energy or heat) increases. ‘As a substance’s internal energy increases, so will its temperature. ‘The higher the temperature of a substance, the more internal energy it possesses. Internal Energy & Molecules The molecules within a substance possess two forms of energy: ‘© Kinetic energy (due to their random motion/vibration). * Potential energy (due to the bonds between the molecules). Together, these two forms of energy make up the internal (thermal) energy of the substance. When a substance is heated, that heat will usually cause the kinetic energy of the molecules to increase. ‘The temperature of the material is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. ‘Thermal Capacity ‘The thermal capacity of an object is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of that object by1°c. ‘The greater the thermal capacity of an object, the more heat energy it takes to raise its temperature. ‘The thermal capacity is also equal to the amount of heat energy an object will give out when it cools by 1 °c. ‘The energy, E, required to raise the temperature of an object by an amount T is given by the equation E = thermal capacity x T Prepared by Naveen Appuhamy‘Thermal Capacity & Specific Heat Capacity The thermal capacity of an object is related to the specific heat capacity (see next page) by the equation: Thermal capacity=m x (where cis the specific heat capacity of the material the object is made from, and m is the object’s mass). Specific Heat Capacity ‘The specific heat capacity of a substance in the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of kg of that substance by 1°C. Specific heat capacity has units of joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C). (Note: Different substances have different specific heat capacities.) From the definition of specific heat capaci need more thermal energy. follows that if you have more than 1 kg of a material, you will Likewise, if you want to raise its temperature by more than 1 °C, you will also need to add more thermal energy ‘The amount of thermal energy needed is given by the equation: CHANGE IN ENERGY = MASS x SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY x CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE AE = mxcxal Note that in the above equation: ‘© AE is used to mean the change in internal energy. ‘* Cis used to mean the specific heat capacity of the substance. Tis used to mean the change in temperature. Su ‘a (eer one] [Sree pear omen) [Secre wear ancry] | [Secne wear ncy Sue oun Saline SS) Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyMeasuring Specific Heat Capacity In your IGCSE examination you may be asked to describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance. A method for carrying out such an experiment is given below. In this experiment you need to use the following equation to determine the specific heat capacity of the substance: HEAT SUPPLIED TO SUBSTANCE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY = (ince CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE The following apparatus will be needed: '* Ablock of the substance (preferably 1kg in mass) or in the case of a fluid, a beaker containing a known mass of the fluid. ‘+ Athermometer. '* An appropriate heater (e.g. an immersion heater). * Apower source, ‘+ Ajoule meter or a voltmeter, ammeter and stop-clock (I will assume we have the latter). “Apparatus to determine the specific heat capacity of a 1 kg Aluminium block. Start by assembling the apparatus and measure the initial temperature of the substance. Turn on the power supply and start the stop-clock, Whilst the power supply is on take several periodic measurements of the voltage and current, and calculate an average of these values. After 5 minutes (300 seconds) switch off the power supply, stop the stop-clock and leave the apparatus for a few more minutes. Monitor the thermometer and make a note of the highest temperature reached. Calculate the rise in temperature. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyThe heat sup sd to the substance can be calculated using the equation energy = current x voltage x time (Note: the time must be seconds.) These values, along with the mass of the substance, can now be substituted into the top equation to find the specific heat capacity of the substance. ‘The biggest problem with the above experiment is that not all of the heat supplied by the heater will go into the substance — some will go into the surroundings and the substance will also lose heat whilst itis being heated. This means that the value for the heat added will be too great which means that the calculated specific heat capacity will also be too great. Changing State Acchange of state refers to a substance changing its state between solid, liquid or gas. ‘SOLIDS Quins: GASES Usually, when a substance is heated its temperature increases. However, whilst a substance changes its state (from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas) the temperature of that material remains constant, even though energy is still being added. