TABLEOFCONTENTS

TOPI
C PAGE

PROPERTI
ESOFMATTER-
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-1

ELEMENTSANDCHEMI
CALBONDI
NG-
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9

CHEMI
CALREACTI
ONSI-
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19

CHEMI
CALREACTI
ONSI
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-27

FORCESANDMOTI
ON-
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-34

ORGANI
CCHEMI
STRYI-
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44

ORGANI
CCHEMI
STRYI
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50

ELECTRI
CITY,
MAGNETI
SM ANDELECTROMAGNETI
CINDUCTI
ONI-
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-56

ELECTRI
CITYANDELECTROMAGNETI
CINDUCTI
ONI
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73

OSCI
LLATI
ONSANDWAVES-
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-78

NUCLEARPHYSI
CS-
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93

©TemboJPPCDSS -0-
 TOPI
C:PROPERTI
ESOFMATTER

KI
NETI
CTHEORYOFMATTER ti
ny par ti
cles. Thi
s theory expl
ains the
physicalpropert
iesofmatteri
ntermsoft he
THETHREESTATESOFMATTER mov ementofi t
sconstit
uentparti
cles.The
Whati smat t
er? mainpoi nt
soft hetheor
yare:
This wor d is used to cov er allthe
subst ancesandmat eri
alsfrom whichthe  Allmat terismadeupoft iny,mov ing
phy sicaluniv
erseiscomposed. parti
clesi nv i
sibletot henaked ey e.
Mat terisdef i
nedasany t
hingthatoccupi
es Diff
erentsubst ances have di f
ferent
space and has mass. They ar e many typesofpar t
icles(atoms,mol ecules
millionsofdi f
fer
entsubstancesknown,and orions)whi chhav edif
ferentsizes.
alloft hem canbecat egorisedassol i
ds,  Thepar ti
clesmov eal lthet i
me.The
l
iqui dsorgases.Thesear ewhatwecal lt
he higher t he temper ature,t he faster
threest atesofmatter
. theymov eonav erage.
 Heav i
erpar ti
clesmov emor esl owl y
SOLI DS than l i
ghter ones at a gi ven
Asol idatagi v
entemper atur
e,hasadefini
te temper ature.
volumeandshapewhi chmaybeaf fect
edby
changes i n t emperature. Sol
ids usuall
y
i
ncr ease slightl
y in si ze when heat ed EXPLAI
NINGTHESTATESOFMATTER
(expansion)andusual lydecreaseinsizeif
cooled( cont
racti
on). SOLI
DS

LIQUIDS
Al i
quid,atagi v
ent emperature,hasafi
xed
volumeandwi l
ltakeupt heshapeofany
contai
neri nt
owhi chitispoured.Li
keasol
id,
aliqui
d’sv olumei ssli
ghtlyaffect
edbythe
changesi ntemper at
ure.

GASES -Therear est r

ongattracti
vef or
cesbet ween
Agas,atagi ventemper ature,hasneit
hera theparti
cleswhi chhol
dt hem closetogether.
def i
nit
e( fi
xed)shapenoradef ini
tevol
ume. - The par ticl
es hav e l i
tt
le freedom of
Itwi l
ltakeupt heshapeofanycont ainer mov ementandcanonl yv i
brateaboutaf i
xed
i
nt owhi chi tisplacedandwi l
lspreadout posi
t i
on.
evenlywi t
hini t
.The v ol
ume ofa gas i s -The par ti
cles are arranged inar egular
affected qui t
e mar kedl y by changes i n manner ,whi ch expl
ains why many sol i
ds
temper ature. for
m cr y
stals.
Liquids and gases, unl ike solids, are
relati
vely compr essible.Thi s means t hat
theirv olume can be r educed by t he LI
QUI
DS
applicati
on ofpr essur e.Gases ar e much
mor ecompr essi
blethanl i
quids.

THEKI NETICTHEORYMATTER
Thetheoryhelpstoexpl
ainthewayi
nwhi ch
matterbehaves.Theevi
denceisconsi
stent
wit
ht heideat hatal
lmatteri
smadeupof
-Thepar
ti
clesar
est
il
lcl
oset
oget
herbut
©TemboJPPCDSS -1-
theymov e around inar andom wayand t
hroughoutgasj
arsfr
om t
hel
i
qui
dpr
esent
oftencol li
dewi thoneanot
her. i
nthelowergasj
ar.
-The f orces of att
ract
ion between the
particlesinal i
quidareweakerthanthosein
asol id.
- The par ti
cles are ir
regul
arly packed
(arranged) .
-Thepar ticl
esi nali
quidhavemor eenergy
onav er
aget hant hepart
icl
esi nthesol i
d
subst ance.

GASES

After24 hour st he br omi ne f umes hav e

diff
usedt hroughoutbot hgasj ars.
Gasesdi f
fuseatdi f
ferentr ates.Thespeed
ofdi ff
usion dependson t he speed ofi ts
mol ecul
es and i s gr eater f or lighter
mol ecul
es.Fori nstances,i fone pi ece of
cotton wooli s soaked i n concent rated
ammoni asolutionandanot heri ssoakedi n
-Thepar t
iclesar
er el
ati
vel
yfarapar t
.They concentrated hy drochlori
c aci d and t hese
aref r
ee t o move any where withi
nt he areputatopposi teendsofadr yglasst ube,
cont ai
neri nwhichtheyarehel
d. then aftera f ew mi nutes a whi te cl oud
-Par t
icles mov er andomly atv ery hi
gh ammoni um chlori
deappear s.
velocit
ies( speeds)
,muchmor erapidl
ythan
thosei nal iqui
d.
- Par t
icles exertv i
rt
ual
ly no forces of
attract
iononeachot herbecauset heyare
rel
at i
velyfarapart.

DIFFUSI ON
Ifonepassesbyacosmet i
ccount ert hey
usual l
y smellt he per fumes.Fort hist o
happengaspar t
icl
esmustbel eavi
ngopen Thisshowst hepositionatwhi chthet wo
perfume bot tl
es and be spr eading out gases meetand r eact .The whi te cloud
throught heairinthest ore.Thisspr eadi ng for
msi nt heposi ti
on shown becauset he
outofagasi scal l
eddi f
fusion.Di ff
usi on ammoni a par t
icl
es ar el i
ghter than t he
takespl acei
nahaphazar dandr andom way . hydrogenchl or
idepar ti
cles(r
eleased from
Def i
niti
ons: thehy drochlori
cacid)andsomov ef aster
.
-Di f
fusionisthepr ocessbywhi chdifferent Gener al
l
y ,l
ighterpart
iclesmov ef ast
ert han
subst ancesmi xasar esultoft her andom heavieronesatagi vent emperature.
mot ionsoftheirparti
cles.
-Di ff
usionisthespr eadi ngofasubst ance Dif
fusi
onal sotakesplaceinli
qui
dsbuti
tis
ofitsownaccor dduet omol ecularmot ion. muchsl owerprocesst hani
ngases.Thi
sis
Allgasesdi ff
uset of il
lt hespaceav ailable becausethepar t
icl
esofal i
qui
dmov emuch
tot hem.Forexampl e,ther ed-brownf umes moreslowly.
of gaseous br omi ne spr ead ev enly Whendi ff
usiontakesbetweenali
qui
danda
©TemboJPPCDSS -2-
gasi
tisknownasi
nti
mat
emi
xing.

BROWNI ANMOTI ON
Whenf i
nepol l
engr ai
nsar eont hesur f
ace EFFECT ON VOLUME OF A GAS (
FIXED
ofwat er,t
heymov eabouti nar andom way . MASS)IFTEMPERATUREISCHANGED( AT
Itwas di scovered thatt he pol len grai
ns CONSTANTPRESSURE)
mov ebecauset hemuchsmal l
erandf aster-
mov ing wat er par t
icl
es ar e const antly Arr
anget
heappar
atusasshowni
nthef
igur
e
col
lidingwiththem.Thi sr andom mot ionof bel
ow.
vi
siblepar t
icl
es( i.
e.pollengr ains)caused
by much smal ler,invisible ones ( wat er
molecules)iscalledBrowni anmot ion.

THEGASLAWS

PRESSUREOFTHEGAS
Airhaswei ghtandbecauseoft hiswei ght
theat mospher eexer tsal argepr essureat
sealevel,about100000N/ m2=105=100kPa.
Thispressur eact sequal l
yinalldir
ect i
ons.
Agasi nacont ainerexer t
sapr essureont he
Theiniti
alreadi
ngsoft heindex( l
owerend)
wall
soft hecont ainer.Ifairi
sremov edfrom
and thermomet erar e not
ed.Atdi f
ferent
the can by a v acuum pump,t he can
temperatur
es,ther eadi
ngsoft hei ndexar e
coll
apsesbecauset heai rpressureout side
recor
ded.Putt her esult
sinat able.Plota
i
sgr eaterthani nside.
graph of v ol
ume on t he y -axi
s and
temperatur
e( i
n˚C)ont hex-
axis.
Volumeorpr essure

-
273º
C 0ºC
The can col l
apses because ther
e is 0K 273K Temper
atur
e
unbalancedpressur
eact i
ngonthewall
sof
thecani .e.nogaspr essur
eact
ingonthe
wallofthecontai
ner. Thev olume- t
emperat
uregraphforagasi sa
str
aightl ine.Itshows thatgases expand
unifor
ml y wi th temperature i
.e. equal
temperat urerises(i
ncr
eases)causeequal
volumei ncreases.
Thegr aphsdonotpasst hrought
heCel si
us
©TemboJPPCDSS -3-
temperat ur
eor igin(˚C) .I
ft heyarepr oduced TEMPERATUREATCONSTANTVOLUME
backwar dstheycutt het emper atureaxisat Inanexper iment(showni nthef i
gurebelow),
about- 273˚C.Thi st emper aturei s call
ed theai risenclosedi naseal edf l
askinor der
absolutezero, becausei tisbel i
eveditisthe to keep i ts v olume const ant. The
l
owestt emper at
ure possi ble.Atabsol ute temper atur
eoft heai risincreasedinstages
zeromol ecularmot i
onceases( stops)anda byheat i
ng thewat eraround t hef l
ask.At
substancehasnoi nternal energy. each st age,t he pr essure of t he airi s
Defini
ti
ons: measur edont heBour dongaugewhi chi s
-Absol ute zer oi st he l owestpossi bl
e attachedt ot heflaskbyashor tlengthof
temperat ur
ef orallsubst ances. tubing.
-Absol ut etemper atur ei sat emper at
ure
measur edwi thr espectt oabsol utezeroon
theKelvinscal e.

Theconv ersi
onsfrom ˚CtoKar emadeby
adding273.Forexample
0˚C =273K
15˚C =273+15 =288K
100˚C=273+100=373K
Kelv
in or absol ut
e t emperat
ures ar e
repr
esentedbyt helett
erTandi fθst ands
fora Cel si
us scaletemperat
uret hen,in
general
:
The r eadi ngs are used t o plota gr aph
T=273+θ
showi nghow t hepr essureoft heairvar i
es
witht emper at
ure.Agr aphpl ottedshowsa
Theconversi
onsfrom Kto˚Car
emadeby
strai
ghtl inepassingt hroughtheor i
gin(0K) .
subt
ract
ing273.Forexampl
e,
Thegr aphshowsal lusualsignsofasi mpl e
373K=373–273=100˚ C
propor ti
oni .e.
-Doubl ingt heabsolutet emperaturedoubles
CHARLES’
LAW:
i
tspr essur e
The volume ofa f i
xed mass ofgas is
- Di viding t he pr essure by absol ute
dir
ect
ly pr oport
ional to i t
s absol ut
e
temper atur e always pr oduces the same
temperatur
eifthepressur
eiskeptconst
ant.
value
VαTorV =const
antxT
These f indings can be summed up i n
V/T =const ant
Pressur el aw.
Ther
efor
e,V1/
T1=V2/T2
PRESSURELAW:
Workedexampl e:
The pressure ofa f i
xed mass ofgas i
s
Agasofv olume2m3 at27ºCiscool
edto- dir
ect
ly pr oportional to i t
s absol
ute
123°Catconstantpr
essur
e.Whati
sthenew temper
at ur
e,providedthevol
umeofthegas
vol
ume? i
skeptconst ant.
Sol
uti
on: PαTor P =const antxT
V1=2m3,T1=(27+273)=300K,T2=-
123 P/
T =const ant
+273=150K,V2=? Ther
efor
e,P1/T1=P2/
T2
Subst
it
uti
ngi
nV1/
T1=V2/T2
V2=2X150 =1m3 Workedexample:
300 Agasinaf i
xedcontai
neri
satapr essur
eof
1200mmHg and a t emperat
ure of27º C.
RELATI
ONSHI
PBETWEEN PRESSUREAND Whatwil
lbei t
spressurei
fiti
sheat edtoa
©TemboJPPCDSS -4-
temperat
ureof177ºC? Thesefi
ndi
ngscanbeexpr
essedi
nthef
orm
P1 =1200mmHg, T1 =( 27+273)=300K, ofBoyl
e’
slaw.
T2=177+273=450K, P2=?
Substi
tut
ingi
nP1/T1=P2/T2 BOYLE’
SLAW:
P2 = 1200 X 450 = The pr
essure ofa f i
xed mass ofgas is
1800mmHg i
nver
selyproport
ionalt
oitsvol
umepr ovi
ded
300 thet
emperatureofthegasiskeptconst
ant.
Pα1 orPV =const
ant
V
P1XV1=P2XV2

Workedexampl e:
I
fa cer tai
n quantity ofgas has vol
ume
3 5
30cm atapr essureof1x10 Pa, whati
sit
s
RELATIONSHIPBETWEEN PRESSUREAND vol
umewhent hepressurei 5
s2x10 Pa?
VOLUMEATCONSTANTTEMPERATURE 3
V1=30cm , 5
P1=1X10 Pa, P2=2X105Pa,
Anex per
imenti
sarr
angedasshownint
he V2=?
di
agram bel
ow. Subst
itut
ingin P1xV1=P2xV2
V2=30x1x105 =15cm3
2x105

THECOMBI NEDGASEQUATI ON
Bycombini
ngthegasl awsi ti
spossi blet
o
showtherel
ati
onshipbet weenthepr essur
e,
vol
umeandt emperature,ofafixedmassof
gasas;
PV=const ant
T
Or P1XV1=P2XV2
T1 T2

Thev olumeoft heai ri

sr educedi nstages Workedexample:
bypumpi ngout sideairintotheoilreservoir
. Aquantit
yofgasoccupiesav umeof4m3.
ol
Thisf or cesmor eoilupi nt
ot heglasst ube. Thepressureoft hegasis3at mospheres
The pr essur e oft he ai ris measur ed for whenitstemperatur
eis27º C.Whatwillbe
several di f f
er ent v olumes. When t he i
tspressurei
fitiscompressedint
ohalfthe
readings ar e pl otted on the gr aph iti s vol
ume and heat ed t
oat emperat
ure of
discov eredt hatpr essureandv ol
umehav e 127ºC?
an i nv erse pr oporti
on. Thi s i nverse
propor tioncanber ecognisedintwoway s P1 =3atm,V1 =4m3,T1=(273+27)=300K,
(i
) when t he v ol
ume i sr educed,t he 3
V2=2m , T2=(273+127)=400K
pr essurei ncreases Substi
tuti
nginthef
ormula;P1XV1=P2XV2
(i
i) when t hev olumei shal ved,t he T1 T2
pressur ei s 3x4=P2X2
doubl ed, andsoon. 300 400
P2=8at
m

©TemboJPPCDSS -5-
 0ºC
Wor k: andpr essureof4x105Pa?
1.Acont ainerhol dsgasat27º C.Towhat 8.Agasoccupi esav olumeof2m3wheni ts
temper at ure musti tbe heat ed f ori ts pressure i s 1140mmHg and i ts
pressur e temperatureis
todoubl e?Assumet hev olumeoft hegas 27ºC.Whatv ol
umewoul ditoccupyat
remai ns unchanged and t he cont ainer standardt emperatureandpressure(0ºC
doesnot and
leak. 760mmHg) ?
2.Agasofv olume2m3at27º Ci sheat edt o
327º C.Whati si tsnewv olume? PRESSUREI NLI QUI DS
3.I facer t
ainquant i
tyofgashasv olume Pressur eist hef or ce( ort hrust)actingona
3 5
30cm atapr essur eof1x10 Pa,what unitar ea.
isi tsv olumewhenpr essur ei s5x105Pa? Pressur eiscal culatedbydi vi
di ngtheforce
4.Thev olumeoft hecy li
nderi s0. 10m3.I t ort hrustactingatr ightangl est oasurface
cont ainshel ium gasatapr essur eof1. 0 byt hear eaov erwhi chi tacts:
x107 Pa.t he bal loon sel lerf i
l
lseach Pr essur e=for
ce
-
2 3 Area
bal loont oav olumeof1. 0x10 m anda
5 I
ff orcei smeasur edi nNewt on( N)andarea
pressur eof1. 2x10 Pa. 2
i
nsquar emet res( m) ,pressur ei smeasured
a.Expl aini nt ermsofpar ticl
es,how 2
the hel i
um i n t he cy l
i
nder i
nN/ m orPascal (
Pa) .
2
pr oducespr essur e. 1N/ m ≡ 1Pa
b.Cal culatet het otalv olumet hatt he Forex ampl e,
hel i
um gas wi ll occupy at a I
fa100Nf orceact sonanar eaof1m2,t he
2 2
pr essur e of 1. 2 x 105 Pa. pressur e=100N/ 1m =100N/ m or100Pa.
(Assumi ng no change i n t he I
fa100Nf orceact sonanar eaof2m2,t he
temper at ureofhel ium) . pressur e=100N/ 2
2m =50N/ 2
m or50Pa.
c.Cal culatet henumberofbal l
oons Thel argerthef or ceandt hesmal l
erthearea,
-2 3
ofv olume1. 0x1. 0m t hatt he thegr eateristhepr essur e.
bal l
oon sel lercan f illusi ng t he
gas. Workedexampl es:
5.Agassy ringecont ai ns50cm3ofoxy gen 1.Theav eragewindpressur
eont hewallis
gas 100Pa.iftheareaofthewal s6m2,
li what
at20º C.I fthet emper aturewasi ncreased isthetotalf
orceacti
ng?
to P=F
45º C, what woul d be t he v olume A
occupi edby F=PxA=100Pax6m2=600N
thi
sgas, assumi ngconst antpr essur e 2.Aconcr eteblockmeasuri
ng0.5m x1m x
throughout ? 2m
6.Abi cy clepumpcont ai ns50cm3ofai rata hasamassof2600Kg.Whati sthe
pressur 5
eof1x10 Pa.Whatwoul dbet he maximum pr essur
eitcanexer
tont he
volumeoft heai ri fthepr essur ewas ground?
5
i
ncr easedt o2. 1x10 Paatconst ant
temper atur e? Downwardf
orce(
wei )=2600x10
ght
7.I ft hev olumeofagascol l
ect edat60º C =2600N
and1 Areaov
erwhicht
hisfor
ceacts=0.5m x
x105Papr essur ewas70cm3, what 1m
woul dbet hev olumeatat emper atureof 5m2
=0.
©TemboJPPCDSS -6-
 Pr
essur
e=26000N=52000Pa cal
culated prov
ided y ou know t he depth
5m2
0. beneaththesur f
aceandt hedensi t
yoft he
l
iquid.Thecontainerint hefigurebelowhas
LI
QUI
DPRESSURE abasear eaA.Itisf i
l
ledt oadept hhwi tha
l
iquiddensityd.Tocal cul
atet hepressure
1.Pressureinal i
quidincreaseswithdept h. acti
ngont hebase,y ouneedt oknow t he
Thisi st he case because t he farther weightofli
quidpressingdownt hebase.
downy ougot hegr eaterthewei ghtof
theliquidabove.Int hef i
gure(i)bel ow,
waterspur ts outf astestand f urthest
from thelowesthole.

Volumeofl i
quid=baseareaxdepth=Ah
Massofl i
quid=densityxvolume =dAh
Weightofl i
qui d=massxg( 10) =10dAh
Therefore,forceonbase =10dAh
Thi
sf orceisact i
ngonanar eaA:
2.Pr essure at one l evel (depth) acts Therefore,pressure=for
ce =10dAh
equall
yinal l
directi
ons. Ar
ea A
Thecanofwat erinthefi
gurebelowhas
similarholesallrounditatthesamel evel
. Pr
essur
e =10hd
Wat ercomesoutequal lyfastandequally
far Thispressur
eactsequal
lyinalldir
ect
ionsat
from eachhol easshowni nthefigur
e(ii) depthhanddependsonlyonhanddensi t
yd.
abov e.Hencet hepressureexertedbythe i
tsv al
uewi llbein Pascal(Pa)i fh isin
3
wat eratthisdepthisthesamei nall metresm anddensi
tydinKg/m.
directi
ons.
Wor
k:
3.Al iquidfi
ndsitsownlevel. 1.A girli swear ingapai rofshoes.
Thel i
quidisatt hesamel evelineach Thear eaofcont actforashoei s
3
tubein 160cm and she wei ghs 550N.
thefigurebelow andthisconf i
rmst hat Calculatet hepr essureexer t
edon
the thegr oundbyt hegir
l.
pressureatt
hef ootofaliquidcolumn 2.Apr essur eof10Paact sonanar ea
2
dependsonlyont hevert
icaldepthofthe of3. 0m .Whati sthefor ceacti
ng
l
iquidandnotont hetubewi dthorshape. ont hear ea?
Thisil
lust
rat
edi nfi
gure(i
ii)above. 3.Inahy dr auli
cpr essaf orceof20N
i
s appl ied t o a pi st
on of ar ea
2
4.Pr essur
edependsont hedensi
tyoft
he 0.20m .Whati s
l
iquid.Thedenserthel
iquid,t
hegr
eat
ert
he (a) t he pr essure t ransmitt
ed
pressureatanygi
vendepth. throught he
l
iquid?
CALCULATINGPRESSUREI
NALIQUI
D (
b)t he f or ce on the otherpi st
on
Thepressur
eatanypoi
nti
nal
i
quidcanbe whose
©TemboJPPCDSS -7-
 ar
eais1.0m2? Wor kedexampl e:
4.Whatisthepressur
e100m below Calculateat mospher
icpressur
einPawhen
thesur
faceofseawaterofdensi
ty amer curybarometersupportsacol
umnof
1150Kg/ 3
m? mer cury76cm hi gh.(Densi
tyofmercur
y=
-
3
13600kgm )
MEASURI
NGPRESSUREDI
FFERENCES ∆p=? h=0. 76m ρ=13600kgm-
3

MANOMETER g=10ms-2
A manomet eri s a usef uli nstrumentf or ∆p=hρg
measur i
ngpr essur edi ff
erences.I tconsi st s =0.76x13600x10Pa
ofaU- t
ubecont ainingasui t
abl eli
qui d;
i.e.a =103360Pa
l
ow- densi t
y l iquid ( such as oi l
) when
measur i
ngsmal lpressur edif fer
encesanda APPLI
CATI
ONSOFLI
QUI
DPRESSURE
high–densi t
yl iquid( suchasmer cury)f or
l
ar gepr essuredi ff
erences. 1. WATERSUPPLYSYSTEM
Thepr essur ep1 oft hegassuppl yi sgreat er At own’ swat ersuppl yoftencomesf rom a
than at mospher ic pr essure p0 and t his reser voironhi ghgr ound.Wat erflowsf rom it
pressur eist ransmi tt
edt ot hel i
qui dint he throughpi pest oanyt aporst oraget ankt hat
l
ef t-
handl imboft het ube.Thi sf orcest he i
sbel ow thel evelofwat eri nther eser voir
.
l
iquidr oundt het ubeint other i
ght-handlimb Thel owert hepl acesuppl ied,thegr eatert he
unt i
ltherei sa‘ head’ofl iquidhabov et he wat erpr essure.I nav erytallbuildi
ngi tmay
l
owestsur facel evel. benecessar yf i
r sttopumpt hewat ert oa
Equat i
ngpr essur esatt hislev elgi
v es l
arget anki nthe r oof .
p1 =hρg+ p0 and so excess Reser voi
rs f or wat er suppl y or f or
pressur eoft hegasabov etheat mospher ic hydr oelectri
cpowerst ati
onsar eoftenmade
pressur eisgivenby i
nmount ai
nousr egionsbybui l
dingadam at
∆p=p1–p0=hρg oneendofav al
ley.Thedam mustbet hicker
att hebot tom t hanatt het opduet ol arge
∆p=hρg wat erpr essureatt hebot tom.
Note:histhe‘head’ofthel
i d,ρi
qui sthe
densi
tyoftheli dand g i
qui sacceler
ati
on
due
togr
avit
y(10ms-2)
.