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyMelting and Boiling @ s & é UiQuiD é # [Soup] TIME “When a substance changes state, its temperature remains constant, even though it is still gaining (or losing) internal energy. This happens because the energy is being used to break the bonds between the molecules instead of increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules (and hence the temperature). When a substance turns from gas to liquid (condensation) or from liquid to solid (solidification) the opposite happens: © The temperature remains constant whilst the bonds reform (giving out energy in the process). The melting point and boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which that substance changes state Boiling vs Evaporation ig and Evaporation both refer to a change in state from liquid to gas, however: © Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature and happens throughout the liquid. ‘+ Evaporation can occur at any temperature and happens from the surface of the liqui “Evaporation occurs when higher energy molecules near the surface of a liquid ‘escape and become a gas. This can occur at any temperature. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyLatent Heat Latent Heat is the energy required to change the state of a substance. This energy is required to break the bonds holding molecules together. It is also given out again once the bonds reform; * Latent Heat of Fusion is the energy required to turn a solid into a liquid. + Latent Heat of Vaporisation is the energy required to turn a liquid into a gas. ‘The Specific Latent Heat, L, of a substance is the energy required to change the state of 1 kg of that substance. For an object of mass m, the total energy required to change its state is given by the equation: Energy=mxL Meas ig Specific Latent Heat In your IGCSE examination you may be asked to describe an experiment to determine the specific latent heats for steam or ice. A method for determining the specific latent heat for steam is given below. In this experiment you need to use the following equation: HEAT SUPPLIED TO MATERIAL MASS| SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT The following apparatus will be needed '* Avacuum flask containing pure water. ‘* Atop pan balance. ‘+ An appropriate heater (e.g. an immersion heater). * Apower source, '* Ajoule meter or a voltmeter, ammeter and stop-clock. = (= Prepared by Naveen Appuhamy- Start by measuring (and recording) the mass of the vacuum flask along with the water. - Next place the heater into the water and connect it to the power supply. - Turn on the power supply and wait until the water starts to boil = Once the water is boiling start the stop-clock and take several measurements of the potential difference (on the voltmeter) and current (on the ammeter), and calculate an average of these values. - After 5 minutes (300 seconds) switch off the power supply and stop the stop-clock, - Now measure the mass of the vacuum flask and water once more, and calculate how much the mass has decreased by. This will give the mass of water that has changed state (which you will use in determining your result). - The heat supplied to the material can be calculated using the equation: energy = current x voltage x time (Note: the time must b seconds.) These values, along with the change in mass, can now be substituted into the top equation to find the specific latent heat for steam. Asimilar experiment can be carried out for ice (in a beaker this time), but the ice must be measured separately from the beaker otherwise you'll be measuring the mass of the water as well It is also important to ensure that the temperature of the ice is 0 *c at the start of the experiment. This will be the case if the ice has started to melt. Conduc Conduction is the main method of thermal energy transfer in solids. Metals are extremely good at conducting heat. Non-metals are poor at conducting heat whilst liquids and gases are extremely poor. Poor conductors are called insulators. Materials containing small pockets of trapped air are especially good at insulating, as air is a gas and hence a poor conductor. How does Conduction Occur? When a substance is heated, the atoms start to move around (vibrate) more. ‘As they do so they bump into each other, transferring energy from atom to atom. Prepared by Naveen Appuhamy“Conduction: the atoms in a solid vibrate and bump into each other. Metals are especially good at conducting heat as the delocalised electrons can collide with the atoms, helping to transfer the vibrations through the material. Demonstrating Conduction A simple experiment to demonstrate the relative conducting properties of different materials can be carried ‘out using apparatus similar to that shown in the diagram below. CONBUCTION| ING. BUNSEN, BURNER. ith and length arrange around an ‘The above apparatus consists of 4 different metal strips of equal insulated circle Ball bearings can be stuck to each of the strips and equal distance from the centre, using a small amount of wax. The strips should then be turned upside down and the centre heated gently using a candle, so that each of the strips is heated at the point where they meet, ‘When the heat is conducted along to the ball bearing, the wax will melt and the ball bearing will drop. By timing how long this takes for each of the strips, their relative thermal conductivities can be determined. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyConvection Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids and gases. (Convection cannot happen in solids.) When a liquid (or gas) is heated: The molecules push each other apart, making the liquid/gas expand. This makes the hot liquid/gas less dense than the surroundings. The hot liquid/gas rises, and the cooler (surrounding) liquid/gas moves in to take its place. Eventually the hot liquid/gas cools, contracts and sinks back down again. The resulting motion is called a convection current. ICN Cy “© When a liquid or gas is heated, it becomes less dense and rises. Demonstrating Convection ‘A simple demonstration of convection in liquids involves taking a beaker of water and placing a few crystals of potassium permanganate in it, to one side, as shown in the diagram above. When the water is heated at that side, the potassium permanganate will dissolve in the heated water and rise along with the warmed water, revealing the convection current. Diagram showing an experiment with potassium permanganate to demonstrate convection. Prepared by Naveen AppuhamyRadiation All hot objects give off thermal radiation: the hotter they are, the more they emit. Thermal radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum — infrared. Thermal radiation is the only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum; © Itis the way in which heat reaches us from the Sun. The colour of an object affects how good it is at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation: EMITTIN BLACK (GOOD ABSORBER GOOD EMITTER DULL/DARK REASONABLE ABSORBER | REASONABLE EMITTER WuITE POOR ABSORBER POOR EMITTER SHINY VERY POOR ABSORBER | VERY POOR EMITTER (REFLECTS 1M Black objects are very good at absorbing thermal radiation (think about black leather seats in strong sunshine) it (when it goes dark those seats cool down quickly). but also very good at emitti Shiny objects reflect thermal radiation and so absorb very little. They also emit very little, though, and so take longer to cool down. oe Ser sve NERA Lage SACK ag DETECTOR MATTE BLACK Se MATT IOEST EMITTER) (BEST_REFLECTOR HEATPROOF, MATT. WHITE! Mar Prepared by Naveen Appuhamy“An image of a hot object taken in both Infrared and visible light. The black surface emits more thermal radiation (infrared) than the shiny surface. Factors Affecting Emission of Radiation ‘The amount of thermal radiation emitted by an object depends on a number of facto ‘+ The temperature of the object (hotter = more radiation) * The colour of the object (black = more radiation). ‘© The surface area of the object (greater surface area = more area for radiation to be emitted from). Demonstrating Radiation To demonstrate the absorption of thermal radiation: ‘Take two conical flasks ~ one painted with silver paint, the other with black paint - and place thermometers and bungs in them. ‘© Measure and record their initial temperatures. * Place the two flasks an equal distance from an incandescent light bulb (a good source of radiation) and switch the bulb on. * After a few minutes (between 2 and 5) switch the bulb off and record the new temperatures of the flasks. (The black flask’s temperature should have increased by more.) | + k # Ablack and a shiny beaker can be used to a demonstrate the effect of colour upon the emission Lome and absorption of thermal radiation. To demonstrate the emission of thermal radiation: * Fill the shiny beakers with boiling water. ‘© Once each beaker reaches a set temperature (e.g. 90 °c) start a stopwatch and allow it to cool for a set amount of time (e.g. 10 minutes). ‘© After this time, take a new temperature measurement and record the change in temperature. (The black beaker should have cooled by slightly more than the shiny beaker, because it emitted more thermal radiation.) Consequences of Energy Transfer ‘* Conduction, © The main means of thermal energy transfer in solids. © When heated, atoms vibrate more, knocking into each other and transferring energy from atom to atom asa result. Prepared by Naveen Appuhamy© Metals are excellent conductors; Non-metals are poor; Liquids and gases are very poor. © Ifa question mentions metals, the answer will probably have something to do with conduction. © Trapped air is a very good insulator of heat. Air is a gas and so is a poor conductor. Trapping it prevents it from circulating and forming a convection current. © Convection, (© The means of thermal energy transfer in liquids and gases. © When heated, a gas will expand and become less dense. This causes it to rise (a convection current). Cooler (denser) gas falls, replacing the hot gas. © Ia question refers to a liquid or gas (that isn’t trapped) then convection currents will probably form. © Heat sources placed at the bottom of things will generally create convection currents. Likewise, cooling units placed high up will cool any rising air, causing it to sink again. Thermal Radiation, ©The only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum. © Thermal radiation is heat transfer by infrared (part of the electromagnetic spectrum). © Black objects are good at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation; shiny objects are poor at emitting and absorbing it. © Ifa question refers to the colour of something (black, white or shiny) then the answer will probably have something to do with thermal radiation, © Ifapiece of apparatus contains a vacuum, then radiation will be the only way heat can travel through that part of the apparatus. Q, In many hot countries it is common for houses to produce hot water using solar panels. Expl = the features of the solar panel that help it heat the water efficiently. Answer: ‘The thermal radiation (infrared) is able to pass through the glass sheet. ‘The black metal backing sheet absorbs the thermal radiation (sunlight), Being metal (an excellent conductor) it then conducts it into the copper pipes. ‘The copper pipes (also metal) then conduct the heat into the water. ‘The insulated material reduces the conduction of heat through the back of the panel, decreasing heat loss, ‘The glass also traps air which is a good insulator, preventing heat loss due to conduction from the front of the panel and preventing heat loss by convection (due to the air being trapped) Prepared by Naveen Appuhamy