1. HYDRAULICMACHI NES
Liqui
dsar ealmosti
ncompressi
ble(
i.
e.their
volume cannotbe reduced bysqueezing)
andt hey‘passon’anypressur
eappliedt o
them. Use i s made of these f
act si n
hydrauli
cmachines.
©TemboJPPCDSS -8-
Ref err
ing tot hehy dr
aul
icmachi nei nt he regaining nor mal t emperature t he axles
fi
gur eabov e: expandt ogiveav erytightf
it.
Suppose a downwar dfor ce facts on a 2.At i
ghtmet alli
dcanber emov edf rom a
pistonofar eaa.Thepr essuretransmi tted glassj arbyimmer si
ngt heli
di nhotwat erso
throught heliquidis thatitexpands.
Pressur
e=f 3.Bimet al
l
icst ri
p–i ft wodifferentmet al
s
a e.g.copperandi ronar eri
vetedt oget herso
Thispr essur eact sonasecondpi stonof thattheycannotmov eseparately, theyform
l
ar gerar eaApr oducinganupwar dforceF a bimet al
li
c st r
ip.When heat ed,copper
F = pr essur e x expandsmor et hanironandt oal l
owt his,t
he
area stri
pbendst owar dst hemet althatexpands
=fxA l
ess.
a Bimet all
icstr
ipshav emanyuses:
=fxA (a) firealarm
a
SinceA i sl argert hana,Fmustbel arger
thanfandt hehy drauli
cmachi ne(system)i s
af orcemul ti
plier
;themultiply
ingfactoris

Hydr
aul
icmachi nesareusedingar
agest o
l
if
t cars, hy
dr aul
i
c fork-
li
fttr
ucks and
hydr
aul
i
ccarbr akesuset
hesameprinci
ple.

EXPANSI ON AND CONTRACTI ON OF

SOLIDS Heatfrom thef iremakest hebi metalli
cstrip
Ingeneral,
whenmat t
erisheat editexpands bendandcompl etet heelectr
icalcircuit
,so
andwhencool editcont racts.Accordingto ri
ngingthealarm bel l.
thekineti
ct heory,themol eculesofsol i
ds (b) at her mostatinani r
on
areinconstantvibrati
ons.Whenheat edthey At hermostatkeepst hetemper atureofan
vibr
atefasterandf orceeachot heral i
ttl
e appli
anceconst ant.When,f orexampl e,the
fart
herapar t
.Thel inear(length)expansion i
ron reachest her equir
ed temper aturethe
ofsolidsissmal landf ort heeffecttobe str
ip bends and br eaks the ci
rcuitatt he
noti
cedt hesol i
dmustbel ongand/ orthe contactsandswi tchesof ftheheat er.After
temperaturechangel arge. cooli
ngal i
ttl
et hest ri
premakescont actand
tur
nst heheater.
USESOFEXPANSI ON
1.‘Shrink – fitt
ing’of axles i
nto gear PRECAUTIONSAGAI NSTEXPANSI ON
wheel
s.The axles ar e cooled in liqui
d -Gapsar eleftbet
weenl engt
hsofrai
lway
ni
tr
ogenatv er
yl owt emperat
urei.
e.-196ºC l
inest
oallowexpansioni
nsummer .
and t
hey contr
act( shr
ink)unti
lthe gear -Smallgapsar el
eftbet
weenbr i
ckwal
l
st o
wheel
s can be sl ipped on tothem.On all
owexpansion.

©TemboJPPCDSS -9-
 Diagram oft
hest
ruct
ureofanat
om andi
ts
parts.

Par
ti
cle Symbol Relat
ive Relati
ve
mass charge
TOPI
C:ELEMENTSANDCHEMI
CALBONDI
NG
(amu)
Pr
oton p 1 +1
STRUCTUREOFANATOM
Neut
ron n 1 0
Ev erythingyouseear oundy oui smadeout
El
ectr
on e 1/1837 -
1
oft inypar ti
clescal l
edat oms.Theseat oms
are made up ofev en smal l
er‘ subatomi c’
ATOMICNUMBERANDMASSNUMBER
par ti
cles.Themosti mpor tantoft hesear e
Thenumberofpr otonsinthenucleusofan
electrons, pr
ot onsandneut rons.Thepr otons
atom is cal
led the atomic number.Each
andneut r
onsar efoundi nthecent reoft he
el
ementhas i ts own at omi
c number.For
atom,whi ch i s called t he nucl eus.The
example,the heli
um at om has an at
omic
neut ronshav eno char geand pr otonsar e
numberof2,si ncei thastwoprotonsini
ts
posi ti
vely char ged.The nucl eus occupi es
nucl
eus.
onl yav er
ysmal lvolumeoft heat om buti s
ver ydense.
Ther estoftheat om sur roundi ngthenucl eus
i
swher eelect r
onsar emost lyl i
kelyt o be
found.Theel ectronsar enegat i
velychar ges
and mov e around v eryqui cklyin electron
shel l
s orener gyl evels.The el ectrons are
hel dwi thi
ntheat om byanel ectr
ost ati
cforce
ofat tract
ion bet ween t hemsel ves and t he Diagram ofthestruct
ureofhel
ium at
om.
posi ti
vechar geoft hepr otonsi nthenucl eus. Thet otalnumberofpr ot
onsandneut rons
foundinthenucleusofanat om i
scalledthe
massnumber( ornucl
eonnumber).
Mass number= at omic number( No.of
protons)+No.ofneut r
ons
©TemboJPPCDSS -1-
Theatomicnumberandmassnumberofan
el
ementareusuall
ywrit
teni
nthefol
lowi
ng
shor
thandway:
4
2He
(4ist he mass number ,2 i
st he at
omic
numberandHei st hesymboloft
heelement
i
.e.heli
um).
Number of neutrons = mass number –
atomicnumber.
Forexample,t
henumberofneut ronsinone
24
atom ofmagnesi
um 12Mgi s(24–12)=12.
Theel ectr
onconfi
gurat
ionsandstr
uct
ures
ELECTRON CONFI GURATI ON AND THE foroxy gen,hy
drogen,l
ithi
um,sodi
um and
PERI ODI CTABLE. potassium.
The way i n whi ch t he el ect r
ons ar e
distri
but ed i s cal led t he el ect ron
conf igurationorel ect ronst ruct ur e. ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT I
N THE FI
RST
Eachoft heel ectr onener gyl ev el scanhol d 20ELEMENTS
onlyacer tainnumberofel ectronsasf ol l
ows:
 Fi rst ener gy l ev elhol ds up t o 2 El
ement Sy
mbol Atomi
c Number El
ectr
on
elect rons numbe of st
ruct
ur
r el
ect
ron e
 Second ener gy l evelhol ds up t o8 s
elect rons Hy drogen H 1 1 1
 Thi r
d ener gy l ev elhol ds up t o 18 Hel i
um He 2 2 2
elect rons.Thet hi r
dener gyl ev elcan Li
thi um Li 3 3 2,
1
be occupi ed by a maxi mum of18 Ber yll
ium Be 4 4 2,
2
elect rons. Howev er, when ei ght Bor on B 5 5 2,
3
elect ronshav eoccupi edt hisl ev ela Car bon C 6 6 2,
4
cer t
ai nst abi li
tyi sgi vent ot heat om
Nitrogen N 7 7 2,
5
andt henextt woel ect ronsgoi nt ot he
Oxy gen O 8 8 2,
6
four th ener gy l evel,and t hen t he
Fl
uor ine F 9 9 2,
7
remai ningt enel ect ronscompl etet he
Neon Ne 10 10 2,
8
thirdener gyl ev el.
Theel ectronsf i
llt heener gyl ev elsst arting Sodi um Na 11 11 2,
8,
1
fr
om t heener gyl ev elnear estt ot henucl eus, Magnesi u Mg 12 12 2,
8,
2
whi chhast hel owestener gy .Whent hisi sf ul
l m
(witht woel ectrons)t henextel ect rongoes Alumi ni
um Al 13 13 2,
8,
3
i
nt osecondener gyl ev el.Whent hisener gy Si
licon Si 14 14 2,
8,
4
l
ev eli sf ul lwi t
h ei ghtel ect rons,t hen t he Phosphor P 15 15 2,
8,
5
electronsbegi nt of il
lt het hird and f our th us
ener gylev elsasst at edabov e. Sulphur S 16 16 2,
8,
6
Forexampl e,anoxy genat om ( 16
8O )hasan Chlor ine Cl 17 17 2,
8,
7
atomi cnumberof8andt heref or ehasei ght Argon Ar 18 18 2,
8,
8
electrons.The el ect ron conf i
gur ation f or Pot assium K 19 19 2,
8,
8,
1
oxy gencanbewr itteni nashor thandwayas Calci um Ca 20 20 2,
8,
8,
2
2,6
THEPERIODI
CTABLE
Theper
iodi
ctabl
ewasdev
isedi
n1869by

©TemboJPPCDSS -10-
Russian Dmi t
ri Mendel eev , who was a  Theyar emet alswithlowdensi ti
es
professorofchemi stry atSt .Pet er
sburg  They hav e shiny surf
aces when
Universi
ty.Hisper iodictabl ewasbasedon fr
eshlycutwi t
hakni fe
thechemi calandphy sicalpr opert
iesoft he  Theybur ni noxy genorai rtoform
elementst hathadbeendi scoveredatt hat soli
doxi des
ti
me.  Theyr eactv i
gorouslywithwat erto
Thev erti
calcolumnsar ecal l
edgr oupsand gi
v e an al kal
ine soluti
on oft he
thehor i
zontalr
owsar ecalledper i
ods. met al hy droxide as wel l as
Those el ement s wi t
h si mil
ar chemi cal producinghy drogengas.
properti
esar efoundi nthesamecol umnsor  They r eact v i
gorously wi th
groups.Ther eareei ghtgroupsofel ement s. halogenst oform met alhali
des.
Someoft hegr oupshav ebeengi venspeci al
names. GROUP2:ALKALI NEEARTHMETALS
 Gr oup1: Theal kalimet al
sexceptH PROPERTIES
 Gr oup2: Theal kali
neear thmet al
s  Theyar eharderthanthoseingroup1
 Gr oup4:The semi conductors or  Theyar esi l
very
-greyi ncol
ourwhen
met al
loi
ds pur
eandcl ean
 Gr oup7: Thehal ogens  Theyar egoodconduct or
sofheatand
 Gr oup8( 0):Thegasesornobl egases el
ectr
ici
ty
 Theybur nin oxygen orairt ofor
m
I I
I I
II I
V V VI VI
I VII
I sol
idoxides
H He  Theyr eactwithwat er,butt
heydoso
Li Be B C N O F Ne much l ess v igorously than the
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar el
ementsi ngr
oup1.
K Ca Br
GROUP7:THEHALOGENS
A gr oup i sav erti
calcol umn oft he PROPERTIES
peri
odi ct ablecont aining element swi th  These el ement s ar e coloured and
si
mi larpr oper t
ieswi tht hesamenumber darkergoi ngdownt hegr oup
ofel ect ronsi nt heirout erener gyl evels.  Theyexi stasdi atomi cmol ecules,
Theyhav eani ncreasingnumberofi nner forexampl eCl2,Br 2andI 2
energyl evelsasy oudescendt hegr oup.  Theyshowagr adualchangef rom a
Periods ar e hor i
zont al rows of t he gas( Cl2),t hroughal iquid( Br2),t
oa
peri
odi ct able.Wi thi
naper iodt heat oms soli
d( I
2) .
ofall theel ement shav ethesamenumber  They f or m mol ecularcompounds
ofoccupi ed ener gyl evel
s buthav e an with ot hernon met all
ic element s,
i
ncreasi ng numberofel ect rons int he forexampl eHCl .
outerener gyl evel .Forexampl e,cal ci
um
 They r eact wi th hy drogen t o
i
sanel ementf oundi ngr oup2andper iod
producehy drogenhal ides.
4.Whati tmeansi sthatcal cium hasf our
 Theyr eactwi thmet al st opr oduce
energyl ev el
s( shel l
s)andt heout ermost
ioni
cmet al hal
ides.
(f
our th)shel l occupi es2el ect rons.
GROUP0:THENOBLEGASES
GROUP1:ALKALIMETALS
PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES
 Theyarecol
ourl
essgases
 They ar e good conduct
ors of
el
ectr
ici
tyandheat  Theyexistasindivi
dualat
oms,f
or
exampl
eHe,NeandAr
 Theyar esoftmetal
s
 Theyarever
yunreacti
ve
©TemboJPPCDSS -11-
 energylevel
s.Thi
smeansanat om hasto
l
oseorgai norshar eel
ectronst ogain
stabil
it
y.
STABLEELECTRONCONFI
GURATI
ON Ther earethreemaint y
pesofbondi ng
(NOBLEGASES) namel y;i
oni
c(el
ectr
oval
ent)
,cov al
entand
met al
li
c.
El
ement Sy
mbol Elect
ron
confi
gurat
ion (
a)IONI C( ELECTROVALENT)BONDI NG
Heli
um He 2 Ionic bonds ar e usual l
y f ound i n
Neon Ne 2,
8 compounds t hat cont ain met als
Argon Ar 2,
8,8 combi ned wi th non- met als.When t his
type ofbond i sf ormed,el ectrons ar e
Helium,neonandar gonmakeupamost transfer redf r
om t hemet alat omst othe
unusualgr oupofnonmet al
scalledthe non- met alat oms dur ing t he chemi cal
noblegases. react i
on. For exampl e, sodi um and
These gases ar e chemicall
yunreactiv
e chlor i
ne combi ne t o make sodi um
because they have electr
on chlor i
de.
configurat
ionswhi char estableandv ery Sodi um +chl orine sodi um chl ori
de
diff
icultto change.Theyar e so stabl
e (
Na) (Cl) (NaCl)
thatot herel ement s at
temptt o attai
n Sodi um hasj ustoneel ectroni ni tsout er
these el ectron conf i
gurati
ons dur i
ng ener gyl ev el(Na2, 8,1),chlor inehassev en
chemi calreacti
ons. electrons i ni t
s out erener gy l ev el( Cl
2,8,7).Whent heset wo el ement sr eact,
PERIODICITY theout erel ect r
onofeachsodi um at om i s
Goingacr osst heper i
odicTabl ei .
e.f r
om transfer redt ot heout erener gyl ev elofa
LitoNe, thenumberofshel l
sr emai nst he chlor i
neat om.I nthiswaybot ht heat oms
same but t he number of pr otons obtai n f ull out er ener gy l ev els and
increases. Thi s means t he ef fecti
ve become‘ li
ke’t henear estnobl egas.The
nuclear char ge ( t
he char ge f rom t he sodi um at om becomes a sodi um i on
protons)i ncreasesaswegoacr osst he (posi t
ive)whi lechl ori
neat om becomesa
periodictableandt hisint urnmakest he chlor i
de i on ( negat i
ve).Onl yt he out er
atomi c size t o decr ease acr oss t he electronsar eimpor t
anti nbondi ng.
periodictable.
Goingdownt heper i
odictabl ei.e.fr om F
toClt henumberofshel l
si ncreasesbut
the numberofel ectr
ons i nt he out er
shellsremai nsthesame.Thi smeanst he
effecti
venucl earchar gedecr easesaswe
go down t he gr oup because of t he
shieldi
ngef fectoft hei ncreasingnumber
ofshel lsmakest heat omi csi zeoft he
element st oincreaseaswegodownt he
periodictable.
Dotand cross diagr
am f ort
he r
eact
ion
BONDFORMATI ON bet
weensodium andchlor
ine
Atomsar ej
oinedtogetherbybondsand
theprocessoff orming thesebondsis Thechargesonthesodium andchlori
de
call
edbonding.Elementsr eacttoform i
onsareequalbutopposi
te.Theybal
ance
compoundssoast oachieveful
lel
ectr
on eachotherandtheresul
tingfor
mulafor

©TemboJPPCDSS -12-
 sodi um chl ori
de i s NaCl . These (
c)sodi
um r
eactingwit
hoxygen
opposi tely char ged i ons attr
act each (
d)al
umini
um reacti
ngwit
hchlor
ine
otherandar ebondedt ooneanot herby
strongel ectrost
at icforces.Thist ypeof
bondi ng i scal l
ed i oni
corel ectrov al
ent (b)COVALENTBONDI NG
bondi ng. Anot herwayi nwhi chat omscangai nthe
Def ini
ti
on:I onic bond i st he elect r
ical stability of t he nobl e gas el ect r
on
attracti
on bet ween opposi t
ely char ged conf igurationisbyshar ingt heel ect r
ons
i
onswhi char epr oducedwhenel ect rons i
nt heirout erener gyl evels.Thi soccur s
aret ransferredf rom oneat om (met al)to betweennon- met alatoms,andt hebond
anot her( non-met al)during a chemi cal formed i s called a cov alentbond.The
react i
on.Ot herexampl esincl
ude: simpl estexampl eoft hist ypeofbondi ng
i
shy drogenmol ecule,H2.
Eachhy drogenat om int hemol eculehas
oneel ectron.Inor dert oobt ainaf ul
l outer
Dotandcrossdi
agram ofr
eact
ionbet
ween ener gy l ev el and gai n t he el ect r
on
magnesi
um andoxy
gen conf igurationoft henobl egaseachoft he
hydr ogenat omsmusthav et woel ectrons.
Todot his,thet wohy drogenat omsal l
ow
Dot and cross di
agram of r
eact
ion theirout erener gyl evelst o overlap.A
bet
weenalumini
um andoxy
gen. mol ecul eofhy drogeni sf ormed, witht wo
hydr ogen at oms shar i
ng a pai r of
PROPERTI ESOFI ONI CCOMPOUNDS electrons.Thi sshar edpai rofel ectronsi s
I
onic compounds hav e the f oll
owi ng knownasasi ngl ecov alentbond.
pr
opert
ies.
 Theyar e usual lysoli
ds atr oom
temper ature, wi th high mel ti
ng
points.Thi si sduet othest rong
electrostati
cf orces holding t he
crystall att
ice together.A l otof
energy i s therefore needed t o
separ atet he ions and mel tt he
subst ance.
Dotand cross di
agr
am ofa mol
ecul
e of
 Theyar eusual lyhardsubst ances.
hydr
ogen(H2)
 They usual l
y cannot conduct
electri
cit
ywhensol i
d,becauset he
i
onsar enotf reeto mov e.They
conduct onl y i n mol ten and
aqueousf orms.
 Theymai nlydissolveinwat er.

Wor k:
Thisisanexampleofasingl
ecoval
entbond.
Draw thedotandcr ossdiagramsf ort
he
Dotand cr oss di
agram ofa molecul
e of
fol
lowing r eact
ions and suggest t he
hydrogenchlor
ide(HCl)
mol ecularformulae ofthe compounds
formed;
(a)lit
hium r
eacti
ngwi thf
luori
ne
(b)magnesi um r
eactingwithchlor
ine
©TemboJPPCDSS -13-
  General
ly,they do not di ssolvei n
water
.Howev er,wat erisanexcellent
sol
ventand can i nteractwith and
di
ssolve some cov alent molecules
bet
terthanothers.

Wor k:
Draw t he dotand cross diagr
ams ofthe
foll
owingmol ecul
esandst atewhethert
he
Thi
sisanexampleofdoubl
ecoval
entbond. typeofbondi ngissingl
eordoubl eortri
ple
Dotand cr
oss di
agram ofa molecul
e of covalent;
car
bondi
oxi
de(CO2) (i
)Cl 2(ii
)NH3 (ii
i
)H2O (iv)CH4 (v)O2 (
vi)
C2H4 (v
ii)CH3OH

POLAR AND NON POLAR COVALENT

BONDS
In a di atomic mol ecule of hy drogen or
chlorinet hetwoi denti
calnucl eimustat tract
thepai rofel ectronsequal l
yst rongly.I na
mol ecule of HCl ,t he chl ori
ne nucl eus
attractst he el ectrons mor e stronglyt han
doest hehy dr
ogennucl eus.
Electronegat i
vit
yi st he measur e of how
strongl yan at om i n a compound at tracts
electrons i n a bond.Fl uor i
ne ist he most
Thi
sisanexampleofatr
ipl
ecov
alentbond. electronegat i
veofal lt
heel ement s.Soi nH- F
Dotand cross di
agr
am ofa molecule of mol eculet hefluor i
netakesmor et hanitsf ai
r
ni
tr
ogen(N2) shar e of t he bonded el ectron-pair
.
Consequent lybot h atoms become sl i
ght l
y
PROPERTI ESOFCOVALENTCOMPOUNDS char ged and t his makes t he hy drogen
Coval
ent compounds hav et he f oll
owing fl
uor idemol eculepol ar.
pr
opert
ies. δ+ δ
 Assi mpl emol ecularsubst ances,t hey -
are usual l
y gases,l i
qui ds orsol i
ds H -F
withl ow mel ti
ng and boi li
ng poi nts. Hi s par ti
all
yposi ti
velychar ged and F i s
Themel ti
ngpoi ntsar elowbecauseof partiall
ynegat i
v elychar ged.
the weak i ntermol ecular f orces of Ahy drogenmol ecul eissai dt obenon- polar
attr
act i
onwhi chexi stbet weensi mple because t he nucl eioft he t wo hy drogen
mol ecul es. Giant mol ecul
ar atomsat tr
actt hepai rofel ectr
onsequal l
y
subst anceshav ehighermel tingpoints, strongl y
.
becauset hewhol est ructurei sheld
toget herby st rong cov alentbonds (c)METALLICBOND( BONDI NGI NMETALS)
withint hegiantmol ecule. Thisi sthe bond t hathol ds t he atoms
 Gener al
ly,t hey do not conduct toget
heri n a met al.When at oms ar ei n
electricitywhenmol tenordi ssolvedin gaseousstate,thei
relect
ronsarel ocali
sedi n
wat er.Thi si s because t heydo not the shell
s ( energy levels)
. Thi s means
cont ain i ons. Howev er, some elect
ronsareinsidetheelectr
onshel ls.
mol ecul esactuallyreactwi thwat erto Inasol i
dst ate,metalatomst akeupf ixed
formi ons. posit
ions as a r esulttheirel ectr
ons ar e
©TemboJPPCDSS -14-
delocal
ised. Thi s means t he v alence themetal
li
cbondstr
ongbutnotri
gid
el
ectrons ar e setf r
ee f rom t he elect r
on andsoitwil
ldef
orm,
notcr
ushwhenit
shell
sofeachmet alatom.El ectr
onsar enow ishi
t.
abletomov efreelyandbecomedel ocali
sed. The table bel
ow gi v
es some physi
cal
Themet alatomshav ingl ostt heirelectrons proper
ti
esofmetal
s.
haveaposi tiv
echar ge.Thesechar gedat oms
are called ions.So i nt he sol i
d met al,
delocal
isedel ectr
onsar ef reet omov ef reel
y Pr
oper
ty(phy si
cal) Expl anat i
on
betweenal lthei onsoft hemet al
.Thei ons  Theyar estrong Stro n g met alli
c
arei nf i
xed posi t
ions and act abi tl i
ke andhar d bonds hol d at oms
stati
onary‘isl
and’ i
naseaof‘ el
ectrons’.This  Theyhav ehi gh tog eth erin t
he s oli
d
‘
sea of el ectrons’( negat i
v e) attr
actst he mel ting and Lar ge ener gy i s
positi
veionsst ronglytogether . boili
ngpoi nts needed t o separ ate
 They are me tala t
o ms
insoluble i
n
wat er
 They are Met all
ic bonds ar e
mal leable–can ‘ flexi ble” and not
be hammer ed fi
x ed in one
into di fferent direct i
on onl y
shapes (ato ms can s l
ide
 Theyar educt ie acr
l osseachot her)
–canbedr awn
A metal
li
cbond ist he at
tract
ion bet
ween
outi ntowires
fi
xedmetalionsi
napi eceofmet alandt he
fr
ee del
ocali
sed el
ectr
ons thatmov e and  They conduct Fr ee ‘ delocalised’
surr
oundthem. electrici
ty and el ect rons carr y
heat elect rons carr y
elect ri
cal cur rent
PROPERTI ESOFMETALS
and heat ener gy
 Si ncetheat omsar ehel dt oget herv ery
through t he met al
strongl
y ,theyar ecl oset oget heranda
l
at ti
ce
l
otofener gyi sneededt opul lthem
 Theyhav ehi gh Met al at oms ar e
apart.Thi sexpl ainswhyt hemel ti
ng
densi ti
es pu l
le dt og etheri nto
pointsanddensi tiesofmostmet als
asmal lspacebyt he
arehigh.
strongmet all
icbond
 El ectr
iccur rentinamet al i
scausedby
electr
onsmov ingt hrought hemet al
.
CHEMI
CALPROPERTI ES
This happens because t he out er
1.Metalsreactwith oxygen t
of or
m
electr
onsi nt he met alat omseasi l
y
oxi
des.Forexample,zi
ncreact
swith
becomedel ocalised( detached)f rom
oxygent
of or
m zi
ncoxide.
the at oms t o f or m t he ‘ sea’ of
2.Metalsr
eactwithacidstofor
m sal
ts
electr
ons.These el ectrons wi l
lt hen
andhydr
ogengas.
mov eawayf r
om t henegat i
v etermi nal
i
naci rcui tandt owar dst heposi tive
USESOFMETALS
terminal.The mov ing elect rons can
1.Steel–enginebl
ocks,drai
ncovers
also take heatener gy t hr ough t he
2.Carbon steel– carbodi es,rai
l
way
met al and so met als ar e good
li
nes,kni
ves,r
azorbl
ades
conduct orsofheat .
3.Transmissi
on ofelectr
ic cur
renti.
e.
 I tisthe‘ sea’ofel ectronst hatmakes Cu
©TemboJPPCDSS -15-
 4.Pot
s(ki
tchenut
ensi
l
s),
fur
nit
ure downt
hegr
oup.

HALOGENS DISPLACEMENTREACTI ONS

PROPERTI ESOFHALOGENS Ifchl
orinereactswithpotassium br omidethe
Fl
uori
ne,chl orine,br omi neandi odi near eal l l
essr eacti
vehal ogen(bromi ne)isdi spl
aced
poi
sonous, of ten cor rosi ve, non- met al l
ic byt he mor er eact
ive halogen,chl ori
ne as
el
ement s.Thepr oper t
iesi ncl ude; showni ntheequat i
onbelow;
1.They ar e col our ed and t he col our s Potassium bromide+chl orine
dar kengoi ngdownt hegr oupi .e.Cl 2– potassi
um chl ori
de+br omine
pal egr een, Br2–r edbr own, I2–p ur ple 2KBr+Cl 2 2KCl +Br 2
blacket c. The reactivi
ty ofhal ogens decr eases on
2.Theyexi stasdi at omi cmol ecul es,f or goingdownt hegr oup;
exampl eCl 2,Br 2a ndI 2. Decreasi
ngr eactiv
ity
3.Theyshow agr adualchangef r
om a
gas( Cl2)t hroughal iqui d( Br 2),t oa Cl2 Br2 I
2
sol id(I2). Chlorine i s mor er eactivet han br omi ne
4.Theyf or m mol ecul arcompoundswi th because chl or i
ne is being mor e strongly
ot her non- met al li
c el ement s, f or attr
act edi ntot heout erener gyl eveloft he
exampl eHCl . smal leratom.Theat tracti
vef orceoni twi ll
5.Theyr eactwi thhy dr ogent opr oduce begr eatert hani nthecaseofbr omine,since
the hy drogen halides i.
e. theout erener gyl evelofchlorinei sclosert o
H2+I 2 2HI . thenucl eus.
6.They r eactwi th met alst o pr oduce Thissi mplyt ell
sust hatwhenbr omi ne( Br2)i
s
i
oni c met al hal i
des i.
e. mi xedwi t
hhy drogenchl ori
de( HCl )
,therewi ll
2Na+Cl 2 2 N a C l. benochemi calreacti
ont akingpl ace.Thisi s
TRENDSASWEGODOWNGROUPVI I the case because br omi ne ( Br2)c an not
 Hal ogensr eactbyat tract ingel ect rons. displacechl orinesincei ti
slessr eactive.
As t he at oms i ncr ease i n si ze t he
at tractiondecr easesandsor eact iv i
ty USESOFHALOGENS
decr easesdownt hegr oup. Thehalogensandhal ogeni ccompoundsar e
 I nter mol ecul arf or cesi ncr easeast he usedi
namul ti
tudeofdi fferentway s.
massoft hemol ecul ei ncr easesand  Fluorine i s used i n t he f orm of
so i nt ermol ecul ar at tract ion and fluori
desi ndr i
nkingwat erandt ooth
ther efor e mel ting/ boi l
ing poi nt s past ebecausei treducest oothdecay
i
ncr easedownt hegr oup. byhar deni ngtheenamel ont eeth.
 Theat omi cr adi usi ncr easesaswego  Chl ori
ne i s used t o make PVC
down gr oup VI I( hal ogens)because (polyvinylchloride)pl asti
caswel las
number of shel l
s/ ener gy l ev els househol dbleaches.I tisalsousedt o
i
ncr easesdownt hegr oup. killbact eria and v ir
uses in dr inking
 Ef fective nucl ear char ge decr eases wat er.
down t he gr oup because t he  Br ominei susedt omakedi si nfectants,
i
ncr easi ng number s ofshel ls shi eld medi cinesandf i
rer etar
dant s.
thenucl earchar gef rom t henucl eus  Iodine i s used i n medi cines and
(pr otons) . disinfectants and al so as a
 As y ou go down t he gr oup t he phot ographicchemi cal.
out er mostel ectronsar ef ur t
herf rom
thenucl eus.Theywi l
l,t her ef or e,be SULPHUR
hel dl esssecur el y,andt her esul t
ing Sul
phurisanon-
metal
li
celementwhichhas
react i
vity ofgr oup 7 wi lldecr ease averyi
mport
antr
olei
nthechemical
indust
ry.
©TemboJPPCDSS -16-
I
ti say el
l
ow sol
i
dwhi chi
sfoundinlarge dissolv
ei n an or gani
c solvent such as
quant
it
iesbutinv ar
iousfor
mst hr
oughout met hyl
benzene.I fasol uti
on ofsul phurin
theworl
d. met hyl
benzenei sheatedandallowedt ocool
then cr y
stals of monocl i
nic sulphur are
SOURCESOFSULPHUR produced.When t he temperatur
e of t he
 Sul phuri sfoundinmet aloressuchas soluti
onf all
sbel ow 96ºC,rhombicsul phur
copper py ri
tes (CuFeS2) and zi nc crystal
sar epr oduced.Rhombi csul phuris
blende( ZnS). stablebelow96º Candmonocl i
nicsulphuris
 Sul phur i s also found inv olcanic stable abov e 96ºC.Thi st emper atur
ei s
regionsoft hewor l
d. call
edt hetransi
tiontemperatur
e.
 Nat uralgas and oi lcontain sulphur
andi t
scompounds. PROPERTI ESOFSULPHUR
Sulphur obt ai
ned f rom t hese sources i s  I tisay ellow,br ittl
e sol i
d atr oom
known as‘ recovered sulphur’and itisan temper ature. Does not conduct
i
mpor tantsour ceoft heel
ement . electri
city
.Iti sinsolubleinwat er
.
 Sul phurwi llr eactwi t
h bot h metal
s
ALLOTROPESOFSULPHUR andnon- met als.
Whenanel ementcanex istinmor et hanone (i
) i treactswi thmagnesi um met alt
o
physicalf or mi nthesamest atei ti
ssai dt o form magnesi um met altof orm
exhibit al lotr opy . Each of t he di ff
erent magnesi um sul phide.
physical formsi scal l
edanal lotrope. Magnesi um +sul phur magnesium
Definit
ion:Al l
ot ropesar edi f
ferentst ructur al sulphi
de
formsoft hesameel ementhav i
ngt hesame (Mg) (S) (MgS)
physical stat e. (i
i) i treact swi thoxy gent o pr
oduce
Exampl es of el ement s t hat exi st as sulphurdi oxi
degas.
all
otropes ar e car bon and sul phur . The Sulphur+oxy gen sulphur
all
otropes of car bon ar e gr aphite, dioxi
de
buckmi nst er fullereneanddi amond.Themai n (S) (O2) (
SO2)
all
otropes ofsul phurar e cal led r hombi c
sulphurand monocl i
nic sul phur.Bot h of USESOFSULPHUR
thesesol idf or msofsul phurar emadeupof  The maj ori
tyofsul phuris used t o
S8 molecul es.Thef actt hatt herear et wo produceper hapst hemosti mportant
diff
erental lotr opesofsul phuri sduet ot he industri
al chemi cal known as
way i n whi ch t hese S8 mol ecul
es pack sulphuri
cacid( H2SO4) .
together.I nr hombi csul phurt hemol ecules  Sulphur is also used t ov ulcanise
are packed mor e closel y t han i n t he rubber,a pr ocess whi ch makes t he
monocl inicf or m. rubber har der and i ncr
eases i ts
elasti
cit
y.
 Sulphur i s al so used i n t he
manuf actur
ingofmat ches,fir
ewor ks
andf ungici
des.
 Sulphuri s also used as st eri
li
sing
agentandi nmedi ci
nes.

SULPHATES
Sulphur
ic aci
ds (H2SO4)reactwi th bases
such as sodium hy droxi
de ( NaOH) and
copper(II
)oxide( CuO)topr oducenor mal
Al
thoughsul
phuri
sinsol
ubl
einwat
er,i
twi
l
l sal
tscall
edsulphat
esandwat er.
©TemboJPPCDSS -17-
Sodium hydr
oxi
de+sulphuri
caci
d withai r(oxy gen).
(NaOH) (
H2SO4) Sulphur+oxy gen sulphur
sodium sul
phat
e+wat er dioxi
de
(Na2SO4) (H2O) (S) (O2) (SO2)
 Cl eangasesofsul phurdi oxide( SO2)
Copperoxi
de+sulphuri
caci
d are heat ed t o a t emper ature of
(
CuO) (H2SO4) appr oximat ely450° C and f ed i ntoa
coppersul
phat
e+wat er react i
onv essel ,wher et heyar epassed
(CuSO4) (H2O) overacat alystofv anadi um ( V)oxi de
(V2O5) .Thi s cat aly
ses t he r eact i
on
USESOFSULPHATES bet weensul phurdi oxi deandoxy gen
Belowisatabl
ethatshowsaf
ewsul
phat
es topr oducesul phurtrioxi de( SO3) .
(sal
ts)andt
hei
ruses; Sulphurdi oxide+oxy gen sulphur
tri
oxide
(
SO2) (O2) (
SO3)
Sulphate For
mul
a Use Thisr eacti
oni sr eversible.
(salt
)  I ft his sul phur t rioxide i s added
Iron(I
I) FeSO4 I
n ‘
i
ron’ direct l
yt o wat er,sul phur i
c aci di s
sulphate tabl
ets produced.Thi sr eact i
on,howev er,is
Ammoni um (
NH4)
2SO4 Fert
il
iser veryv i
olent and a t hick mi st is
sulphate produced.
Barium BaSO4 Used i
n Sulphurtrioxide+wat er sulphur i
c
sulphate diagnost ic acid
medi cal X- (SO3) (H2O) (H2SO4)
raystudi es
Cal
cium CaSO4.
1/2H2O ‘
Pl ast
er of CONCENTRATEDSULPHURI CACID
sul
phate Par i
s’used Concentrat
ed sul phuri
c acid is a v ery
to set powerfuldehy dr
atingagent.Thismeansi t
bones, wil
ltakewat erfr
om av ari
etyofsubstances.
popul arl
y One such subst ance is cane sugar or
known as sucr
ose.
POP
Magnesi
um MgSO4 Inmedi cine
concent
rat
edH SO
sul
phat
e i
ti susedas Sucrose( sugar
) 2 4
al axative– (
C11H22O11)
subst ance carbon+wat er
that (C) (H2O)
promot es (C) ( H2O)
empt y i
ngof
thebowel s Concent rat
edsulphur i
cacidwi llal
soremov e
wat erf r
om hy drated copper( II
)sul phate
SULPHURI CACID crystalsleavi
ng onlyanhy drouscopper( II
)
Themaj oruseofsul phurisintheproduction sulphate.Ifa f ew dr ops ofconcent rated
ofsulphur i
c acid.The pr ocess by whi ch sulphuricacid areadded t o bluehy drated
sul
phur i
caci dispr oducedi sknownast he coppersul phate crystal
s,t heysl owlyt urn
Contact Pr ocess. The pr ocess has t he white as t he wat er of cr ystal
li
sat
ion i s
fol
l
owi ngstages: remov edbyt heaci d.Ev entuall
y,onlywhi te
 Sul phur dioxide is f i
rst produced, powder – anhy drous copper sul phate
pri
mar i
lybyt he reacti
on ofsul phur remai ns.
©TemboJPPCDSS -18-
Hydrat
edcopper(
II
)sul
phat
e concent
rat
edH SO
2 4 I
tisusedmainl
yasther aw mat eri
alforthe
anhydr
ous +wat er pr
oducti
on of many subst ances. These
(CuSO4.
5H2O) i
ncl
ude;
(
a)met al salt
s( sul
phates)
copper( II
)sulphate+wat er (
b)fert
ili
ser s
(CUSO4) (
H2O) (
c)chemi cal
s
CAUTI ON: Concent rated aci
d should be (
d)paintsandpi gments
treated verycar eful
ly,because i
twillal
so (
e)detergent sandsoaps
remov e water f r
om f l
esh! I
tisav er
y (
f)arti
ficialfi
bres
corrosivesubst anceandshoul dalwaysbe (
g)dyes
handl edwithcare. (
h)steel manuf actur
ing
(
i)plastics and many
USESOFSULPHURI
CACI
D mor e.

TOPI
C:CHEMI
CALREACTI
ONSI be observ ed that there must be equal
numberofdi ff
er entatomsonei thersi
deof
STOI CHI OMETRY the equat
ion.Thi si s done because i na
Chemi calr eact ioni st her earrangementof chemicalreact
ionnoat om islostnorgained
diff
erentat omst oform newsubst ances.For norcr eat
ed.When bal ancing a chemi cal
exampl e,car bonr eactswi t
hoxy gent of orm equati
on do notchange t he formula ofa
carbondi oxide. compoundorel ement .
Whathappensi nachemi calreact i
oncanbe
putandexpr essedi nwr iti
ngasachemi cal Example1:
equat i
on.Achemi calequat ioni sanequat ion Balancet
heequat
ion;
thatshowst her eactant sandpr oduct sofa Na(s)+H2O(
l) NaOH(
aq)+H2(
g)
chemi cal react ion.
A chemi calr eact i
oncanonl yt akepl acei f Iti
sobser vedfrom t heequati
ont her
ei sa
there ar e col l
isions bet ween t he r eact ant tot
alof2hy dr
ogenat omsi nreact
ant’
ssi de
mol ecules. These col li
sions must hav e and3hy drogenat omsi ntheproduct’
sside.
enoughspeed( kineti
cener gy )tobr eakt he Ifacoeffi
cient2isputi nfrontofNaOHt he
oldbondsandsocauset hef ormat ionofnew tot
alnumberofhy drogenatomsbecomes4
bonds. i
n pr oduct’s side. To bal ance of f
,a
When wr i
ti
ng chemi cal equat ions t he coeff
ici
ent2i sputonbot hNaandH2O.The
foll
owingr ulesmustbeobser ved; bal
ancedequat i
onbecomes;
(i) Makesur et hecor rectf ormul aef or 2Na(s)+2H2O( l
) 2NaOH(aq)+H2( g)
react antsandpr oduct sar ewr i
tten.
(ii
) Bal ancet henumberofat omson Exampl e2:
both si des of t he equat ion by Balancet heequation;
mul tiplyi
ng mol ecul es, not by Fe2O3(s)+CO( g) FeO(s)+CO2( g)
addi ngnewat oms. Tobal ancet henumberofFeat omsonbot h
(ii
i) I nthebr acket saf tereachr eact ant si
des,t hereisneedt oputacoef f
ici
ent2on
and pr oduct wr i
te down i t
s FeO. Thi s al so means t hat the whol e
phy sicalst ate sol id( s),gas ( g), equationi sbalancedsincethenumberofO
l
iquid( l)andanaqueous[ wat er] atomsi s4onbot hsi
desandt hereis1C
solut i
on( aq) . atom onei thersi
de.
Fe2O3(s)+CO( g) 2FeO( s)+CO2(g)
BALANCI
NGCHEMICALEQUATIONS
Whenbal
anci
ngchemi
calequat
ionsi
tmust Wor
k:
©TemboJPPCDSS -19-
(
a)Bal
ancet
hef
oll
owi
ngchemi
cal
equat
ions; Relat
iveAtomi
cMass(RAM)
Thisisthemassoneatom ofanel
ementi
.e.
(
i)Ca(s)+O2(g) CaO( s) theRAM ofAl=27.
(
ii
)CO( g)+O2(g) CO2( g)
(
ii
i)Fe(s)+O2(g) Fe2O3(s) Relat
iveMol
ecularMass(
RMM)
(
iv)N2(g)+H2(g) NH3( g) Thisisthemassofonemol ecul
ecalcul
ated
(
v)N2( g)+O2(g) NO( g) fr
om thesum ofRAMsoftheatomsinvol
ved.
(
vii
)PCl 5(
s)+H2O(l
) H3PO4( aq)+HCl(aq)
(
vii
i)CuO(s)NH3(g) Cu(s)+H2O( l
)+H2(g) Rel
ati
veFormulaMass( RFM)
Thi
si st he sum of t he r
elat
ive atomi
c
(b)When di l
ute hydrochlor
ic acid(HCl)is masses(RAMs)ofallthoseelementsshown
addedt omar blechips( cal
cium carbonate, i
nthechemicalfor
mulaofthesubstance.
CaCO3),carbondi oxi
degas( CO2) ,
isgi
venof f
andasol utionofcal cium chl
oride(CaCl2)i
s Exampl e1:
producedpluswat er
. Calcul
atet he RFM of et
hanol(C2H5OH)
.
(i
) Wr i
te down t he f ormul
ae of RAMs: C=12, H=1andO=16
react
ants C=2X12=24
andpr oducts. H=6X1 = 6
(i
i)Balancet heat omsonbot hsidesof O=1X16=16
the RFM ofC2H5OH =46
equation. Exampl e2:
Calcul
atethemassof3molesofCO2.
UNI
TSOFMEASUREMENT C=1X12=12
O=2X16=32
Av ogadro’sconst ant
: 02x1023
6. RFM ofCO2 =44
Thisi sthesamenumberofcar bonatoms Massofcompound =No.ofmol esx
cont ai
ned i n exactl
y12g ofthecarbon-12 RFM
i
sot ope. =3x44
Amol eisanamountofsubst ancecontai
ning =132g
23
6.02x10 par ti
cles.
Note:
No.ofmol es ofan element= mass of
Mol
eCal
cul
ati
ons: el
ement
RAM
Mass(i
ngrams)=numberofmolesxmass No.ofmol es ofcompound = mass ofa
of1moleoft
heelement subst
ance
Numberofmoles= massofanel
ement RFM
Mass of 1 mol
e of t
hat
el
ement

Wor
k: MOLECULARANDEMPI RICALFORMULA
(
i) Calcul
atet he mass of( a)2 Amolecularf
ormul
ai sachemi calf
ormul aof
moles(b)0. 25mol eofiron(
Fe amoleculeorcompoundt hatgivesthet otal
=56) numberofatomspr esentint hemol eculeor
(
ii
) Calcul
atethenumberofmol es compound. For exampl e, t he mol ecul
ar
of alumini
um pr esent in(a) for
mulaofbutanei
sC4H10.Thi smeanst here
108g and ( b) 13.5g of t
he are14atomsintotalinthiscompoundi .e.4
el
ement( Al=27) Catomsand10Hat oms.

©TemboJPPCDSS -21-
Theempi ricalformulaofacompoundi sthe Wor k:
simplestf ormulat hatshowst helowestrat
io 1.Inanexper i
ment2. 6gofchr omium were
oft heat omst hatmakeupt hecompound. heatedinanexcessofchl ori
negas.I twas
For i nst ance, glucose has a mol ecul
ar foundthat7. 93gofchr omium chlori
dewas
formul aC6H12O6 andi t
sempi ricalf
ormulai s formed.IfRFM ofchr omium chlori
deis158,
CH2O.I ti sf ound by di v
ing each oft he (a)calculatet he empiri
calf ormul
a (
b)
subscr iptsby6t ogett helowestr at
ioi.e. molecularfor
mul aofchromi um chl
ori
de.
C6/6H12/6O6/6=CH2O.
2.Findt
heempi r
icalfor
mulaofasubstance
Example1: that has t he f ol
lowi
ng percentage
Findt
heempi r
icalf
ormulaofthecompound composit
ion:C =42. 87%,H =2.
36%,N =
that has t he f ol
l
owing per cent
age 16.67%,
O=38. 10%( RAMsC=12,H=1, N=
composit
ionbymassofel ements:C=40%, 14,O=12)
H=6.67%, O=53.33%
Sol
uti
on 3.Wor k outthe empir
icalfor
mul a ofthe
El
ementatomicprop.r
ati
oofatoms si
mplest compoundwi tht
hefol
lowingpercentage
at
om r
ati
o compositi
on:P=20.19%,O=10. 42%,Cl=
C 40/12 3.33 3.
33/3.
33
=1
69.39%.
H 6.67/1 6.67 6.
67/3.
33
=2 4. When magnesium r i
bbon is heated
O 53.33/16 3.
33 3.
33/3.33 str
ongly,i
tburnsver
ybr i
ghtl
ytof or
m the
=1 whitepowdercal
ledmagnesium oxi
de.The
fol
lowing dat
a were col
lect
ed from the
Theempi
ri
cal
for
mul
aisC1H2O1=CH2O. experi
ment;
Example2: Massofcruci ble =
In an exper iment an unknown or ganic 14.
63g
compound wasf ound to cont
ain 0.
12g of Massofcr uci bleandmagnesi um =
carbonand0.02gofhy dr
ogen. 14.
87g
(a)Calcul
atetheempi r
icalf
ormul a Massofcr uci bl
eand magnesi um oxide=
ofthecompound. 15.
03g
(b)I
ft heRFM oft hecompoundi s Massofmagnesi um used =
56, calcul
ate the mol ecular Mass of oxy gen whi ch react
ed wi th
formula. magnesi
um =
Sol
uti
on (a)Cal
cul ate mass ofmagnesi um and
(
a)El
ement numberofmol
es si
mpl
estmol
e massofoxy genusedinthereact
ion.
r
ati
o
C 0.
12/
12=0.
01 0.
01/
0.01
(b)Det
er mi ne the empiri
calformula of
=1 magnesi um oxide.
H 0.
02/
1=0.
02 0.
02/
0.01
=2 5.Cal cul
atet he empiri
calformula ofan
Empi
ri
cal
for
mul
aisC1H2=CH2 organi
ccompoundcont aini
ng92.3% car
bon
and
(
b)RFM ofcompound=56 7.7% hydrogen,bymass.TheRFM oft he
RFM ofCH2 =14 organi
ccompoundi s78.Whatisit
s
Rat
io =56/14=4 molecularformula?

Ther
efor
e,t
hemolecul
arf
ormul
ais CONCENTRATI ON/
MOLARI TY
4(
CH2)=C4H8 Concent
rat
ionofasol
uti
oncanbeexpressed
3 3
i
ng/lorg/dm andmoles/dm ormol
es/li
tr
e.
©TemboJPPCDSS -22-
Molar
it
yofasolut
ionistheconcent
rat
ion
expr
essedi
nmol
es/ 3
dm ormol
es/l
i
tre. Work:
1.Whati st heconcent rat
ioni dm3 of
ng/
0.08M Na2CO3?
Molar
it
yofasol
uti
on=numberofmol esofa 2.Howmanymol esarecont ai
nedint he
sol
ute
foll
owingsol uti a)4dm3 of0.
ons:( 5M
Vol
ume of a sol
uton i
i n
HNO3( b)250cm3of2M Na2CO3?
dm3
3.Howmanygr amsofCa( OH)2ar
et here
3
i
nasol ut
ionofv ol
ume2. 5dm anda
Formul
aeformolari
tycalculat
ions
3 mol ar
ityof2M?
1.Concent
rat
ion(i
ng/ dm )=mol ar
it
yx
4.Cal culatet he mol ar
ityofa sol ution
RFM
madebydi ssolvi
ng6.3gofHNO3 i n
2.Numberofmol esofasubst ance= 3
250cm ofsol ut
ion.
vol
umexmol ari
ty
3.Mass ofa subst ance (i
n grams)=
numberofmolesxRFM
STANDARDSOLUTI ON
Example1:
Thi
sisasol ut
ionofknownconcent
rati
onor
Whatistheconcentr
ationi ng/dm3 of0.4M
molar
it
y.
HCl?
A0.5M HClsolut
ionissai
dt obeastandard
Sol
uti
on: sol
uti
onbecauseitsconcentr
ati
on(
mol ar
it
y)
RFM ofHCl =1+35. 5=36.5g/
mol e 3
i
sknowni.e.0.
5mol es/
dm .
Molari
tyofHCl =0.
4M =0.4mol es/dm3
Theref
ore,concent
rati
on=molarityxRFM
Prepar ati
onofst andardsol ution:
=0.4X36. 5g/dm3 Inor dert omakeupast andar dsol uti
onof
3
=14.6g/
dm known mol arit
y ( concent rati
on) i t is
necessar ytobeabl etomeasur eout:
Example2: (a)exactmassesofsol utesand
Howmanymol esarecont
ai na250cm3
nedi (b)exactv ol
umesofsol utions.
sol
uti
onof0.1M HNO3? Todot hiswemustuseanaccur at
ewei ghi
ng
Sol
uti
on: balance,suchast het ri
plebeam bal anceor
Volume=250/1000dm3=0.
25dm3 electronic balance, whi ch can measur e
Molari
ty=0.
1M =0.1mol dm3
es/ masses t o an accur acy of ±0. 01g. To
Theref
ore,numberofmol es = v
olume x measur ev ol
umesofl i
quidsaccur atel
ywe
molari
ty use v olumetri
cappar at
ussuch aspi pet
te,
=0.25x0.
1 measur i
ngcyli
nderandbur ette.
=0.025
How t o pr epare 0.
1M Na2CO3 soluti
on of
3
Example3: volume1dm .
Calcul
atet
hemol ar
it
yofasol
utionmadeby Number of mol es requi
red = volume x
di
ssolvi
ng5.85gofNaCl
i 3
n4dm ofsol
uti
on. mol ari
ty
Sol
uti
on: = 1dm3 x
RFM ofNaCl=23+35.5=58.
5 0.1mol /dm 3

Numberofmoles=mass/RFM =5.85/
58.
5= =0.1
0.
1 MassofNa2CO3 r equir
ed=numberofmol es
Theref
ore, molar
it
y = number of xRFM
moles/vol
ume RFM ofNa2CO3=106g/ mol
=0.1/4mol dm3
es/ Ther ef
or e, mass of Na2CO3 r equir
ed =
=0.025mol
es/dm3 0.1mol ex106g/ mol
©TemboJPPCDSS -23-
 =10. 6g acid al
kaline
Usingat ri
plebeam balanceanexactmass solut
ion solut
ion
of10.6gNa2CO3 ismeasur ed.Thi smassi s Bl
uelit
mus Red Blue
3
puti nv ol
umetricf l
ask ofv olume 1dm . Methylorange Pink Yell
ow
Disti
ll
edwat eri
ssl owlyaddedt ot hesol i
d Methylred Red Yell
ow
Na2CO3 whil
estirr
ingusingagl assrodunt il Phenol
pht hal
ein Colourl
ess Pink
thesoliddissol
vescompl et
ely.Thedi sti
ll
ed Redli
tmus Red Blue
waterisaddedunt i
lthevolumeof1dm3 i s
reached.Thesolut
ionformedis0. 1M Na2CO3. Thef ollowingf ormulaisusedt ocal cul
ate
themol arit
yandv ol
umeofsoluti
ons:
Work: M1xV1 = M2xV2
1.Expl ai
n how y ou can pr epare a N1 N2
500cm3of0. 4M Ca(
OH)2so l
uti
o n. (
Base) (
Acid)
2.Youar easkedt oprepar
easol utionof M1 =mol ari
tyofabase,M2 =mol ari
tyofan
3
250cm of1. 5M NaOH.Ex plai
nt he acid,V1 =v olumeofabase,V2 =v olumeof
procedur e. anaci d,N1 =numberofmol esofabaseand
3.Cal culatemassofKOHt hatneedst o N2=numberofmol esofanacid.
be used t o prepar 3
e 500cm of2M Not e:
Numberofmol esofabaseandanaci d
soluti
oni nwater. are det ermined f rom a wel l balanced
chemi calequation.
TITRATI ON
Titr
at i
oni st hegr adualaddi t
ionofonel iquid Exampl e1:
3
to anot her.A t i
trati
onusual lyinvolv est he 25.0cm of0. 1M NaOH wereneut
ral
isedby
3
slow addi tionofr eactingv olumesofl i
qui ds 20.0cm ofHClofmol ari
ty M2 f
rom the
takingpar tinachemi calr eacti
on.Thebest burett
e.Calculat
ethemol ar
it
yoft heacid
known exampl e of t hi
si s neut r
alisat ion (M2).
react i
on. Sol
uti
on:
Neut ral
isation r eact ion i s t he r eact ion HCl
+NaOH NaCl
+H2O
betweenanaci dandabaset ofor m sal tand
wat er.A si mpl eaci d-baset itr
ationinv olves M1=0.1M,V1=25.0cm3,
N1=1, 0cm3,
V2=20.
theaddi t
ionofanaci dsolut i
ontoanal kali(a N1=1,M2=?
base)sol utionunt ilt
her eactioni scompl et e. Subst
it
uti
ngi
nthef or
mula:
Whenenoughaci dhasbeenaddedt ot he M1xV1 = M2xV2
base t o neut rali
se i twe sayt hatwe had N1 N2
reachedt heendpoi ntorneut ralpoi nt .To
know exact l
ywhent heendpoi nthasbeen 0.
1x25.0 = M2x20.
0
reached, ani ndicat orisused. 1 1
Ani ndicatori sasubst anceusedt oshow Ther
efor
e,M2=0.
125M.
whet hera subst ance i s acidic oral kaline
(basic). Example2:
Theendpoi nti sshownbyachangeofcol our What vol n cm3 of 0.
ume i 3M HClwi
l
l
from aci dt obasewhenenoughoft heaci d neut
ral
i
se50. 3
5cm of0.
1M Ca(
OH)2?
solution has been added t ot he base t o
cause neut ral
isat i
on. Bel ow i s a t able 2HCl
+Ca(
OH)
2 CaCl
2+H2O
showi ngi ndi catorsandt heircoloursi naci d Sol
uti
on:
andal kalinesol uti
on. M1 =0. 5cm3,N1=1,M2 =0.
1M,V1 =50. 3M,
N2=2andV2=?
Subst
it
uti
ngintheformul
a:
I
ndicat
or Col
our i
n Col
our i
n
©TemboJPPCDSS -24-
 M1xV1 = M2xV2 Manysubstancesexistasgases.I
fwewant
N1 N2 tofi
ndthenumberofmol esofagaswecan
dothisbymeasuringthevol
umer athert
han
0.
1x50. 5=0.
3xV2 the mass. Chemi sts have shown by
1 2 exper
iment t : One mol
hat e of any gas
Ther
efore,
V2=33.67cm3(
to2d.
p.) occupiesavol umeofappr oxi
mately24dm3
(24 l i
tres) at r oom t emperature and
Wor k: pressure(rtp).
1.Themol arityofasol utionofHCli sf ound Atstandar dtemperatur
eandpr essure(STP)
byt i
trat
ingi tagai nst0. 25M Na2CO3 sol ution, the volume ofone mol e ofany gas i s
3
using met hy lor angeast hei ndi cator.The approximat el
y 22.4dm . Therefore, i
ti s
3
resultwas t hat25cm of0. 25M Na2CO3 rel
ati
velyeasytoconvertvol
umesofgases
soluti
on r equi red 20. 8cm3 oft he aci d of i
ntomol esandmolesofgasesintov
olumes
unknown mol arity M2. Wor k t he usi
ngt hefol
lowi
ngrel
ati
onshi
ps:
3
concent rati
onoft heaci di n( a)mol es/dm ( b)
grams/ 3
dm .Thebal ancedequat i
onoft he Numberofmolesofagas
reactionis: =v ol
umeoft hegas(indm3 at
Na2CO3+2HCl 2NaCl +H2O+CO2 rt
p)
2.Whatv olume i 3
n cm of0. 3M HClwi l
l 24dm3
neutrali 3
se10cm ofAl (OH) 3?T hebal anced Volumeofagas(indm3atrtp)
equationf ort her eact ioni s: =numberofmol esx24dm3
3HCl +Al (OH) 3 Al Cl3+3 H2O
3. 22. 3
4cm of a sol ution cont aining Note:I
fiti
satrpweuse24dm3andi
t fiti
sat
3
0.10mol dm-3 of sul phur i
c aci d j ust st
pweuse22. 4dm .
neutrali
sed25. 0cm3 ofasodi um hy dr oxide
soluti
on.Whati st heconcent rationoft his Exampl e1:
sodium hy droxi de sol ution? The bal anced Calculat
ethenumberofmolesofNH3gasin
equationoft her eact i
oni s: av olumeof72dm3 ofthegasmeasuredat
H2SO4 +2NaOH Na2SO4 + rt
p.
2H2O
4.Inat it
rati
oni nv olving24. 0cm3 pot assium Sol
uti
on:
hydrox i
de sol ution agai nst a sol ut i
on VolumeofNH3gas=72dm3
containing 1 moldm ofsul -3
phur i
c aci d, Usingt
hefor
mul a:
28. 3
0cm of t he aci d was f ound t oj ust Numberofmolesofagas
neutrali
set heal kal i (
base)compl et ely
. =v olumeofthegas(
indm3 at
(a) Wr i
te a wor d and bal anced rt
p)
chemi cal 24dm3
equat i
onf ort her eact i
on. =72dm3
(b)Namet hesui tabl ei ndi catorf or 24dm3
the =3
t
itration and st atet he col our
change Example2:
youwoul dobser ve. Calcul
atet
hevol
umeofCO2gasoccupi
edby
(c)Cal cul atet he concent r
at i
on of 0.
5mol esoft
hegasatSTP.
the
alkali (base)i nmol dm-3. Sol
uti
on:
NumberofmolesofCO2gas=0.
5
MOLESANDGASES Usi
ngthefor
mula:
©TemboJPPCDSS -25-
Vol
umeofagas(ndm3atr
i t
p) (c)Whenmet hanebur nsinair,t hefollowing
=numberofmol 4dm3 (
esx22. at chemical r
eact i
ont akespl ace:
STP) CH4+O2 CO2+H2O
=0.5x22.4dm3 (
i)Balancet heequat i
on.
(
ii
)If18gofwat erwer eproduced, findthe
=11.2dm3
massofoxy genused.
(d)0.048gofmagnesi um wasr eactedwi th
REACTI NGMASSES
excessdi lutehy dr ochl ori
caci datr tp.The
Considerthereacti
onbelow:
hydrogengasgi venof fwascol lected.
Magnesi um +oxygen magnesi
um
(
i)Wr i
teawel lbal ancedequat ionfor
oxide
the
2Mg + O2 2MgO
r
eact i
on.
2mol es 1mole 2moles
(i
i)Howmanymol esofMgwer eused?
2x24 1x( 16+16) 2x(24+
(i
ii
)Cal cul
at et henumberofmol esof
16)
hydrogenandhencet hevolumeof
=48g =32g =80g
thi
sgaspr oduced.( RAMsMg=24,
You wi l
lnot ice that t
he totalmass of
H=1, Cl =35. 5)
react
antsi s equalt ot he totalmass of
product. Thi
si st rue for any chemical
HEATSOFREACTI
ON
react
ion and i tis known as t he law of
conservati
onofmass.
Whenachemi calr eact i
ont akespl aceheat
energyi sgi venout ,causi ngt hecont ainert o
Example:
gethotorheatener gy can be t aken i n
Calcul
ate the mass of sulphur di
oxi
de
causingt hecont ai nertogetcol d.
produced by burni
ng 16g of sul
phur i
n
An exot hermi cr eact i
on i sa r eact i
on t hat
excessofoxygen.
gives outheatener gyt ot he sur roundi ng.
Exampl esofexot her mi creact i
ons:
Sol
uti
on:
(a)The r eact ion bet ween NaOH and
S+O2 SO2
hy drochl oricaci d.
RAM ofS=32amu
HCl +NaOH NaCl +H2O
RFM ofSO2=(32+16+16)=64amu
(Anyr eact ionbet weenst rongaci dand
32amuofSpr oduce64amuofSO2
basei sobser vedt obeexot hermi c.)
Ther
efore,
16gofSwouldproduce
(b)Combust ionr eactioni .
e.
=64x16gofSO2
CH4+2O2 CO2+2H2O
32
Anendot her mi cr eact i
oni sar eact i
ont hat
=32gofSO2
takes in( absor bs)heatener gy f rom t he
surroundings.
Wor k:
Exampl esofendot her micr eactions:
(a)Calculatethemassofcopperr equir
et o
(a)Dissol ving ofammoni um ni tratei n
produce 159g ofcopper( I
I)oxide when
wat er;
heatedinexcessoxygen.(RAMsCu=63. 5, O
=16) NH4NO3( s)+H2O( l) NH4+( aq)+NO3-( aq)
2Cu+O2 2CuO (b)Ev apor ationofwat ert owat erv apour .
(b) Lime ( CaO) i
s produced by heating H2O( l
)+heat H2O(g)
l
imestone ( CaCO3)
.The equat i
on fort he
process: HEATENERGYLEVELDI AGRAMS
CaCO3 CaO+CO2 Considerthereacti
onbetweenmagnesi um
Calcul
atet heamountofli
mepr oducedwhen andoxy gentoform magnesium oxide.The
10t onnesofl imest
onear eheated.(RAMs react
ants,Mgbur nedi
noxy gen,begi nata
Ca=40, O=16, C=12) highpositi
onofenergy
.Duringbur ning,the
©TemboJPPCDSS -26-
reacti
onmov esnatur
all
ytoal owposit
ionof
heatenergy,
formingthepr
oductMgO.
2MgO+O2 2MgO
The heat energy leveldiagram for thi
s
exothermicr
eacti
onlooksl
ikethis:

Theheatofr eacti
on( ∆H)=H2 –H1 andt he
resultispositi
vesi ncefinalheatenergy(H2)
i
sgr eaterthanthei ni
ti
alheatenergy(H1).
Theposi ti
v esignint hedi agram meansthe
reacti
on mov es uphil
land heatener gy is
Heatofr eacti
oni st hedifferencebet ween takeni nf rom thesur roundings.Theref
ore,
the finalheatener gy and t he initi
alheat the surroundings lose heatand getcol d.
energy .Thesy mbol forheatofr eacti
oni s∆H. Heati sgainedbyt hereactionandtheheatof
Inthecaseabov e, reacti
on i s positivef or an endot her
mi c
Heatofr eacti
on( ∆H) reacti
on.
=f i
nalheatener gy– i ni
ti
alheat
energy Wor k:
=H1–H2 Sulphuri sbur ntinapl entif
ulsuppl yofai r.
Heatofr eactionisnegat ivei nexot hermic Theheati sgi v
enoutf rom ther eaction.Given
reacti
on becausef i
nalheatener gyisl ess thatt hei ni
tialheatenergyi s28kJandt he
than t he i ni
ti
alheatener gy as such t he fi
nal heatener gyis10kJ.
diff
erencei snegati
ve. (a)Wr i
teawel lbal
ancedequat ionf orthe
Explanat i
on:When hi gh ener gy reactants reacti
on.
mov et ol ow energypr oducts,thechangei n (b)St ate whet her t he r eaction i s
heat ener gy,∆H,i s call
ed t he Heat of exothermi c orendot hermic.Gi v
ea
Reactionandi snegat i
vef oral lexothermic reasonf oryourchoice.
reacti
ons. (c)Pr epar e wel l
-l
abell
ed ener gy lev el
diagram forthereaction.
Heat energy l evel diagr
am f or an (d)Cal culatetheheatofr eact i
on.
endot
hermicreact
ion.
Consi
dertheevaporat
ionofwat
er. BONDBREAKI NGANDBONDFORMATI ON
H2O(l)+heat H2O(
g) The br eaking ofol d bonds needs ener gy
putti
ngi ntot her eaction.Forinstance,inthe
reacti
onbet weencar bonandoxy gent oform
carbon dioxi de,t he ki net
ic energy oft he
oxygenmol eculesi susedupasst heyget
neart ot hecar bonat omsbecauseoft he
repul
sions.Ki neti
c ener gy i
s used up i n
breakingtheol dbonds.
Format i
on of new bonds t akes pl ace
naturall
yandnoener gyi sneeded.
A chemi calr eactionr equi
resacol l
isiont o
causet hebr eaking,followedbyt hemaki ng,
©TemboJPPCDSS -27-
ofthechemicalbonds.Theener gyrequi
red posi
ti
ve(
endot
her
mic)
orneeded in breaki
ng the old bonds is
andusesupener gy.Themaki ngupofnew (ii
)lossofel ectronsand
bonds informing t
he products gi
ves out (ii
i)increasei nthechar ge
energy (
exother
mic).This energy has a Whencar boni sbur nedi nai r,carbondi oxide
negati
veval
ue i
sf ormed:
C+O2 CO2
Carbon hasgai ned oxy gen and i ssai dt o
havebeenoxi dised.Simi l
arly, whenMgmet al
atomsar ebur nedi nair(oxy gen) ,magnesi um
oxidei sfor med:
2Mg+O2 2MgO
Magnesi um hasgai nedoxy genandhasbeen
oxidised.Thi s oxi dati
on r eacti
on can be
l
ookedatt hr
oughi tselectricalchar ges.Mg,
asar eact ant,hasachar geofzer o.TheMg
i
nt hepr oducthasachar geof+2( i
.e.Mg+2).
During t he react i
on,t he magnesi um at om
hasl ostt woel ectronsandt hechar geont he
magnesi um at om hasbeeni ncreasedf rom 0
to+2.

OXIDATIONNUMBER
Thechargeonanat om,oronanion,i
scall
ed
i
tsoxidati
onnumberoroxi dat
ionstat
e.In
the case above,itmeans t he oxi
dati
on
numberofMghasi ncr
easedfrom 0to+2
duri
ngthereact
ion.

REDUCTI ON
Thi
sisdescr ibedas:
(
i)t aki
ng away of oxy gen from a
substance
(
ii
)decreasi ngtheoxidat
ionnumber
(
ii
i)accept i
ng(gaini
ng)electr
ons
Whencopperoxi deisheatedwi t
hcarbon,
the
fol
l
owi ngreactiontakesplace:

2CuO+C 2Cu+CO2
Duringt hereact i
onoxy genhasbeent aken
TOPI
C:CHEMI
CALREACTI
ONSI
I awayf rom thecopper .Inthesamer educti
on
reacti
on, t
her eactantcopperstar
tswitha+2
ELECTRONTRANSFERREACTI
ONS chargeinCuO.Thepr oductfor
medi scopper
REDUCTION AND OXIDATION (REDOX) soli
d( Cu) .The char ge has changed fr
om
REACTIONS Cu+2t 0
oCu.Thi smeansCu+2hasgai ned
twoelect r
onsi .
e.
OXIDATION Cu+2+2ê Cu0
Theword‘oxidati
on’
canbeexpl
ainedas
(i)theincreasei
ntheoxy
gencontent USI
NGOXI
DATI
ONNUMBERS
©TemboJPPCDSS -28-
 1.All el ement s hav e an oxi dat
ion (
c)CO2 (
C)
numberofzer o.Thisi sbecauseal l (
d)MgCl2 (Mg)(Oxi
dat
ionnumber
element sar emadeofneut ralatoms ofCli
s-1)
thatal wayshav eaf i
nalchar geofzer o. (
e)Cr2O4
-2
(
Cr)
2.Oxy genhasanox i
dationnumberof- 2, (
f)CO3-
(C)
exceptwheni tisagaseousel ement , g)SO4-2
( (
S)
theni tsoxi
dationnumberi szer o.
3.Hy drogenhasachar geof+1,except DISPLACEMENTREACTI ONS
wheni ti
sanel ement . Whenapi eceofmagnesi um met alMg( s)is
4.Foral lneut r
almol eculest hesum of placedinanaqueoussol ut
ionofsilverni
trate
the separ at
e char ges i nside t he (AgNO3)thef oll
owingt hingsar eobserved:
mol eculemustaddupt ozer o. (i
) t he magnesi um r od begi ns t o
5.Fora char ged ion,t he sum oft he dissolve
separ atechargesi nsidethei on,must (i
i) t he rod becomes cov er
ed wi th
beequalt othef i
nalchargeont heion shiny,si
lvery-blackcoatingofsi l
ver
i
tself. met al
.
Thisisdescr i
bedasdi splacementr eaction
Examples: because t he magnesi um seems t o be
1.Workoutt heoxidat
ionnumberofNa dissol
vingandgoi ngint ot hesoluti
onandt he
i
nNaOH. sil
vermet ali s comi ng outofsol uti
on t o
Sum oft heseparat
echargeswil
lbe depositasol i
dsilvery
-bl ackcoatingont opof
zero (0) since NaOH i s neut
ral themagnesi um rod.
compound.
Na+( -
2)+( +1)=0
Na-2+1 =0
Na-1 =0
Na =+1
Theref
ore,theoxi
dati
onnumberofNa
i
nNaOHi s+1.

2.Fi
ndt heoxi dati
onnumberofMni n
MnO4-.
Sum ofsepar at
echar geswil
lbe-1
si
ncethenetchar geont hei
onis-
1.
Mn+4( -2)=-1
Mn–8 =- 1 Expl
anati
on:
Mn =8–1 When a met aldissol
ves in an aqueous
Mn =+7 sol
uti
onitioni
ses.ForthecaseofMg,
Ther
efore,theoxidat
ionnumberofMn Mg(s) Mg+2(aq)+2ê
i -
nMnO4 i s+7. Thesil
vermet alcoati
ngont herodismade
upofsil
verat oms.OneAg+(aq)ionneeds1
Work: el
ectr
ontochangei ntoaAg(s)atom.
+
1.Wor kouttheoxidati
onnumberofSin Ag( aq)+ê Ag(
s)
SO2.
2.Wor k outoxi
dat i
on number
s ofthe When a zi nc rod i
s placed in aqueous
elementsinbracketsinthefol
l
owing sol
ution ofcoppersulphate,the zi
nc rod
moleculesandions; di
ssolvesandblack-
browncoatingofcopper
(a)Ca(OH)2 (Ca) metalf or
mson t he zi
ncr od.The zincis
(b)NH4+ (
N) di
splacing copper f r
om t he soluti
on.
©TemboJPPCDSS -28-
Bl
uenessofthesol
uti
onbegi
nst
ogetpal
er othermet al
sbelow t
hem int hetabl
e.This
af
tersomet
ime. tabl
ei s call
ed El
ectr
ochemi calser
ies or
Activ
ityseri
es.
Explanation: K K++ê
When t he zi nc r od dissolves,i tioni ses Na Na++ê
accordingt heequat i
on: Li +
Li +ê
Zn( s) Zn2++2ê Ca Ca+2+2ê
Thel ostel ectronsar eimmedi atelyaccept ed Mg Mg+2+2ê
+2
by the sur r
ounding Cu ( aq) ions int he Al Al+3
+3ê
coppersul phat esolution +2
Zn Zn +2ê
Cu+2( aq)+2ê Cu(s)
Fe Fe+2+2ê
Thisequat ionexplainshow coppermet alis
Sn Sn+2+2ê
producedandt hencoat edont othezincr od.
Pb Pb+2+2ê
Af ter many si mi
lar experiments a H2 2H++2ê
Di spl acementTabl eofMetal
si sdrawnup. Cu Cu+2+2ê
Themet alsatthetopofthetabl
ewoul dbe Ag Ag++ê
abl et odi splacethemetal
slowerdownt he Au Au+3+3ê
tabl e.
Pot assi um (K) Itisobser vedt hatt heEl ect r
ochemi calser ies
Sodi um ( Na) has t he same or der of met als as t he
Lithium ( Li) DisplacementTabl e.I nDi splacementTabl e
Cal cium ( Ca) met als hi gher i nt he t abl e can di splace
Magnesi um (Mg) met alsbel ow t hem f rom sol utionsoft hei r
Alumi nium (Al) i
ons.I nt he El ect rochemi calser ies met als
Zinc( Zn) higheri nt heser iesar eabl et odonat e( give)
Iron( Fe) electronst oi onsofmet alsbel owt hem i nt he
Tin( Sn) series.Ther e seems t o be a connect ion
Lead( Pb) betweendi splacementandabi lit
yt odonat e
Hy dr ogen( H) electrons.
Copper( Cu) Consi dert het wohal fequat i
onsbel ow:
Silver( Ag) Zn( s) 2+
Zn +2ê
+2
Cu ( aq)+2ê Cu( s)
THEELECTROCHEMI CALSERI ES Itisobser vedt hatt hezi ncmet alat omsar e
(Gi
vingel ectr
onstoothermetalions) +2
givi
ngawayel ect ronsandt hatt heCu ( aq)
We hav e seen thatZn r od dissolves and
i
onsar eaccept ingt hesameel ectrons.Thi s
coppermet ali
sdeposit
ed(preci
pitated)onto
woul dputzi nchi gheri nt heEl ectrochemi cal
thezincrod.
series.Att he same t i
me zi nc met ali s
Zn( s) Zn2++2ê dissolv i
nganddi splacingt hecoppermet al
(
zincmet al
givi
ngawayel ectrons) from asol utionofi tsions.

Cu+2(aq)+2ê Cu(s) OVERALLEQUATI ON

+2
(Cu ( aq)ionsar egai
ningelectr
ons) The t wo half equations abov e can be
Whathasbeenshownher eleadst otherule combi nedtogiv
et heov er
allequat
ionf orthe
that:anymet alcanbot hgai
nel ectr
onsf r
om di
splacement r eacti
on. Addi ng the t wo
one met alordonat e el
ect
rons to another equat i
onswil
lgi
v e:
met al
.Thisr uleleadst oat ableofmet als Zn(s) Zn2++2ê ( oxidati
on)
beingsetup.I nt hi
st abl
ethemet al
satt he +2
Cu ( aq)+2ê Cu(s) (
reduction)
top areabl et o donat e(gi
ve)el ectr
onst o
©TemboJPPCDSS -29-
Zn(s)+ Cu+2(
aq)+2ê Zn2+ +2ê+  A species whose oxi dation number
Cu(s) (stat
e) has increased becomes a
Cancel
li
ngoutt heelectr
onsonbot hside reducing agent i.e. t he oxidat
ion
-
Zn(
s)+Cu (+2
aq) 2+
Zn +Cu( s) numberi nIis-1andhasi ncreasedto
Suchequationi sknownast heov er
allnet 0inI2.

i
onicequati
on.  A species whose oxi dation number
(stat
e) has decreased or r educed
Work: becomesanoxi dising agenti .
e.the
+3
In ar eacti
on inv olv
ing magnesi um rod oxidati
onnumberofFe i s+3andhas
di
ppedinasilv
ernitratesolut
ion[AgNO3]
: decreasedto+2inFe .+2

(
a)Wr i
te t he oxi dat
ion and
reductionequations.
(
b)Determi netheov eral
lnetioni
c Wor k:
equationf orthereact
i Hi
on.( nt: I
dent i
fyoxi disi
ngandreduci
ngagent sint
he
Balance t he number of fol
lowingr edoxequati
ons:
elect
rons) 1.Mg+Sn +2
Mg+2+Sn
2.2Mg+O2 2MgO
OXI DISINGANDREDUCI NGAGENTS +2 + -
3.5Fe +8H +MnO4 Mn +4H2O+52+

Consi derther edoxequat i

onbel ow:
+2 Fe+3
Zn(s)+Cu ( aq) Zn2++Cu( s)
+2
Cu i sbei ngr educedbecausei tisgaini
ng RUSTI
NG
two el ectronsand i tsoxi dat
ion numberi s
+2
reducedf r
om +2( i
nCu )t o0( inCu) . HOW RUSTI SFORMED
Zni sbei ngoxi di
sedbecausei tislosingtwo Rustingist henamewegi vetot heoxi
dati
on
elect r
ons and i t
s ox idati
on number i s ofironorst eelindampai r
.Iti salsocall
ed
+2
i
ncr easingf rom 0t o+2( inZn ) .SinceZnis corrosion.
being oxi dised,t hen t he oxi disi
ng agent Ir
on i oni
ses i n waterand loses electr
ons
antCu . Cu+2 i
+2
mustbet heot herr eact s accordingtot hisequati
on:
beingr educed,t hen,t heot herr eactantZn Fe(s) Fe+2(
aq)+2ê
thathascausedt her educt ionisther educi
ng Thepr esenceofH2O, O2andel ectr
onsforms
agent . hydrox yl
ions( -
OH ):
H2O(l)+O2( g)+4ê 4OH–( aq)
Def
ini
ti
ons: Thenextst agei sthat
 Anoxi di
singagentist
hespeciesthat Fe+2(aq)+2OH–( aq) Fe(OH)2(
s)
hasbeenreducedi
nar edoxr
eacti
on.
 Ar educi
ngagenti sthespeciesthat 2Fe(
OH)
2(s)+O2(
g) Fe2O3.
H2O+
hasbeenoxidi
sedinaredoxr
eacti
on. H2O( l
)
Fe2O3.
H2Oi
swhati
sknownasr ust.
Exampl e:Identifyt
hereducingandoxi di
sing
agent sint hi
sr edoxequat
ion; From theexpl
anati
onitisundeni
ablepointto
2Fe+3+2I -
2Fe+2+I2 saywat erandoxygenar eessenti
alforiron
+3
Fe i st heoxi disi
ngagenti.e.ithasoxidised torustandifoneofthesetwosubst ancesis
-
It oI 2 notpresentthenrusti
ngwi l
lnottakeplace.
-
Ii st her educi
ngagenti .
e.ithasr educedFe+3 The followi
ng fi
gures show exper iments
toFe+2 carr
iedouttoconfir
mt hatwaterandoxy gen
(f
rom theair
)areneededforir
ontorust.
Another hi
nt to i
dent
if
y r
educi
ng and
oxi
disi
ngagent
s:
©TemboJPPCDSS -30-
  Coat ing wi th pl ast ic – most
refriger at ors,f r
eezer sandmanyot her
i
temsar ecoat edwi thpl ast icsuchas
PVC t o pr ev entt he st eelst ruct ur e
rust i
ng.
 Plat ing/ elect ropl ating–cansf orf ood
canbemadef rom st eelcoat edwi th
ti
n.Some carbumper s,as wel las
bicy cle handl ebar s ar e el ect ropl at ed
wi thchr omi um t opr ev entr ust ing.The
chr omi um gi v esadecor ativef inishas
wel laspr ot ect i
ngt hest eel beneat h.
 Gal vani si ng–somest eelgi rder s, coal
bunker s and st eel dust bins ar e
gal vani sed.Thi si nv ol vesdi ppi ngt he
obj ecti nt omol tenzi nc.Thet hinl ay er
of t he mor e r eact i
v e zi nc met al
Resul
ts: coat ing t he st eel obj ect sl owl y
Tube1: Rustingi sobser vedont hei r
on cor rodesandl osesel ect ronst ot he
ballsinceoxy gen( from theai r) i
ron,t her eby pr ot ecting i t
.Zi nc i s
andwat erar eav ail
able. higheri nt heel ect rochemi cal ser iesi .e.
Tube2: Nor usting, CaCl 2beingadr yi
ng mor e r eact ive t han i ron. Thus,
agentmakest het ubet ohav e whenev eri roni oni sesi ti sf or cedt o
no wat er.Ther ei s onl y one acceptel ect ronsf rom zi ncand t his
essent i
alr equirementwhi chi s causesi ron,Fe( s)t obef ormed.Thi s
oxygen( f
rom t heai r) prev ent s( st ops) t he f or mat ion of
+2
Tube3: No r ust i
ng,i n boi led wat er Fe ( aq)and el ect rons whi ch woul d
dissolved oxy gen i sr emov ed hav ebeenneededt oal lowt her ust ing
andt hel ayerofoi lprevent sair equat ions ( discussed ear li
eron)t o
from dissol vi
ngi nt hewat er.As take pl ace.Thi s pr ocess cont inues
suchwat eral onecannotmake ev enwhenmuchoft hel ayerofzi nc
rustont hei ronbal l. hasbeenscr at chedaway ,sot hei ron
Tube4: Rusting i s obser ved, pur e cont inuest obepr ot ect ed.
oxygenandwaterar eessent ialforrusting.  Sacr i
fici alpr ot ect i
on – i ron pi pes
undert he soi l
,orunderwat er ,can
RUSTPREVENTI ON easi lycor rode.I tisdi fficultandcost l
y
To prev enti r
on r usti
ng,iti snecessar yt o todi gupapi peandr epl acei t.I ti s
stopoxy gen( from theai r
)andwat ercomi ng easi ert o connectani ronpi pet oa
i
ntocont actwithi t
.Therearesev eralwaysof piece of met al hi gher i n t he
doingthis: elect rochemi cal ser ies, such as
 Pai nti
ng – mat eri
als are paint
ed t o alumi nium ormagnesi um.I twor ks
pr eventr usti
ng.Howev er,ifthepai nt l
ike t hi s: a magnesi um bal li s
i
sscr atched,t heironbeneat hitwi l
l connect edt oani ronpi peandt hei ron
star tt
or ust. has t o accept el ect rons f rom
 Oi li
ng/greasing–t hei r
onandst eelin magnesi um.Sot hei roncannotl ose
the mov ing parts ofmachi ner
y ar e elect ronsandi tdoesnotdi ssol ve.I n
coat edwi thoilorgr easet opr event this wayt he i ron pi pe i s pr ev ent ed
them f rom comi ngintocont actwi th from r ust ing. I nst ead i t i s t he
airormoi sture. magnesi um t hatdi ssol vesawayv er y
©TemboJPPCDSS -31-
 sl
owlyi n pl
ace oft he i ron.As i t
di
ssolv
es, the magnesi um sl owly
l
oseselect
ronst
ot heiron.Al ar
geball
of magnesium,or al umi nium,can
prot
ectani r
onpipemanyki lometres
l
ong,andformanyy ears,bef orebei
ng
usedup.

ELECTROLYSI
SANDI
TSUSES

Def
ini
ti
ons:
 El ectrolysis– apr ocessi n whi ch a
chemi calr eact ion i s caused byt he
passageofanel ectri
ccur renti nan
electrol
y te.
 El ectrolyte– asubst ancewhi chwi ll
USESOFELECTROLYSI S
carryel ect r
iccur rentonl ywheni tis
1.Purif
icati
onofmetal
si.
e.copper
mol tenordi ssol ved.Theel ectrici
tyis
2.Elect
roplati
ng
carri
edt hrought heel ectrolytebyi ons.
3.Producinggasesandot
hersolut
ions.
 El ectrodes–poi nt swher et heel ectri
c
current ent ers and l eaves t he PURI FICATI ONOFCOPPER
electrol
y te. El ectrodes ar e usual l
y Thei mpur ecopperi susedast heanode.The
madeofunr eact ivemet alssuch as cathodei smadef r
om v erypurecopper.The
plati
num oroft henon- met alcar bon el
ect rolyte i s a sol ution of copper ( II)
(i
nertel ectrodes) . sulphat e( acidified),t o helpt he solut i
on
 Cat hode – t he negat ive el ectrode conductel ectricity.
which at tract s cat i
ons ( posi t
ivel
y Refert oFi g.(ii)abov e.
chargedi ons) .Excessel ect ronsmov e Duringt hepr ocesst hei mpureanodel oses
towar dsi t. mass because t he copper at oms l ose
 Anode–t heposi tiveelect r
odewhi ch el
ect ronsandbecomecopperi ons;
attr
act s ani ons ( negatively char ged Cu( s) Cu2+(
aq)+2ê
i
ons) .Iti sposi ti
v elychargedbecause Theel ect r
onsr el easedatt heanodet ravel
electronsar edr awnawayf rom it. aroundt heext ernalci rcuittothecat hode.
Theret heel ectronsar epassedont hecopper
Study Fig.(i
)bel
ow t
o under
stand t
hese i
ons( from CuSO4sol uti
on)andt hecopperi s
defi
nit
ionsver
ywel
l. deposi tedorcopperpl atedont hecathode.
Cu2++2ê Cu(s)
Anyi mpur iti
esf alltot hebot t
om oft hecel l
andcol l
ectbel owt heanode.

ELECTROPLATI NG
Thisisapr ocessthatinvol
veselectroly
sisto
pl
ateorcoatonemet alwithanother .The
purpose of el ect
roplati
ng is t o gi ve a
protecti
vecoatingtothemetal beneath.
Condi t
ions:
 Themet alto becov ered(plated)is
madecat hode.

©TemboJPPCDSS -32-
 +NH3+H+ NH4++H++Cl -
 Thecov eri
ngmet alismadeanode. HCl
 The electrol
yte should be a sol
ubl
e cancell
ingouttheH+ionsappeari
ngonboth
saltofthesamemet alt
hatmakesup sides,t
henetionicequat
ionbecomes:
theanode. HCl (
aq)+NH3(aq) NH4+( -
aq)+Cl
Ref
ert
oFig.(i
ii)above. (aq)

Att heanode,zi ncwi l

ldi ssol
veandi oni
se LOWRY- BRONSTEDSYSTEM ANDWATER
accordingt othi
shal foxidat i
onequat i
on; I
oni sati
onequat i
onsi nv olvear eacti
onwi th
Zn( s) Zn2+(aq)+2ê wat er,andt hewat ermol eculeactsasaL/ B
Through t he externalci rcuitthe electr
ons basebyaccept i
ngapr oton( H+).Anexampl e
travel to t he cat hode wher e they are ofoft hisistheequat i
on:
2+
acceptedbyZn i onsf rom t hesol ut
ionto HCl +H2O H3O++Cl-

form zi
ncat oms.Ther educt ionhalfequati
on The wat ermol ecule has accept ed the H+
atthecat hode; (proton)t of m H3O+ i
or on.Thi sioniscalled
Zn2+(aq)+2ê Zn(s) the HYDRONI UM I ON.The dotand cr oss
Thezi ncat omsaccumul ateont hecopper diagram f orthehydronium i onis:
cathode t hereby plati
ng i t.Int his case,
copperi ssaidtobeel ectropl at
edwi t
hzinc.

PROTONTRANSFERREACTI ONS
LOWRY- BRONSTEDTHEORYOFACI DSAND
BASES
Apr ot onisaposi tivehy drogeni on( H+) .
Anaci disani onormol ecul ethatcandonat e
(gi
v eaway )pr otons.
Abasei sani onormol ecul et hatcanaccept Watercanactasabaseoranaci d.This
protons.Anaci d-baser eact ioni st akespl ace meanst hatwat
ercandonateprotonsaswel l
whenanaci dandbaser eactwi theachot her. as accepti
ng t
hem.Such subst ances ar e
Int her eaction,t heaci ddonat esapr ot on ref
err
edt oasamphoter
icsubstances.
whichi saccept edbyt hebase.Consi dert he The equat i
on bel
ow i s showi ng wat er
equat ionofat ypi
cal acidandbaser eacti
on. molecul
edonatingaprot
ont oanot herwater
HCl (
aq)+NH3( aq) NH4Cl (aq)+H2O( l) molecul
e:
Anot herwayofwr it
ingt hiswoul dbe: H2O+H2O H3O++OH-
NH4+( -
HCl (
aq)+NH3( aq) aq)+Cl
(aq) CONJUGATEACI DSANDBASES
HCli sgi vingawayaH+( apr oton)t obecome Whenanaci dl osesapr ot
oni tformswhat
aCli-
on.Ther eforeHCli sact ingasaL/ B wecal li
tsconj ugatebase:
+
acid, andt hisequat ionshoul dbewr i
ttenful l
y NH4 H++NH3
as: (aci
d) (conj
ugate
HCl –H+ Cl -or base)
HCl +
H +Cl -
(1) Inthiscaset her emai ni
ngspeciesafterNH4+
+ hasl ostapr otoni sNH3 andbecomest he
NH3 has accept ed a H ( a pr oton) and
conjugatebase.
theref oreNH3i sactingasL/ Bbase.
Aconj ugatebasei sthespeciesthatremains
NH3+H+ NH4+ (2)
afteranacidhasgi venupapr oton.
Addi ngupt het woequat i
onsi .
e.( 1)and( 2)
Ifanacidisst rong( becauseitl
osesapr oton
H++Cl -
HCl easily
),thenconj ugatebasemustbeweak
NH3+H+ NH4+ weget (becauseitdoesnotacceptapr otoneasi
ly)

©TemboJPPCDSS -33-
Whenabaseaccept sapr otonitformswhat (sulphuri
cacid).
wecal li
tsconjugateaci d. Exampl esofweakaci ds:
CH3COOH( et
hanoic
NH3+H+ NH4+ acid),H2CO3 (carbonicacid),H2S( hydrogen
(
base) (conjugat
eaci d) sulphide)
,H3PO4( phosphoricacid).
Ammoni a(abase)hasaccept edapr otont o Exampl esofst rongbases:NH3 ( ammoni a)
,
formitsconjugateaci die.NH4+
. H2O,KOH ( potassium hy dr
oxide),NaOH
Aconj ugat
eaci disthespeci esf ormedwhen (sodium hydr
oxide).
abaset akesonapr oton.
Ifabasei sst rong (becausei taccept sa Workedexampl
e:
prot
oneasi ly)thent heconj ugateacidmust I
denti
fyaci
dandbaseconjugatepai
rsint
he
beweak( becausei tdoesnotl oseapr oton f
oll
owingchemi
calequat
ion.
H3O++Cl-
easil
y). HCl+H2O
Theequat ionsbel ow show aci dsandt hei
r Sol
uti
on:
-
conjugatebasesaswel lasbaseswi tht hei
r HCl/
Cl (aci
d/conjugatebase)
conjugateacids. H2O/H3O+(base/conjugat
eacid)

Acid Conj
ugatebase
H +HSO4-
+
H2SO4 TOPI
C:FORCESANDMOTI
ON
H++Cl-
HCl
HNO3 H++NO3- SCALARANDVECTORQUANTI TI
ES
H3O+ H++H2O A scalarquant ityi s a quantit
yt hathas
magnitude (si
ze)onl y.Mass i s a scalar
CH3COOH H++CH3COO-
quanti
tyandi scompl et
elydescribedwhen
NH4+ H++NH3
i
tsv al
ue is known.Scal ars are added by
ordi
naryari
thmet ic.Otherexamplesofscalar
Base Conj ugateacid
quanti
ti
es i nclude; speed, wor k done,
OH-+H+ H2O temperatur
e,distance,e.t
.c.
H2O+H+ H3O+
CH3COO-+H+ CH3COOH Av ectorquant it
yi saquantit
ythathasbot h
- +
Cl+H HCl magni tude (size)and di r
ecti
on.A v ector
-
2 +
SO2 +H HSO-2 quantityi s one such as f orce whi ch i s
STRENGTHOFACI DSANDBASES described compl etel
yonl yifbot hits si ze
Strongaci dsint ermsoft heI oni cTheory,are (magni tude)anddi r
ecti
onarestated.Itisnot
those whi ch i onise ( br eak up) al most enought osay ,forexample,afor ceof10N,
compl etelyi ntot heirions.Theseaci dsgi v
e butr atheraf orceof10N act ingv erticall
y
plentyofhy drogeni ons( +
H )i ntot hesoluti
on. downwar ds. Ot her examples of v ector
Aweakaci ddonat espr otonsal i
ttl
etogi vea quantiti
es ar e di spl
acement , v el
oci ty,
fewpr otons( H+)tot herecei vingbase. acceleratione.
t .
c.
Abasewi thst rongbasi cst r
engt h,according
tot heLowr y–Br onstedTheor y,i
stheone Avectorcanber epresent
edbyast rai
ghtl
i
ne
thataccept spr otonswel land hol dst hem whosel engthrepresentsthemagni t
udeof
strongl y.The conj ugate base i n a strong t
hequant i
tyand whosedi recti
ongivesits
acid/ weakbaser eacti
onmusthav eav ery l
ineofact ion.Anar row ont heli
neshows
weakbasi cst rengt hbecausei tisnotabl eto whichwayal ongtheli
neitacts.
holdont hepr otons( H+).
As al ready explai
ned, f
orce has bot h
magni tude and dir
ecti
on.Iti stherefore
Exampl
esofstr
ongaci
ds:HCl
O4 (
per
chlor
ic
represented i
ndiagramsbyast r
aightline
aci
d), HCl
, HNO3 (ni
tr
ic aci
d), H2SO4
withanar rowtoshowitsdi
rect
ionofacti
on.
©TemboJPPCDSS -34-
Usually mor
et han one force act
s on an bel
ow:
object.As a si mpl
e example,an obj ect
resti
ngonat ableispul
leddownwar dsbyit s
weightW andpushedupwar dsbyaf orceR
due tot he t
able support
ing i
t.Since the R=1N+2N=3Nt
other
ighthand.
objectisatr
est,thefor
cesmustbal ancei.e.
R=W b) Work out t
he r
esul
tant f
orce i
nthe
di
agram bel
ow:

R=3N-
2N=1Nt
other
ighthand.

c)Aloadedt
esttubeofweight0.6Nfl
oatsin
Whent woormor eforcesactonanobj ecta
equil
i
bri
um i
nat ankofwat er
.Calcul
atethe
singl
ef or
cecanbef oundwhichwi l
lrepl
ace
upthr
ustUofthewateront
het estt
ube.
thesetwoormor eforcesandpr oducest he
sameef f
ectasthetwoormor eforcesdo.
Thissingl
eforcei
scall
edtheresult
antforce.

FORCESACTI NG IN THESAMESTRAI GHT

LINE
When t wo given f
orces actinthe same
strai
ghtlinetheresul
tantfor
ceisrel
ati
vel
y
easytofind.
Forequi
l
ibr
ium,
R=U–W =O
U–0.
6N=0
U =+0.
6N
Int hiscase t he r esultantf orce R can be
obtained byaddi ng t ogethert hef orcesF1
andF2. Work:
R=F1+F2 a)Amani sr unni ngf orwar
datav elocity
Consi deral soacasewher et wot eamsar ei n of5Km/ hont op ofamov i
ng t rai
n
at ugofwar .Thet eam ont her ightpul lon whi chist r
av elli
ng50Km/ ht otheeast .
ther opef rom l eftt or ightwhi l
et heot her Whati st her esult
antv elocityoft he
team exer tsitspul lf r
om r ightt oleft.Ift he mancompar edt otheground?
forceexer tedbyt het eam t other ightisF1 b)Al adyi st ry i
ngt oswim upst r
eam ( i
n
andt heot hert eam pul lswi t
haf orceofF2, opposi tedi rect i
ont other i
v ercur rent)
ther esul t
antf orceRwi l
lbegi venby : withav eloci tyof3Km/ h.I fther iver’
s
R=F1–F2 velocity i s 8Km/ h, what i s t he
Ifthev alueoft hef orcesF1 andF2 ar eequal resultant v elocity of the swi mmer
theR=0, zerounbal ancedf orce.Inthiscase rel
at i
vet ot hebank?
equilibrium exi stsi .e.api eceofr opedoes c)Jo,DanandHel enarepul li
ngamet al
notmov einei therdi recti
on. ri
ng.Hopul lswi thaf orceof100Ni n
onedi r
ectionandDanwi thaf orceof
Exampl
es: 140N i nt heopposi tedirection.I fthe
a)Det
ermi
net
her
esul
tantf
orcei
nthef
igur
e ri
ngdoesnotmov e,whatf orcedoes

©TemboJPPCDSS -35-
 Hel enexer tifshepullsinthesame
directi
onasJo?
d)A boy dr ags a suit
case along t
he
groundwi thaf or
ceof100N.I fthe
fri
ct i
onalforceopposi
ngt hemoti
onof
the sui t
case i s 50N,what i sthe
resultant f orward force on t he a2+b2=c2
suitcase?
R2=32+82
VECTORSATANANGLETOEACHOTHER
R2=9+64=73
Whent wogi vef orcesarenotacti
ngi nthe
R =8.5
samest r
aightli
ne,norparall
eltoeachother
,
R =8.5Km/h
theymustbeact ingatsomeangl etoeach
Tanx=8/3=2.67
other
.Ift
heobj ecttheyactondoesnotbreak
x=69 27 `
apartit can not mov ei nt wo dif
fer
ent
Ananglefor
medbetweenRandt
he
dir
ecti
onsatonce!Ther ef
oretheobjectwil
l
bank
mov ein some di recti
on bet
ween the two
=(90°-69 27 `
)
l
inesoftheforces.
=20°33`
Ther
efor
e,theresult
antv
elocit
yRis8.5Km/h
Consi
deraladyswimmingacrossariv
erwith
atanangl
eof20°33`wi t
ht heri
verbank.
vel
oci
tyof3Km/ hatr
ightangl
es.I
ftheri
vers
vel
oci
tyi
s8Km/ h,whatistheswi
mmer ’
strue
vel
oci
ty(resul
tant
)compar ed tothe ri
ver
Wor
k:
bank?
a)cyclisttr
av el
sduesout hfrom pointR
Sol
uti
on:
for12Km t opoi ntP,thenshet urnst o
Byscalediagram
thewestandcy clest o pointQ f or
Letthescalebe:1cm onpaper=1Km/ hon
anot her5Km.Wor koutdi splacement
thevel
ocit
yv ect
ordiagram.
RQ (i)byscal edrawi ng (ii
)by
Draw eachv el
ocit
yv ectori
ntur
nasshown
calculati
on.
below:
b)Using a scal e of1cm t or epresent
10Nf i
ndt hesizeanddi r
ectionoft he
resultantoff orcesof30N and40N
actingatrightanglest oeachot her.

PARALLELOGRAM RULE
Tofi
ndtheresul
tantfor
ceRwhent woforces
Ther esult
antv eloci
tyvectori
sfoundfrom actatapointandt hedi r
ect
ioni
nwhi chit
the hy potenuse of t he complet
ed right act
sweuset heparall
elogr
am off
orcesrul
e.
angledtri
angle. Thi
srul
estatest
hat
R=8. 5Km/ h “i
ft wof orcesF1 andF2,actingata
Ther esult
antv elocit
yis8.5Km/hatangl
eof point,arerepresent
edtoscaleinbot h
20.1°tother i
verbank. magni tudeanddi r
ecti
onbyt het wo
adjacentsi des ofa par all
elogram,
Bycal cul
ation thent hediagonalf r
om thei
rpoi ntof
From therightangl
edvel
ocit
yv ect
ordi
agram, i
ntersectionistheresult
antforceRi n
the resul
tantv el
oci
tyis worked outusing bothmagni t
udeanddi r
ecti
on.”
Pythagoras’ t
heor
em:
Exampl
e:
Fi
ndtheresul
tantoft
wof
orcesof4.
0Nand
©TemboJPPCDSS -36-
5.0Nact
ingatanangl
eof45°t
oeachot
her
. singl
eresul
tantforce, thenasi ngl
eforcecan
(Useascal
eof1cm =1N) be ‘spl
i
t’intot wo f orces act i
ng atsome
appropr
iat
e angl e between t hem.I f,as is
Procedur e: oftenconvenient,theangl ebet weent hese
Using a scal e of 1cm = 1N,dr aw a twocomponentf orcesi s90° ,theprocedure
paral
lelogram ABCDwi thAB=5N,AC=4N i
s known as r esolving a f orce i
ntot wo
andangl e=45° . componentsatr i
ghtangl es.
Thedi agonalADr epresent
st heresul
tantin
magni t
udeanddi r
ecti
on.Usingapr otract
or Example:
measur et heanglethediagonalmakeswi th A10Nf or
ceacti
ngatanangl eof60°tot
he
5.0Nfor celi
ne. hori
zontal can be r esolved int
o two
componentsatr i
ghtangl es.Cal
cul
atet
he
vert
ical
andhori
zontal
forces.

Bycal culati
onmet hod:
Procedur e:
Sketchdi agram ofthefor
ceF=10Nat60°t o
thehor izontaland thetwo component sV
andHr esolvedi nthever
ticalandhori
zontal
dir
ections r especti
vel
y.The t ri
angl
e OBC
enables t he v al
ues of V and H t o be
Therefore,r esultanti saf or ceof8. 3Nact ing calcul
atedusi ngtri
gonomet r
y.
atanangl eof21°t ot hef orceof5. 0N.
Wor k:
a)Twof orcesofmagni tude8N and6N
acton t he same body .The angl e
bet weent hedi rect i
onsoft hef orcesi s
40° . Usi ng t he par allelogr am r ule,
det ermi ne t he magni tude and
direct i
onoft her esultantoft hefor ces.
b)Usi ng a sui table scal e, f i
nd t he Si
nΦ =V/F
resul tantoft het wof orcesof4Nand FSi
nΦ=V
3N act i
ngatanangl eof60°t oeach V =10Si
n60°
other . V =8.
66N
c)A magnet ic compass needl e i s
subj ectedt oaf orceof0. 02N act ing Cosα=H/ F
nor thandf orceof0. 04Nact ingeast . H =10Cos60°
Cal culatet her esultantf orceon t he H =10x0. 50
needl eand t hedi rect ioni nwhi chi t H =5. 0N
sets. Ther ef
or e,t hev erticalf
orceis
d)For cesof7. 0N and 11. 0N actata 8.66Nandt hehor i
zont alforcei
s5.0N.
pointsot hatt heangl ebet weent hei r Byscal edrawingmet hod:
li
nesofact ioni s35° .Bymeansofa Af or
cecanber esolv edi ntotwocomponent s
scal e di agr am, det er mi ne t he byusi ngascal edrawi ngmet hod.Begi nby
magni tudeoft her esul tantoft hese drawing the gi ven si nglef orce and then
twof orces. constructthef our–si dedf igurewhichhas
thi
sl i
neasadi agonal .Then,measur ethe
RESOLVI
NGVECTORS verti
calandhor izontal l
engt hs.Theselengths
Cl
earl
yiftwof
orcescanber
epl
acedbya willbeconv ertedt of orcesusi ngthegiven
©TemboJPPCDSS -37-
scal
e.Trytodot hi
sandy ouwil
lbeableto
get8.7Nand5. 0Nasv er
ti
calandhor
izont
al SPEED,
VELOCI
TYANDACCELERATI
ON
l
engthsrespect
ively
.
SPEED:Thespeedofanobj ectisitsdist
ance
Wor k: mov edperuni tti
me.
A girlpullsaf ri
end sit
ti
ng i
n at r
oll
eyby Speed=di stancemov ed( m/s)
means ofa r ope incli
ned at30°t othe ti
met aken
hori
zont al
.Ifthet ensi
on T intheropeis Howev er,thisdef i
nit
ionappl i
esonl yto an
200N, f
ind objectwhi chi smov ingst eadilyduringt he
a)t heeffecti
vef or
cepulli
ngthetrol
l
ey ti
me‘ taken’ofthequot i
ent.Whent heobject
along i
snotmov ingataconst antspeedt hent he
b)t heforcetendingtoli
ftthet
roll
eyoff quotientdi st
ance mov ed/time t aken gi
v es
theground. theav eragespeedandt her eforeitisbetter
towr i
te:
Av er
agespeed=di stancemov ed(m/ s)
DI
STANCEANDDI SPLACEMENT ti
met aken
Di
stance i s a scal ar quant i
ty wher eas
di
splacement i sav ector quantit
y. This VELOCITY:
means di stance has magni t
ude onl y and Thisisthedistancetravel
l
edinuni tti
meina
di
splacementhasbot hmagni t
ude( si
ze)and stateddir
ection.Thismeansv eloci
tyofan
di
rect i
on. objecti
sitsdisplacementperunitti
me.
Di
stancei sthel engthbetweent wopoi nts.I
t
i
smeasur edinmet ersorki l
ometres.
Di
spl acementcanbedef inedast hedistance Veloci t
y
mov edinast ateddirecti
on. =di splacementinthedir
ecti
onof
displacement
Dist
ance–t imeGr aphs Time
Abodyt ravell
ingwithunif
ormv el
oci
tycover
s Thev eloci
tyofabodyisunifor
m orconst
ant
equaldistancesinequaltimes.It
sdi
stance– i
fi tmov eswit
hast eadyspeedinastrai
ght
ti
megr aphi sastraightl
i
ne. l
ine.I tisnotunifor
mi fitmovesinacurved
path.

ACCELERATI ON:
Whent heveloci
tyofabodychangeswesay
thebodyacceler
ates.
Accel
erati
oni st
hechangeofv elocityinunit
ti
me.
Accelerat
ion=changeofvel ocit
y
t
imetakenforchange
Forexample:
Forasteadyincr
easeofveloci
tyfrom 20m/ s
Thesl
opegr adi
enti
sLM =40m to 50 m/ si n 5 seconds.Cal culatethe
0M 4s accel
erat
ion.
=10m/ s Accelerat
ion=(50–20)m/ s=6m/ s2
10m/sisthev al
ueoftheveloci
ty.The 5s
fol
l
owingstatementi
strueingeneral:
“
Thesl
opeorgr adi
entofadist
ance– Accel
erat
ioni
salsoav ect
orandbothits
t
imegraphrepr
esentsthevel
ocit
yof magnit
udeanddirect
ionshoul
dbest at
ed.
t
hebody.” Notet
hatanobjectmov i
ngwithuni
form
©TemboJPPCDSS -38-
v
eloci
tyhaszer
oaccel
erat
ionbecauset
her
e
i
snochangeinvel
oci
ty. ABi st hev eloci
ty– ti
megr aphforabody
mov ingwithuni f
ormveloci
tyof20m/s.
Unif
orm accel
erati
on Since distance = aver
age veloci
tyx t
ime,
Unif
orm accel er
ation requir
es t hat t
he after5secondsi twil
lhavemov ed20m/sx5
vel
ocitychanges regul
arl
y( unif
ormly)wit
h s=100m.Thi sistheareaunderthegraph
ti
me.Thespeedsofacaraccel erat
ingona i
.e.rectangleOABC.
str
aightr
oadareshownbel ow:
Consi
deral
sot
hegr
aphbel
ow:
Time(s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Speed 05 1 1 2 2 3
(m/s) 0 5 0 5 0

Thespeedincreasesby5m/ sev er
ysecond
2
andtheaccelerati
onof5m/ si ssaidt obe
uni
for
m.An accel er
ati
on i
s positi
vei fthe
vel
oci
tyincr
easesandnegat iv
ei tdecreases. PQ isthev eloci
ty– t imegr aphf orabody
A negati
ve accelerati
on i
s al so call
ed a mov i
ng wi th unifor m accel erati
on.I fthe
decel
erat
ionorr et
ardati
on. dist
ancecov eredequal st hear eaunderPQ,
then
Example: Dist
ance=ar eaofr ectangleOPRS+ar eaof
Acartravel
l
ingatavel
ocit
y25m/ sduewest tri
anglePQR
sl
owsdownuni for
mlytoav el
oci
tyof5m/ s =(20m/ sx5s)+( ½x5sx20m/ s)
due west in 10 seconds.Cal
culat
et he =100m +50m
accel
erat
ion of t
he carduri
ng these 10 =150m
seconds. Thedistancecanbecal culatedbyl ookingat
Sol
uti
on: theentir
eshapeoft hegr aphasat rapezi
um
Sincether
eisdecr easeinvel
oci
ty,i
tmeans i
.e.0P/ /SQ.
therei
sdecelerat
ion. Dist
ance=ar eaoft rapezium 0SQP
Decelerati
on=( 5–25)m/s =½( sum of/ /sides)h
10s =½( 20+40) 5m
=-2m/s2. =150m

Velocity–ti
megr aphs Theslopeorgradientofav el
ocit
y– ti
me
I
ft heveloci
tyofabodyisplot
tedagainstthe graph r
epr
esent
st he accel
erat
ion ofthe
ti
me,t hegraphobtainedi
sav el
ocit
y–t i
me body.Fr
om t
hegraphabov e:
graph.I tpr
ovidesawayofsol vi
ngmot ion
problems. Sl
opeofPQ=QR=20=4
PR 5
=4m/s2

Work:
a)Thegr aphbelowrepr
esent
st he
di
stancetr
avell
edbyacarplott
ed
agai
nstti
me.

The ar
ea undera vel
oci
ty– t i
me gr
aph
measur
esthedist
ancet
rav
ell
ed.

©TemboJPPCDSS -39-
 secondsandf inal
lycomestorest
afterr
etar
dinguni f
orml
yforafarther
10seconds.Dr awav el
oci
ty–t i
me
graphofthemot i
onandcalcul
ate
i
. t heret
ardation
i
i
. t hetot
aldistancemoved.

i. Howf arhast hecart r

avell
edat
theendof5seconds?
i
i. Whati st hespeedoft hecar
duri
ngt hef i
rst5seconds?
ii
i. Whathashappenedt othecar
aft
erA?
iv. Dr awagr aphshowi ngthe
speedoft hecarpl ott
edagainst
ti
medur i
ngt hef i
rst5seconds.
b)Graphbelowshowsani ncompl et
e
velocit
y–timegr aphf oray ounglady
runningadistanceof100m.

i. Whati stheaccel erat

ionoft hegirl
NEWTON’SLAWSOFMOTI ON
duringt hef i
rst4seconds?
I
saac Newton (
1642 – 1727)st
udied t
he
i
i. Howf ardoest hegi rlt
ravelduring
moti
onofobject
sandformulat
edt
hreelaws
(1)thef ir
st4seconds? ( 2)the
ofmoti
on.
next9seconds?
i
i
i. Copyandcompl etethegraph
THEFIRSTLAW OFMOTI
ON
showi ngcl earlyatwhatt i
met he
Thest
atest
hat
:
gir
lhascov eredt hedistanceof
“Ever
y obj
ectwhi ch i
s atrestwi l
l
100m.Assumeherspeedr emai ns
remainatrestunl
essanunbal anced
const antatt hev alueshownby
exter
nalf
orceisappl
iedtoi
t.
”
horizontalpor ti
onoft hegraph.
I
tcanal
sobest
atedi
nthi
sway
:
c)Acar ,i
nitial
lyatr est, moveswi th
“Anobj
ectwhi
chismovingatuni
form
unif
orm accel er ati
onf or20seconds
speedi
nast r
aightl
inewil
lconti
nue
unti
l i
tattainsav elocityof15m/ s.It
to do so unless an unbal
anced
thenproceedsatt hisv el
ocityfor60
©TemboJPPCDSS -40-
 ext
ernalf
orcei
sappl
iedt
oit
.” secondl
awofmot i
on.
Newton’
s second l
aw ofmot
ion can be
Thef i
rststat
ementabov ei scommon stat
edasfol
lows:
experienceforeveryone.Forexampl e,i
fyou “Forceexert
edonanobj ecti
sdi
rect
ly
l
eav eabookonabencht henitwill
stayin proport
ionaltot he pr
oductofi ts
thesameposi t
ionunt i
lsomeonemov esit;
i.
e. massandaccelerati
on.”
theyapplyaf orcetoit.Ifthebookisnotin
theplacewher ey ouleftitthentheonly Newton’
ssecondl
aw ofmot
ioncanal
sobe
sensibleconclusi
oni sthatsomeone‘ pushed’ st
atedas:
or‘pull
ed’iti
ntoitsnewposi ti
on. “Therateofchangeofmoment um of
anobjectisequalt otheunbalanced
Thesecondst atementi snotqui t
eas forceappl
iedtoitcausingthechange
obv i
ousast hef i
r st.Wheny ouseanobj ect i
n moment um t
ot ake place i
nt he
mov inginast raightl ine,foralongabench, it dir
ecti
onoft hef
orce.”
doesnotcont i
nuet omov eatt hesame Thati
s:
speed, butalway ssl owsdownandev entual
ly Unbalancedf
orce( F)=rateofchange
stops.Thiscanber easonedasf oll
ows: It ofmoment um.
takesaf orcetomakeast ationaryobj ect =mv–mu
mov e,soitshoul dal sotakeaf orcet omake t
amov i
ngobj ectsl owdownandst op.Hence wher em =massofanobj ect
,v=final
i
famov i
ngobj ecti sobser v
edt oslowdown veloci
ty,
u=ini
tialveloci
tyandt=ti
me
andst opy oucanconcl udet hataf orcehas taken
madet hi
shappen. F=m( v–u)
Thef orceismai nl yt hefri
ctional force t
betweent hemov i
ngobj ectandt hesur face butv–u=accel erati
on(a)
overwhi chittravel s.Airalsoexer tsa‘ drag’ t
forceonanobj ectpushi ngi tswayt hroughit Therefor
e,F=ma
therebyslowingt heobj ectdown.
Examples:
THESECONDLAW OFMOTI ON a)A bodyofmass15Kg wasgi v
en a
Experiment s hav e shown r oughlyt hatt he push t hat caused t he body to
accelerationaofanobj ectis accel
erat e by 3 m/ s2.Whatisthe
1)di r
ect l
y pr opor ti
onalt ot he appl i
ed magnitudeoft hepush?
for ceFf oraf ixedmassi .
e.aαF, and Solut
ion:
2)i nv erselypr opor t
ionalt othemassm Thequest iondemandsusto
foraf ixedf orce,i.
e.aα1/ m. fi
nd
Combi ningt her esultsintooneequat ion,we theforce.
get Massm =15Kg,
aαF/ m orFαma accelerati
ona=3m/ s2
Therefor eF=kma, wher eki stheconst antof F=ma
proportional i
ty. F=( 15x3) N
OneNewt on( 1N)i sdef inedast hef orce F=45N
whichgi v esamassof1Kganaccel erati
on
2
of1m/ si .
e. b)Acarofmass1200Kgi stravell
ingata
1N=1Kgm/ s2 steadyspeedof30m/ sfrom Thondwe
Soifm =1Kganda=1m/ s2thenF=1N. toZomba.Agoatst epsouti nfront
Substit
ut ingi nF=kmawegetk=1i .
e.k= causingthedr
ivertobrakesuddenly.I
t
F/ma=1. takes4secondst ost
opt hecar.
Sowecanwr it
e, F=maandt hisisNewt on’
s i. Wor koutthedecelerati
on.
©TemboJPPCDSS -41-
 Decel erati
on=v–u force of 5N. When t he push i
s
t i
ncr easedto9Nwhati s
Init
ialvelocit
yu=30m/ s,final i
. t heresultantforce?
velocityv=0m/ s,t=4s i
i
. t heaccel er
ation?
Decel erati
on=0–30m/ s2 f
) Acarof1200Kgt ravell
i
ngat72Km/ h
4 i
sbr oughttor estin4s.find
=-7.5m/ s2 i.t heav eragedecel erat
ion
i
i
. Whati stheav er
agest epping i
i.t heav eragebr aki
ngf orce.
force? (
Hint :
changeKm/ ht om/ s)
ForceF=ma
Mass=1200Kg, a=-7. 5m/ s2 THETHI
RDLAW OFMOTION
Force=1200x( -7.5)N Newt
on’
sthi
rdl
awofmot
ionst
atest
hat
:
Force=-9000N “IfabodyAexertsaforceonbodyB,
Ther efore,t
heav eragest epping then body B exer
ts an equalbut
forceFi s9000N.( Thenegat i
v e opposit
efor
ceonbodyA. ”
sign( -
)si mplyshowsdi r
ect i
on. Thisl aw say st hatf orcesal way soccuri n
pair
sast heresul tofthei nteracti
onbetween
Work: two obj ects.Not et hat two obj ect
s ar e
a)Abodyr ecei vesaf orceof10N.Thi s i
nvolvesandt het wof orceseachactona
makes t he body mov e wi t
h an dif
ferentobj ect,nev eront hesameobj ect
.
The t wo opposi ng forces ar e somet i
mes
accelerat ionof2. 5m/ s2.Whati st he
call
ed theact ion and t her eaction f
orces.
massoft hisbody ?
Thisisther easonwhyNewt on’sthi
rdlawof
b)Al orryhasamassof400Kgandt he
mot i
onisal sost atedas:
forceoft heengi neis2400N.
i
. Whati st heaccel er
ationoft he
“Forever yf orceofact ionact ingona
l
or r y?
body,t herei sanequalandopposi te
i
i
. What f orce i s needed t o
forceo f r
ea cti
o nb y theb ody.”
decel erat et he same l orry at
Appl
icati
onsofNewt on’st hirdlaw
2.0m/ s2?
 Anappr eciationoft het hi
rdl aw and
c)Ahor izont alf orceof20Ni sappl iedt o
theeffectoff rict
ioni sdesirablewhen
amassof5Kgatr estonasmoot h
stepping f rom a r owi ng boat .You
horizont al sur face.
push backwar ds on t he boatand,
i
. Cal cul atet he accel er ati
on of
alt
hough t he boat pushes y ou
themass.
forwardswi thequalf orce,itisit sel
f
i
i
. I ft hesamef orcei sappl iedt o
now mov i
ng backwar ds ( because
the same mass when r esting
fri
cti
on wi th wat er i s slight).Thi s
onar oughsur face,aconst ant
reducesy ourf orwar dsmot ionbyt he
frictional for
ceof 5N acts
sameamount–soy oumayf alli
n!
thr oughoutt hemot i
onoft he
mass.Whati st heaccel eration  Wheny ouwal kt heEar thpusheson
of t he mass on t he r ough youi nr espo ns etoy our pushont he
sur face? Earth. Ther efore a f ri
cti
on f orce
d)A carofmass1000Kg t rav ell
i
ng at betw eeny ou r shoea ndt heg roundi s
20m/ scr ashesi ntoabr i
ckwal land essentialforf orwar dmot i
on.
comest or esti n0. 5s.Cal culatet he  Mo tor carsa r
ea blet omo vealonga
averagef orceexer tedbyt hewal lon roadbecauset her eact i
onoft her oad
thecar . push est hec ara lo ngi nr es ponset o
e)Abl ockofmass2Kgi spushedal ong theact ionoft hewheel spushi ngon
at ablewi thaconst antv elocitybya theroad.
©TemboJPPCDSS -42-
 andai
rresi
stance(
fl
uidf
ri
cti
on)
.
FREEFALL
Inai
r,acoi
nfall
sfastert
hanasmal lpi
eceof Asmal ldenseobject
,e.g.st
eelbal
l-
bearing,
paper
.Invacuum theyfallatt
hesamer ate has a high ter
minalv el
oci
ty and fal
lsa
asmaybeshownwi t
htheapparat
usbelow: consi
derabl
e di st
ance wi t
h a const ant
2
accel
erat
ionof9.8m/s beforeai
rresi
stance
equal
sitsweight
.

Al i
ghtobject,e.g.araindrop,oronewi tha
l
argesur f
acear eae.g.aparachut
e,hasal ow
terminalvel
ocityandonl yaccel
erat
esov era
compar at
ivel
y shor t dist
ance bef or
e air
resi
stanceequal sit
sweight.

OBJECTFALLI NGINALI QUI

D
Thediff
erenceinairisduetoairresist
ance The t i
me of f al
l of small bal
-beari
ngs
havi
ngagr eatereff
ectonlightbodiesthan dropped into a viscous l
iqui
d such as
onheavybodies.Theai rr
esist
ancet oalight gl
y cer
ine,engi
ne oile.t.
c.can be studi
ed
bodyisbigwhencompar edtowitht he usingtheappar
atusbelow:
body’
swei ght
.Wi t
hadensepi eceofmet al
ther
esistanceisnegli
gibl
eatlowspeed.

Accelerat
ionoffreefall
Allbodiesfall
ingf r
eelyundert hef orceof
gravi
tydosowi t
huni form acceler
at i
onifair
resi
stance is negli
gible.The accel erati
on,
call
edtheaccelerati
onoff r
eef al
l,
isdenot ed
theItal
icleterg.i
t tsv aluev ari
esov ert he
2
eart
h.InBr i
tai
ni tisabout9. 8m/s ornear
2
enough10m/ s.Thev elocityofaf ree-f
all
i
ng
body theref
orei ncr
eases by 10m/ s every Thegl assj arshoul dbeaswi deandast allas
second. possible.Tor educet her iskofai rbubbl es
sti
ckingt ot hebal l,itshoul dbedi ppedi n
AIRRESI STANCE:TERMI NALVELOCI TY someoft hel i
qui dandt her ebycoat edwi thit
,
Whenanobj ectfall
si nai r
,theai rresistance beforedr oppi ng.Thei nvest i
gat i
onsthatcan
(fl
uidfriction)opposi ngi tsmot ionincr eases becar riedouti ncl ude:
as i ts speed r ises, so r educing i ts i. Measur ementoft hespeedofabal l
acceleration.Ev entuall
y,airr esistanceact ing ov eradi stanceatdi fferentdepths
upwar ds equal st he wei ghtoft he obj ect i
i. Theef fectofusi ngbal l
sofdi fferent
actingdownwar ds.Ther esist antforceont he di amet ers
objecti st hen zero since t he gr av i
tati
onal ii
i. A compar ison oft he v i
scosit
ies of
force bal ances t he f r
icti
onalf orce. The di fferentl iquids.
objectf all
sataconst antv elocity,calledits Att hest ar tthewei ghtW oft heballcausi ng
terminalv eloci
ty,whosev al uedependson i
tt ofallv erticallydownwar dsundergr avityis
thesize, shapeandwei ghtoft heobj ect. greater t han t he upwar ds v i
scous f orce
opposi ngi tsmot i
on.Ast hebal lspeedsup,
Terminalveloci
tyist he constantv el
ocit
y the upwar df or ce ( f
luidf ri
ction)increases
att
ainedbyaf al
li
ngobj ectanditresult
sf r
o andev ent uallyequal swei ghtW oft hebal l
.
thebalanci
ngofgr av
itati
onalforce(weight)
©TemboJPPCDSS -43-
Thef or
cesacti
ngontheballthenbal
ance HH
anditmov eswit
hconst
antspeed(t
erminal
speed). HHH HHHHHHH
Decanol H-
C-C-
C-C-
C-C-
C-C-
C-C-
OH
HHHHHHHHHH
TOPI
C:ORGANI
CCHEMI
STRYI
PHYSI CALPROPRTI ESOFALKANOLS
ALKANOLS( ALCOHOLS) The si zes and masses oft he mol ecules
The al cohol
s form anot her homol ogous steadi l
yi ncr easepassi ngal ongt heser ies.
seri
eswi t
hthegeneralf ormulaCnH2n+1OH. Thismeanst hei nt ermol ecularf or ces( IMF)
Theletterninthegeneralformulastandsf or also i ncr ease passi ng al ong t he ser ies.
numberofcar bon at
oms.Al ltheal cohols Intermol ecul arf or ces deci de t he phy sical
possessan– OH ast hef unct
ionalgr oup. proper ties and t he gr eat er I MF causes
Thef uncti
onalgroupisthegr oupofat oms alkanol st ohav e
responsibl
ef orthecharacteri
sti
cr eactions (i
)hi gher boi l
ing poi nts and mel t
ing
ofacompound. poi nts
(i
i)tobel iquidsatr oom t emper ature(i .e.
An al
kanolwit
h 5 Car bon at omshast
his met hanol topent anol )
mol
ecularf
ormula;C5H2(5)+1OH (i
ii
)t o bemor ev iscous( st i
cky )liquids
C5H10+1OH when
C5H11OH mor et hanone- OHgr oupi spr esenti n
amol ecul e( i
.e.ingly cerol
COMMONNOMENCLATURE CH2OHCHOHCH2OH)
NO. of Formul a Pref
ix Suff
ix Name (iv)t obesol ublei nwat erf ort hesmal l
Car
bo mol ecules ofser i
es e. g.met hanol .
n Larger
at
oms al kanol sar epar t
iall
ysol ublei nwat er
1 CH2OH Meth -anol Met han and
ol ot her sar ecompl etelyinsol uble.
2 C2H5OH Et h -anol Et
hanol (v)Al kanol sdonotconductel ect ri
city.
3 C3H7OH Pr op -anol Propano
l The fir
st3 member s of the alcohol
4 C4H9OH But -anol But anol famil
y:
5 C5H11OH Pent -anol Pent ano Al
cohol Condensed Melti
ng Boi li
ng
l For
mula point
/ poi nt/
o o
6 C6H13OH Hex -anol Hexanol C C
7 C7H15OH Hept -anol Hept ano Methano CH3OH -94 64
l l
8 C8H17OH Oct -anol Oct anol Et
hanol CH3CH2OH -117 78
9 C9H19OH Non -anol Nonanol Pr
opanol CH3CH2CH2OH -126 97
10 C10H21OH Dec -anol Decanol
CHEMICALPROPERTI ES
STRUCTURALFORMULA 1.Combust ionr eact ion:Alkanol
sburni nai
r
H andreactwithoxy gent oform carbondioxi
de
Methanol H-C-OH andwater.Forexampl e:
H C2H5OH(l
)+3O2( g) 2CO2(g)+3H2O(l
)
Along the al kanolser i
es mol ecul
es get
HH bi
ggerbutt her elativ
esi zeoft he–OHgr oup
Et
hanolH-C-C-OH getssmaller.Ther elati
vesi zeof–OHgr oup
©TemboJPPCDSS -44-
i
namol ecul ehasanef fectont hef lame dichromate ( VI ) K2Cr 2O7 a nd pot assium
colour. permanganat e( KMnO4) .Exampl e;
Alkanol Flamecol our K2Cr 2O7
Ethanol blue/ yell
ow CH3CH2OH CH3COOH + H2O
But anol yellow/ li
ttleblue (ethanol) H2SO4, H2O (ethanoi caci d)
Oct anol all yell
ow Dur i
ng the react ion the or ange col ourof
Explanat ion: The col our of t he f lame potassium dichr omat e( VI)changest odar k
dependsupont her elat
iveamountofoxy gen greenast heet hanoli soxidisedt oet hanoic
i
nt hemol ecule.Thepr opor tionofoxy geni n acid.
amol ecul edecr easesasal kanolmol ecules Asi milaroxidationpr ocesst akespl ace,but
get l arger . Thi s means l arger al kanols mor eslowly,ifwi neorbeeri sl eftopen.I twil
l
producel essbl ue( morey ell
ow)f l
ameand eventuall
yt urnt o‘ vi
negar ’( ethanoic acid)
smal l
eral kanol sproducemor ebl uef lame. duet obact erialoxi dationoft heet hanoli n
2.React ionwi t
hsodi um (Na)met al thealcoholi
cdr i
nk.
Alkanol sr eactwi thsodium met altopr oduce
hydrogen gas and a basi c sol uti
on.For PREPARATI ONOFETHANOL
exampl e: 2C2H5OH + 2Na Ethanoli sbyf art hemosti mpor tantoft he
2C2H5ONa+H2 alcoholsandi sof tenj ustcal led“ alcohol ”.
Smal l
eral kanolsgi vef asterr eact i
onswi th Ethanolcanbepr oducedbyf er
ment at i
onas
sodium met aland hy drogen bubbl es r i
se wellasbyt hehy dr at i
onofet hane.Et hanoli s
fasterint het esttube neutral,colourless,v olatil
el i
quidwhi chdoes
notconductel ect ricity.Et hanolbur nsqui te
TESTI
NGFORALKANOLS readil
ywi thacl eanandhotf lame.
Someusesofet hanol :
1.SOLUBI LITYTEST (i
) met hy lated spi ritis et hanolwi th
Alkanolsdissolvei nwater.Addi ngwat erto smal l amount of poi sonous
an alkanolwi llgive one layer.Onlysmal l subst ancesadded
alkanolswilldissolve.Thisiscasebecause tost oppeopl efrom dr inkingi t.
ast hemoleculei ncr
easesi nsizetherelati
ve (i
i) somef oodf lavour i
ngsar emade
size oft he –OH gr oup get s smalleras from
compar edtot hecar bonylchain.The–OHi s ethanol .
responsibl
ef ort hesolubili
tyofal kanolsin (i
ii) et hanoli sav erygoodsol ventand
wat er
. usedext ensi velyasasol v entf or
paints,gl ue,af tershav eandmany
2.SODI UM TEST otherev er ydaypr oduct s.
Whenasmal lpieceoff reshlycutsodi um (i
v ) et hanoli sal sousedasasour ceof
met alisputi nat esttubewi t
hanal cohol ener gyi .e.f orheat i
ng, cooki ngand
(alkanol)bubblesofagasar ef ormedt hat l
ighting.
givea‘ pop’soundwheni gnited(broughtnear (v) I ti
sal sousedasar awmat erialfor
af l
ame) .Thegasi shy drogen.Thel i
quid maki ngot hersubst ances,suchas
formedt ur
nsphenol pht
haleinsoluti
onintoa synthet icr ubber sandf lavour i
ngs
pinkcol ourorchangesl it
muspapert obl ue (vi) Et hanoli swel lknownf oranot her
colour.Thel i
qui
di sabase. reason t oo – i t makes peopl e
drunk.Beer ,wi neandal lal cohol i
c
OXIDATIONOFALKANOLSTOCARBOXYLI C drinkscont ainsomeet hanol .
ACIDS
Pri
mar y al
cohols may be oxi dised t o (a)FERMENTATION
carboxyl
i
cacidsbypower
fuloxi
disi
ngagent s, Biotechnol
ogyi
nvol
vesmaki
nguseofmicr
o-
such as war m acidif
ied pot assi
um organisms orthei
rcomponent
s,such as
©TemboJPPCDSS -45-
enzy mes,f or t he benef it of humans t o HH HH
produce,f orexampl e,foodssuchasy oghur t C=C+ H2O H-C-C-
OH
andbr ead.Oneoft heol destbi otechnol ogies HH HH
i
st hatoff er ment at ion.Itinv ol vesaser iesof Thereacti
onisreversi
bleandthecondit
ions
biochemi cal r eact ions br ought about by have been chosen to ensur
et he hi
ghest
mi cro-organi smsorenz y mes.Fer ment ati
on possi
bleyi
eldofethanol
.
i
st hebasi cpr ocessbehi ndt hebaki ng,wi ne
andbeermaki ngi ndust ri
es.Fer ment ationi n PRACTI CALWORK
thel aborat orycanbecar ri
edoutusi ngsugar Ferment ation
sol uti
on.A mi cro- or ganism cal l
ed y easti s Procedure:
addedt ot hesol ut i
on.They eastusessugar 1.Addaboutat easpoonf
ulofsugart o
for ener gy dur i
ng anaer obi c r espi rati
on wat erinaf l
askwi thalit
tl
ey eastas
(respirati
on wi t
houtoxy gen) ,and so t he showni nadiagram below andallow
sugari sbr okendownt ogi v ecar bondi oxi
de any gas pr oduced t o bubble out
andet hanol .Thebestt emper aturef ort his throughfreshli
mewat er
.
processt obecar ri
edouti sat37° C.
y east
Glucose ethanol+car bon
dioxide
C6H12O6( aq) 2C2H5OH( l
)+2CO2( g)
Alcohol i
cdr inkssuchasbeerandwi near e
madeonal argescal einv astquant it
ies.Beer
i
smadef rom bar leywher easwi neismade
byf erment i
ng gr ape j uice,whi ch cont ains
glucose.The mi cr o-organi sm i ny eastwi l
l
car ryoutf erment at i
onqui tesuccessf ull
yi n
bot h cases.Beernor mal ly cont ains onl y
about4% by v ol ume ofet hanol ,wher eas
wi necont ainsabout11%.

Defini
t i
on:
Ferment ati
onisapr ocessi
nwhi chsugars
(i
.e.glucose)ar
ebrokendown(decomposed)
i
n pr esence ofenzy mes (
yeast)toform
ethanol andcar
bondioxi
de.

(b)HYDRATI ONOFETHENE
Oneot hermet hodofproduci nget hanoli
sby
2. Af t
eraf ew day s,whent hebubbles
additi
on r eact i
on of et hane. Et hanol is
havestopped,fil
terthesolut
iontogetr i
d
producedwhenwat er(asst eam)i sadded
ofmuchofy east.Putthefilt
rat
eint he
acrosst hedoubl ebondi net hene.Forthis
disti
l
lat
ionfl
askt ogetherwithaf ew pot
reacti
ont otakepl ace,ther eactantshavet o
chipstohel
psmoot hboil
ing.
bepassedov eracat al
ystofphosphor ic(V)
acid (absor bed on si l
ica pel let
s) at a
Results:
temperatureof300° Candapr essureof60
Thel i
mewat erinthei ni
ti
al f
ermentati
onstep
atmospher es.
willturnmi l
kyshowi ngt hatt heprocessof
300° C,60at m
ferment ati
onpr oducescar bondioxi
de.
Ethene + st eam
From t hesecondst ep,asmal lamountof
ethanol
alcohol( ethanol)willbecol lect
edaf t
erthe
©TemboJPPCDSS -46-
di
sti
l
lat
ionpr
ocess. H HH
H HHHHHH O
CARBOXYLI CACI DS/ALKANOI CACI DS │ │││││ │║
Carboxy li
c aci ds ar e oxycar
bons j ustli
ke Octanoi
cacid H-C-
C-C-
C-C-
C-C-
C-OH
al
kanol s. CH3(CH2)
6COOH │ ││││ ││
Functionalgr oup: H HHHH HH
Thef unct i
onalgr oupoft hecar boxyl
i
cacidis
–COOH,t hecar boxylategroup.Thi sgroup Phy
sicalpropert
iesofcar boxyli
cacids
decidest hechemi calproperti
esandt hi
sis 1.Al ong the homol ogous ser ies,t he
i
tsst r
uct ur e: si
zesand massesoft hemol ecules
O i
ncrease. In turn t hi
s causes t he
║ i
ntermolecul
arf orces( IMF)bet ween
-C-OH carboxyl
icaci
dmol eculestoi ncr
ease
Thegener alformul a: al
so.Asexpect ed therearegener al
Carboxy li
caci dshav eagener al f
ormulaof i
ncreasesinmel t
ingandboi l
ingpoi nts
CnH2n + 1COOH wher eni st he numberof al
ongt heseri
es.
carbonat oms. Car
boxy
li
c Condensed Melt
ing Boi
li
ng
Forexampl e,acar boxyl
icacidwi th6carbon aci
d for
mula poi
nt/° poi
nt/°
C
C
atomshast hef ormula:
Met hanoi
c HCOOH 9 101
C5H11COOH acid
Ethanoic CH3COOH 17 118
Not
e:Thesi xt
h car
bon i
stheoneon t
he acid
f
uncti
onal
group. Propanoic CH3CH2COOH -
21 141
acid
TheI MFoft hecar boxy licaci dsar e
Commonnomencl at
ure strongercompar ed t ot hose oft he
MolecularFor
mul
a Name hy dr ocarbons and al kanol s.Thi si s
HCOOH Met hanoicacid shown i nt he hi gher mel t i
ng and
CH3COOH Ethanoicacid boi li
ngpoi nt sofcar boxy licaci ds.
C2H5COOH Propanoi cacid 2. Smal lmol ecul ecar boxy licaci dsar e
C3H7COOH Butanoicacid sol ubl einwat er.Lar gemol ecul esar e
C4H9COOH Pent anoicacid lesssol ublebecauseoft hesi zef act or
,
C5H11COOH Hexanoi cacid as expl ained f or al kanol s. Bot h
C6H13COOH Hept anoicacid car boxy li
c aci ds and wat ercont ain
C7H15COOH Octanoi cacid –OH gr oups, and t her efor e aci ds
C8H17COOH Nonanoi cacid dissol veinwat er.“Li kedi ssol vesl i
ke. ”
C9H19COOH Decanoi cacid 3. Car boxy li
c aci ds can show hi gh
viscosi ty(st ickiness)asl i
qui ds.Bot h
Names, Condensed f ormul
ae and viscosi ty and densi tyi ncr ease on
Str
uctur
al formulae of some carboxy
li
c goi ngal ongt heser ies.
aci
dsaregivenbelow; Chemi
calpr operties
O 1. Car boxy l
ic aci ds change col ours of
║ indi cators.I ndicat orsar eof tennat ural
Methanoicaci
d H-C-
OH dy es.Localf lower sl i
ke hi biscus or
HCOOH jacar anda f lower s ar e exampl es.
H HH O Indi cators show di ffer ent col our s
│ ││ ║ whenpl acedi nl i
qui dsofdi fferentpH.
Butanoi
cacid H-C-C-
C-C-
OH Of ten t he same i ndicat orwi llshow
CH3COOH │ ││ one col our i n aci d sol ution and
©TemboJPPCDSS -47-
 anot hercol ouri n a basic solution. met
alssuchasmagnesi
um.
Somecommoni ndicatorsusedi nt he
laborat ory are shown i nt he table 5. Est er
if
icati
on
below t ogetherwi tht hei
rcol oursi n Carboxyli
cacidsreactwi t
halkanolsto
acidicandbasi csol ut
ion. form ester
sandt her eacti
oniscalled
Name of Col our i n Col our i n esteri
fi
cati
on.Forexampl e,ethanoic
i
ndicator acid basic acid willreactwi t h et
hanol,int he
solut
ion soluti
on presence of a f ew dr ops of
Bl
uel i
tmus Red Blue concentrat
ed sul phuri
c aci d, t o
Methy lorange Pi nk Yellow produceethy l
ethanoat e(anester)
.
Methy lred Red Yellow conc.H2SO4
Phenol phthalein Col ourless Pi nk Et
hanoicacid+et hanol
Redl i
tmus Red Blue et
hylet
hanoat e+wat er
Uni
v ersal Red Purple/bl
ue
i
ndicator CH3COOH+CH3CH2OH

2. Neut r
ali
sat i
onr eaction CH3COOCH2CH3+H2O
Carboxy l
ic aci ds t ake par t i n
neutrali
sation r eaction by reacting HO HH
withbasest oproducesal tandwater . │ ║ ││
CH3COOH( l
)+NaOH( aq) H-
C-C-
OH+H-
C-C-
OH
(ethanoi
caci d) (sodium hy droxi
de) │ │ │
CH3COONa( aq)+H2O( l
) H HH
(sodium ethanoate)( wat er)
Thesal tsodi um et hanoateisformed
whenet hanoicaci dr eact
swithdilute H O HH
sodium hy droxi
de. │ ║ │ │
H-C-C-O-C-
C-H+H2O
3. Ionisati
oni nwat er │ ││
carboxy l
icaci dsar eweakaci dsand H HH
thereforer eleasesf ew hy drogeni ons Esteri
fi
cati
onisanexampl eofcondensat i
on
(H+) when t hey di ssolvei n wat er reacti
on.
compar edwi t
hast r
ongaci doft he Member soft he‘ester
’famil
yhav estr ong
sameconcent ration. and pleasantsmell
s.Manyoft hem occur
wat er natural
lyandarer
esponsiblef
ortheflavours
Ethanoicaci d hydrogen i
nf rui
tsandthesmell
sofflowers.
i
ons+et hanoat ei ons
H2O USESOFESTERS
1.They ar e used i n some f ood
CH3COOH( l
) H+( aq)
- fl
av ouri
ngsandi nperfumes.
+CH3COO ( aq) 2.Fatsandoi l
sarenat ur
all
yoccur r
ing
The signmeanst hatt he esters whi ch are used as ener gy
reactioni sreversible.Thismeanst hat storage compounds by pl ant
s and
i
ft heet hanoicaci dmol eculebr eaks animal s(i
.e.oli
veoili
sobt ai
nedfrom
down t o gi ve hy drogen i ons and aplant )
.
ethanoat ei ons t hen t hey willr eact 3.An est erknown asamy lacetat
ei s
togethert or e-formt heethanoi caci d usedast hesolventforremov i
ngnail
mol ecule. varnish.
4. Car boxy
li
caci
dswi
llal
sor
eactwi
th
©TemboJPPCDSS -48-
 needst ofol
lowinordert oanal yseunknown
organiccompounds.Af lowdi agram hel
psto
Some exampl es of natural sour ces of carry outan anlysi
s ofunknown or gani
c
carboxy li
cacidsandthei
rnames substancesbyfi
rstseparati
ngt hem andthen
Nameofaci d sour
ce i
dentifyi
ngeachone.Thei dentifi
cat
ionuses
Formi cacid the‘ st
ing’ thespecialf
unct
ionalgroupt ests.
ofant s
Ethanoi caci
d vi
negar Exampl e:
Citr
icaci d i
ncitr
usf ruit
slike Const r
uctaflowdiagram t
hatcanbeusedt o
l
emonsand i
dent i
fyt he fol
l
owing organic subst
ances;
oranges met hanol
,cyclohexene,propanoicaci
dand
Tartaricacid usedincooki ng octane.Incl
uder el
evanttestsandexpected
Malicaci d i
nappl es result
s.
Lacticacid i
nsourmi lk Sol
uti
on:
Ascor bicaci
d( vi
tami
nC) f rom f oods

TESTINGFORCARBOXYLI CACI DS
1.Solubilit
y t est: car boxy li
c aci ds
dissolv ei nwat erandt heref oret hey
willgiv ecl earandonel ay ersol ution
whenmi xedwi th.
2.Acidt est :itisbasedont heabi li
tyof
carboxy li
caci dst ochanget hecol our
ofan i ndicat ordur i
ng neut ralisation
react i
on.
Procedur e:
To asol utionofabout15dr opsof
sodi um hy dr oxide( NaOH)sol utioni s
added 2 dr ops of phenol pht halein Note:Thesol
ubil
it
y ,aci
dandbr ominetests
indicator.Thi s giv es a pi nk col our i
n t he fl
ow diagram should be br ief
ly
(phenol phthal ei
ni nbasi csol ut i
on) .To explai
nedasil
l
ustratedinthenotes.Thi
si s
thisisadded6dr opsoft het estl iquid. recommendedwhenwr i
ti
ngexams.
Resul ts:
Nochangei ncol ourmeanst hatt he Wor k:
addedl i
qui di snotanaci d.Achange Prepareaf l
ow diagram t hatcanbeusedt o
to col our l
ess shows t he t estl iquid separateandi denti
fyt hef oll
owingorgani
c
cont ai
ns t he car boxy l
ate gr oup, - compounds;
COOHandt hereforeanaci d. (a)Propanol,cy clobut ane,decene and
Met hanoicaci
d
Work: (b)Hexane,hexane,et hanolandethanoi
c
1.Wr it
et hemol ecular
,condensed and acid
str
ucturalf
ormulaeforPropanoi
cacid. (c)Hexane,Pr opanol ,pentaneandoxali
c
2.Wr it
e wor d and balanced chemical acid.
equati
ons f or t
he esteri
fi
cati
on of
Propanoicacidwithethanol.Gi
vethe
nameoft heesterfor
med. TOPI
C:ORGANI
CCHEMI
STRYI
I

FLOW DI
AGRAMS I
SOMERISM
Aflowdi
agr
am i
saki
ndofa‘
map’
achemi
st I
somer
ism takespl
acewhent
wo ormor
e
©TemboJPPCDSS -49-
molecul
es wit
ht he same mol ecularhave C
di
ff
erentst
ructur
alformulae.Eachmol ecul
e OH
havi
ng adiff
erentstructur
e,butt hesame -C-
C-C-C- │
molecul
arf
ormula,i
scalledanisomer . │ -
C-C-C-
OH │
Defini
tion: C
Isomers ar e molecul
es havi
ng t
he same Not
e: The di f
ferent posi
tions of the
molecul arformul
a butdi f
fer
entstr
uctur
al f
unctionalgroup,-OH makest womolecul
es
formulae. t
o bei somer s.Lookatt hef ir
stand t
hir
d
Molecul es t
hathav ethe same molecul
ar molecules.
formulaandt hesamest r
uctur
alf
ormulaare
call
edconf ormati
ons. ISOMERS WI TH DI
FFERENT FUNCTIONAL
GROUPS
Exampl e:Writ
et hree i somer s and t hree Exampl e:Writ
etwoi
somerswi
thamol ecul
ar
conf ormati
onsofpent ane( C5H12)
. formulaC4H8
Isomer s HH HH
-C-C-C-C-C- -C-C-C-C- C H-C=C- C-C-
H H-C-C-H
│ │ H H HH ││
C -C-C-C- H-C-C-H
│ HH
C But-1-ene
Conf ormati
ons cyclobutane
-C-C-C-C-C- -C-
C-C- C- -
C-C-C-
│ │ │ Example: Two i somers ( wi
th dif
fer
ent
C C C funct
ionalgr
oups)ofC4H8O
Not e:A bend is structurall
yt he same as H HH H HH H
straightchai
nofcar bonat omsf orthesame C=C-C-C-OH H-C-C-
O-C=C-
H
mol ecule. H HH HH H

ISOMERSOFALKENES 3-
but
en-
1-ol et
hoxy
ethene
Example:Wri
tethreeisomersofbutene(C4H8)
-C=C-C-C- -C-C=C-C- -
C=C-C- Nomencl
at ure
│ Rul
esi
nnami ngisomer s
C 1.Wr i
tedownt hecarbonskeletonoft he
Note:Inthefi
rstandsecondmol ecul
est he mol eculetoget herwiththef uncti
onal
posit
ions of double bonds are diff
erent group.
ther
ebymakingt hem i
somers. 2.Number t he l ongest chai n. The
number i
ng st art
s atthe end oft he
I
SOMERSOFALKANOLS chainnear esttot hefir
stj uncti
oni n
the‘ parentchai n’(i
fitisanal kane)
Exampl
e:Wr
it
efouri
somer
sofbut
anol
. and i f iti s any ot her or ganic
compound, t he number i
ng shoul d
start wi t
ht he carbon near est the
funct i
onalgroup.
3.Countupal lthecarbonat omsi nt he
parentchai nanduset henumbert o
giveabasi cnamet othecompound.
-
C-C-
C-C-
OH -
C-C-
C-OH 4.Statet henumberofj unctionsusi ng
│ prefix number s and number t he
©TemboJPPCDSS -50-
 carbonat omswher
ethejuncti
onsare
placed. (
a)-
C-C-
C- (
b) C
Namingofal kanes ║ │
432 1 C -
C=C-C-
-C-
C-C-C- C
│ │ (
c) C (
d) –C-
C=C-
C-
C -C-
C-C- ║
│ -
C-C-
C-
C
2-methylbutane 2,
2- (i
)Wr i
tedownt hemol ecularf
ormul
afor
dimethylpropane each
compound.
Nami
ngofal
kenes (i
i)Whi ch molecularare confor
mati
ons
with
1 234 12 34 1 23 (a)
?
-
C=C-C-
C- -
C-C=C-
C- -C=C-C- (i
ii
)Whichmol eculesareisomerswit
h(a)
?
│
C POLYMERI SATI ON
But
-1-
ene but
-2-
ene 2-
met
hyl
prop-
1- Smal lor ganiccompoundsofal kenessuch
ene aset henecanact ual
lyr eactwi thi tselft o
formv erylongchai nmol ecul es.Whensmal l
Nami ngofalkanols mol eculesl i
keet henej oi
nt oget hertof orm
Isomersofbut anol(C4H9OH) l
ongchai nsofat omscal ledpol ymer s,t he
4321 321 432 processi scalledpol ymerisat ion.Thesmal l
1 mol ecules,li
keet hene,whi chj oint ogetheri n
-C-C-
C-C-
OH -C-C-C-
OH - C-C-C-C- thi
sway ,arecal ledmonomer s.A pol ymer
│ │ chainof t
enconsi stsofmanyt housandsof
C OH monomeruni tsandi nanypi eceofpl ast i
c
OH therewi llbemanymi ll
ionsofpol ymerchai ns.
│ Exampl es of pol ymers i nclude pl ast i
cs,
-
C-C-C- proteins,DNA,ny l
on,teryl
ene,car bohydrat es
│ e.t
.c.
C Definiti
ons:
Thenamesar easf oll
owswi threspecttothe Monomer s ar e smal lor gani c uni tst hat
aboveorder:
but an-1-olor1-butanolorn- j
oin/ combi ne/add t o f or l ong chai n
butanol
, 2-met hyl
propan-1-ol
, but an-
2 mol ecules.
-ol 2-methy l
propan-2-ol Polymer sarel ongchai nmol eculesf ormed
whenmonomer sjointoget her.
Polymer i
sati
on i st he pr ocess i n whi ch
Work: monomer sjoi
nt ogethertof or m polymer s.
1.Dr aw thestruct
uralformulaeoft hr
ee
i
somer swhosemol ecularformulais Polymers can be gr ouped as natur
aland
C5H10.Giv
ethenamesoft heisomers. synthet
ic(art
if
icial)
.
2.Dr aw alli
somersofpent aneandgi v
e Natural polymer s occur nat urall
y and
thei
rnames. synthet
icpolymer saremadebymananddo
3.St udyt heorgani
ccompoundsbel ow notoccurnaturall
y.
andanswert hequestionsthatfol
l
ow; Examplesofnat uralincl
udepr ot
eins,DNA
andcarbohydrates.
Examples of sy nt
hetic poly
mer si ncl
ude
©TemboJPPCDSS -51-
pol
ythene,
ter
yleneandny
lon. FF F F
-
--+C=C+C=C+-
--
TYPESOFPOLYMERI
SATI
ON FF F F

1.ADDI TIONPOLYMERI SATION Tet

raf
luor
oet
hene (
monomer
s)
Polythene isav erycommon mat er
ial.I t
s
correctname i s pol y
ethene because t he
monomerf r
om whi chi tismadei set hene. FFF F
The et hene mol ecules are ablet of orm --
-C-C-
C-C-
--
chainsl i
kepol yethenebecauset heyposses FFFF
carbon-carbondoubl ebonds.I nthisprocess pol
ytet
raf
luoroet
heyl
ene(
PTFE)-pol
ymer
ofpol ymeri
sat i
on, ethenemol ecul
esunder go
rel
ativel
y hi gh t emperature and a hi gh
pressureint hepr esenceofacat alyst
.Si nce 2.CONDENSATI ONPOLYMERI SATI ON
thi
s pol ymerisation process the monomer Thisi sat y peofpol ymer isationinwhi cha
unit
saddt oget hertof orm onlyonepr oduct , smal lmol ecul e(frequent lywat er )issplit
thepol ymer,t hepr ocessi scal l
edaddi tion offaseachmonomeruni tisat tachedt o
polymer i
sati
on. the gr owi ng pol ymer . The t erm
condensat ion comes i n because t wo
Examples: mol eculescombi netof or m al argerone
(
a)polymeri
sat
ion of et
hene t
o f
orm whilel i
ber atingasmal l mol eculeofwat er.
polyet
hene Thepol ymerchai ni smadeupf rom the
two st art i
ng mol ecul es ar r
anged
HH HH alt
er natelyast hesemol ecul esr eactand
-
-- + C=C + C=C +- -
- thereforel inkup.Each t imear eacti
on
HH HH takespl aceamol eculeofwat eri slost,
Monomer
s(et
henemol
ecul
es) and because of t his i t is cal l
ed
condensat i
onpol ymer isation.
HHHH Exampl es:
-
--
C-C-
C-C-
-- (a)Ny loni smadebyr eactingt wo
HHHH different chemi cals i .e. 1,6-
pol
ymer(pol
yethene) diami nohex ane and
hexanedi oicaci d.Ny loni salso
(
b)polymeri
sati
on of viny
lchlor
ide t
o knownaspol yami de.
form pol
yvi
nylchl
ori
de(PVC)
ClH ClH 1,
6-di
aminohexane hexanedi
oicaci
d
--
-+C=C+C=C+- -
- H2N(CH2)
6NH2 + HOOC(CH2)4COOH
HH H H
Vinylchl
ori
de(monomers

ClHClH [
H2N(CH2)
6NHOC(CH2)
4COOH] +H2O
-
--C-
C-C-
C--- Partofny
lonpol
ymer wat
er
HHHH
pol
yvi
nylchl
ori
de(PVC)-Pol
ymer -
NHOC-i
sref
err
edt
oast
heami
del
i
nk.

(
c)polymeri
sati
onoft
etraf
luor
oet
henet
o Ny l
onf i
bresar eusedtomakeshi
rt
s,ties,
f
orm sheetsandpar achut
esortur
nedi
ntoropes
pol
ytet
raf
luor
oet
hey
lene(PTFE)
. orracketstr
ingsfort
enni
s.

©TemboJPPCDSS -52-
 (
b)Teryl
ene i s also pr oduced  PTFE - non –st ick sur face
thr
ough condensati
on (slipper y)
, wi thst ands hi gh
polymeri
sati
on r
eacti
ons temper ature and r esistantt o
between et hne-
1,2-di
ol and chemi cal att
ack.
benzene-
1,4-
dicar
boxy l
i
cacid. Pol yt etrafl
uor oet hey lene is
usedasa‘ non- stick’ coatingf or
fryingpansandsaucepans.
ethane-1,2-
diol benzene-
1,4-
dicar
boxy
li
c  Pol yst yrene – l i
ght , poor
acid. conduct orofheat .
HO( CH2)2OH + HOOC(C6H4)COOH  Per spex–t ranspar ent.
 Mel ami ne – used t o make
‘
unbr eakabl e’di shesandmugs,
asht rays.
2.Proteins
[
HO(CH2)2OCO(C6H4)
COOH] + H2O  Madef r om ami noaci ds
Par
tofteryl
enepolymer wat
er  I nsol ubl ei nwat er
 Easi ly af fected by aci ds,al kalis
-OCO-i sknownasanest erl
i
nkandbecause
and t emper atur ei ncrease,when
an est er li
nk i s f or
med dur ing the
theyar esai dt obedenat ured.
poly
mer i
sati
on, teryl
ene i s known as
Uses: They cont rol chemi cal
polyester.
processest hatkeepourbodi esgoi ng.
Teryleneisal sousedt omakef i
breswhich
3.DNA ( Deoxy ri
bonucl eic aci d)– t hey
arethenwov enint
of abri
cs(cl
othes),r
opes,
arebiopol ymer s
bri
stleofbrushes,ti
ghts.
Uses:
 Cont rol st he pr ot ei
n sy nthesi s
PROPERTIES AND USES OF SOME
wi thinbodycel ls.
POLYMERS
1.Plasti
cs  DNA “ fingerpr i
nt ing”i sav ery
Polyt
hene power ful t ool i n the
-i
tiseasil
ymoul ded inv est igationofcr ime.
-i
tisanexcellentelectr
ical 4.Carbohy drat es
insul
ator Starch i s a bi opol ymer or nat ural
-i
tdoesnotcor rode polymer .I ti sacondensat i
onpol ymer
-i
tistough ofglucose.
-i ti s not af fected by sunlight
weather 6CO2 + 6H2O chl or ophy ll C6H12O6 +
-i
tisdurable 6O6
Iti
sthereforeusedascar r
ierbags, (glucose)
bowls,bucketse.t
.c.
nC6H12O6 (
C6H10O5)
n+n H2O
Glucose(monomer
) st arch(pol
ymer)
 Polypropyl
ene- har der and
toughert han pol ythene.Itis
Both st arch and gl ucose are
used as wat er pipes,r opes,
carbohydrates, nat
urall
y occurri
ng
packaginge.t.c.
organiccompounds.St archoccur
sin
 PVC – sl i
ght l
y strongerand
potatoes,
r i
ceandwheat .
harderthanpol ythene.Polyvi
nyl
chlori
de ( PVC) i s used i n
Pr
oper
ti
esofstarch
elect
ricalinsulati
on and pipes
 Doesnotform at
ruesol
uti
on
forplumbing.
©TemboJPPCDSS -53-
  Doesnothav easweettast
e thei
rpol
ymerchai
nsf l
ow overoneanot
her
 Wi t
hiodineitgi
vesani nt
ense andthepl
ast
icsof
tensandlat
ermel
ts.
bluecolour(
near
lybl
ack)
Use:Of t
en produced as a way of Thermosett
ing pl asti
cs (t
hermosets)have
st
ori
ng poly
merchai nswhi chareli
nkedorbondedto
energy. eachothert ogi v
eacr oss-
li
nkedst r
uct
ure,
andsothechai nsar ehel
df i
rml
yi npl
aceand
THERMOPLASTI CANDTHERMOSETTI NG nosoft
eningt akesplaceonheating.
POLYMERS
Plastics can be put i nto one of t wo AREPLASTI
CSGOODORBAD?
categor ies,t her mopl ast
ics( thermosof tening
plastics) or t hermoset ti
ng pl astics Plast
icsarewi del
yusedi ndiff
erentar
eas;
(thermoset s). schools,homes,i ndustr
ies e.
t.
c.Much as
Ther mopl ast i
cs l ike pol ythene,PVC and theseplast
icsarewidelyusedtheyhavet
heir
polyst y
renemel torsof t
enwhenheat ed. owndi sadv
antages.
Ther moset ti
ngpl ast i
csdonotmel torsof ten
onheat ingbutonl ycharanddecomposeon Goodpoi nts Badpoi nts
furtherheat ing.To charsi mplymeans t o (advantages) (disadv ant ages)
partiall
ybur nsoast oblackent hesur f
ace. 1.Quitecheap,and 1.Di f
ficulttodi spose
Exampl esoft hermoset si ncludemel ami ne easil
ymade of.Pl ast i
cbagsand
(fort ablewar e)and phenol ic( f
orf or mica cart ons do not r ot
andsaucepanhandl es). whent heyar et hrown
Ther mopl astics ar e easi ly moul ded or away ,sot heypol lute
formed i nt o usef ular t
icl
es.Oncet heyar e the count ryside,but
mol tent heycanbei njectedorbl owni nto biodegr adabl e
moul ds,av arietyofdi fferent-shapedi t
ems plast i
csr otaway .
canbepr oduced. 2. Li ght er t han 2. Some pl astics
Ther moset ting plast i
cscanbeheat ed and wood, catchf i
rev eryeasi ly
moul dedonl yonce,usual lybycompr ession stoneormet al
moul ding. 3.Unr eactive.They 3. When t hey bur n,
The di agr am bel ow shows t he mol ecular do notcor rodei n they of ten pr oduce
structuresoft hermopl asti
csandt hermoset s. ai
r harmf ul gases. For
orwat er.Manyar e exampl e,PVC gi ves
not af f
ected by of ff umesofhy drogen
acids chlor i
de when i t
oral kalis bur ns. Thi s woul d
form hy drochloricaci d
i
n y our ey es and
throat .
4.Do notconduct 4.Theyusual l
ydonot
heat l
ookasgoodaswood
or el ectri
cit
y , so orst one.
can
be used as
i
nsulat ors
5.Canbemoul ded
Thermosoft
eni
ng (ther
moplast
ics) do not i
ntoanyshape
havepolymerchai
nsthatgi
veacr oss-
li
nked 6.Canbemadev ery
str
uctur
e,sowhentheyaresubj
ectedtoheat strong
©TemboJPPCDSS -54-
7.Canbecol
our
ed,by wal
l.
addi
ngpi
gments Pr
ocedur
e:
- I
nf l
atetwobal l
oonst oa
DISPOSALOFPLASTI CS reasonable size and t i
e
Plast
icshav er eplacedmat er i
alsf ormet als, themout hwi thar ubber
gl
ass,paperandwoodaswel lasf ornat ural bandort hread.
fi
bres such as cot ton and wool .Thi si s - Rub t he surf
ace ofone
because of t he numer ous adv ant ages i
nflatedballoonusingt he
di
scussedi nt het ableabov e.Howev er,t hi
s wool l
en cloth orcot ton
si
tuati
onhascont ri
but edsi gni fi
cant l
yt ot he wool .
househol dwast eprobl em. - Bring the r ubbed and
Way sofdi sposi ngpl ast i
cs unrubbedsur facesoft he
1.Land- fi
ll
ingdi susedquar ries(although balloons without
i
ti s becomi ng har dert of i
nd such touching them close t o
sites). thewal l
andl eavethem.
2.I ncineration – heat ing used pl ast i
cs - Recor dthe r esul
tsi na
andt heheatgener atedcanbeused table.
forheat ingpur poses.
3.Recy cli
ng–l ar gequant itiesofpl asti
c Material Resul
ts
bagsandsheet ingar er epr oducedor 1.Unrubbedbal
loon
reprocessedf orr esale. agai
nstthewall
4.Bi odegr adable plastics and 2.Rubbedball
oon
phot odegr adabl e plast i
cs hav e been agai
nstthewall
dev eloped.Bi odegr adabl epl asticsar e
plastics whi ch ar e broken down by Food f orthought
:Di scuss whyt he
bact eri
a( theydecompose)aswel las rubbed balloon r
emai ned close or
plasticswhi chdi ssolvei nwat er. attachedtothewallf
oral ongti
me.
Phot odegr adabl e pl astics degr ade
(decompose)i n sunl i
ght .Ther efore, WAYSOFCHARGI NGOBJECTS
the use of bi odegr adable and  By f ri
cti
on/ rubbi ng: Iti s maki ng
phot odegr adabl epl asticscanr educe objectstobecomechar gedbyr ubbi ng
wast epr oblem ofpl astics. them.Undernor malci r
cumst ancesan
objecthasequalposi ti
veandnegat ive
TOPIC: ELECTRI
CITY, MAGNETI
SM AND chargesi.e.itisneut ral.I
fanobj ecti s
ELECTROMAGNETI CINDUCTI
ONI rubbedbycot tonwoolandacqui resa
positi
vechar ge,i twoul dmeant hatit
ELECTROSTATI CS – CHARGI NG BY hasl ostelectronsuponr ubbing.The
INDUCTI ON rubbing mat eri
al i .e. cott
on wool
Theyar etwot ypesofel ect
ri
cit
yandt hese becomesnegat i
v elychargedbecause
are st ati
c and cur r
ent electr
ici
ty. Stati
c i
thasexcessel ect r
onsandt heobj ect
elect
ricit
yisof t
enf or
medoni nsul
atorse.g. becomesposi t
ivelychar gedbecause
polyt
hene,cel l
ulose acetat
e and r ubber. i
thasexcessposi tivecharges.
Stati
c el ect
ri
city, also known as  By cont act: Suppose we hav e a
elect
rostatics,has so many uses i n our neutralobjectand t he otherone i s
everydaylife. chargedbyf ri
ctionandar ebr oughti n
contactforashor ttimet hef ol
lowi ng
Act
ivit
y : mighthappen;i fthechar gedobj ecti s
Materi
als:ball
oons,wooll
enclot
horcot
ton strongl
ynegat ivelychar gest hent he
wool,threadorrubberbandsandasmooth neutralobjectwi llgainelectronsf rom
©TemboJPPCDSS -55-
 the negat iv
el y char ged body . The corresponds t o t he dar k-coloured
neutralbodynow becomesnegat ively pri
ntingont heor i
ginal.Speci altoner
charged. powderi st hendust edov ert hedr um
 Byi nduction:Supposewehav et wo thedr um and st ickst ot hosepar ts
neutralobjectssuchasasmoot hwal l whichar est i
llchar ged.Whenasheet
andabal l
oon.I fthebal looni srubbed ofpaperpassesov ert hedr um,t he
i
tmi ghtbecome negat ivel
ychar ged parti
clesoft onerar eat tract edt oi t
andwhenbr oughtcl oset ot heneutral andf usedi ntopl acebyashor tbur st
wallitgetsat t
ractedt ot hewal l
.This ofheat .
showst hatt heel ectronsi nt hewal l 3.CAPACI TOR I N A CAMERA WI TH A
arer epell
ed and t he wal lbecomes FLUSH:I foneoper atesacamer awi th
positi
velychar ged.Thebal loonthen af l
ush i tmusthav e a capaci tor.
getsstuckt ot hewal l
. Batteryci rcuitchar gest hecapaci tor
whenont hef l
ushmode.Onesi deof
the capaci toraccumul ates negat i
v e
chargeswhi l
et heot herpl at eposi ti
v e
charges.Pr essingt heshoot ingbut ton
i
tdi schar ges t he capaci tort hrough
thef l
ush.Bychar gingt hecapaci t
or,it
means t her ei s an accumul ation of
charges. Di schargi ng means t he
capacitori sused and i tmakest he
chargest of low.
Work: 4.SPRAY PAI NTI NG:Bodyofacari s
Writeapr ocedureyouwoul duset o neutraland t he pai nti s negat ively
i
dent i
fy sign of t he charges of charged.The pai ntbei ng spr ead i s
dif
ferentobject
sgi v
en thefollowing i
nducesposi tivechar gesbyr epelli
ng
material
s:polyt
hene str
ips,cell
ulose the electrons i nt he car ,hence t he
acetate, a bal l
oon, pen, and paintisat t
ract edt ot hecarbody .
cl
oth/cott
onwool . 5.INKJETPRI NTERS

USESOFELECTROSTATI CS ELECTRI CALRESI STANCE

1.ELECTROSTATI CS PRECI PI TATI ON Electr
onsmov emor eeasi lyt hroughsome
OR FLUE PRECI PITATI ON: I n conduct orst han ot her s when a pot ential
industri
es whi ch pr oduce a l ot of diff
erence( p.d.)isappl ied.Theopposi t
ionof
smoket herear esomechar gedpl ates aconduct ortocur rentiscal ledi t
sr esi
stance.
inthechi mney .Risingsmokepar t
icles Agoodconduct orhasal owr esistanceanda
arechar gedandast heypasst hrough poorconduct orhasahi ghr esistance.
thechar gedpl atesint hechimneyt hey Ther esistanceofawi reofacer tainmat eri
al
are at tracted t her eby r educi ng (a)increasesasi t
sl engthi ncreases
environment al polluti
on. (b)increases as i ts cr oss-sect i
on area
2.PHOTOCOPI ERS: These cont ai
n a (thickness)decr eases
chargeddr um andwhent hepapert o (c)dependsont hemat erial
becopi edi sl aidont hegl asspl ate, (d)increases as i t
s t emper at
ure
thelightreflect edf r
om t hewhi t
epar ts increases.
oft he papercauses t he char ge t o This means a l ong t hin wi r
e has mor e
disappear f rom t he cor r
espondi ng resist
ancet hanashor tt hickoneoft hesame
parts of t he dr um opposi te. The mat eri
al.Silverist hebestconduct orbutthe
chargepat t
er nr emaini ngont hedr um mostcommonusedmet ali
scopper .Copper
©TemboJPPCDSS -56-
 whenap. d.Visappl
iedacrossitandthen
usingR=V.
I
Thisi s cal
led t
he ammet er– v ol
tmeter
met hod.Setupthecircui
tasbelow wit
ha
resist
orofanunknownresi
stance.

i
scheaperandisusedforconnect
ingwi
re
anddomest
icel
ect
ri
ccabl
es.

THEOHM
I
ft hecur rentthroughaconduct orisIwhen
thev olt
ageacr ossi ti
sV,it
sr esist
anceRi s
definedby
R=V
I Alteri
ng the r heostat (vari
able r esist
or)
Resi stanceRi smeasur edi
nohms( Ω). changesbotht hep.d.(V)andt hecur rent(I
).
Alternatively,i
fRandIar eknown,Vcanbe Recordinat able,withthreecol umns,f ive
foundf r
om valuesofI( e.g.0.10,0.15.0.20,0. 25and
V=I R 0.30A)andt hecor respondingv aluesofV.
Alsoknowi ngV andR,Icanbecal cul
ated Wor koutRforeachpai rofreadings.
from
I=V Cur
rent(
I) Vol
tage(
V) Resi
stance(
R)
R =V/I
Thet ri
angl ebelowisanaidt oremember ing 0.
10A
thet hreeequat ions 0.
15A
0.
20A
0.
25A
0.
30A

I
tisobser
v edthatIαV,andi tf
oll
owsthat
V/I=aconstant(obt
ainedf
rom t
heslopeof
theI–Vgraph).
Metalli
cconductors
Metalsandsomeal l
oy sgiveI– V gr aphs Exampl e:
whichar east r
aightlinethroughtheor i
gin, Calculat
et heresi
stanceofaconduct
or,i
fthe
so long as thei
rt emperatureis constant. currentpassingthroughiti
s2Aandv ol
tage
CurrentIisdi
rectl
ypropor t
ionalt
ovoltageV. acrossitis12V.
DoublingVdoubl esI.Suchconduct or
sobey R=V
Ohm’ slaw,st
atedasf oll
ows: I
‘
Thecurrentt
hroughamet all
icconduct
oris =12V
di
rect
lyproporti
onaltothevoltageacross 2A
i
ts ends ift he temperat
ure and other =6Ω
condi
ti
onsareconstant
.’
Work:
PRACTI CAL WORK ON MEASURI NG 1.Whati stheresi
stanceofalampwhen
REESISTANCE avoltageof12V acrossitcausesa
The resist
ance R ofa conduct
orcan be cur
rentof4A?
foundbymeasur i
ngthecurrentIthr
oughi
t 2.Calculatethe p.d.across a 10 Ω
©TemboJPPCDSS -57-
 resi
storcarr
yingacurr
entof2A. Examples:
3.Calculat
ethecurrentfl
owingthr
ough 1.Cal
culat
etheeffect
iver
esi
stancei
nthe
a4 Ω r esi
stor when a potent
ial f
oll
owingcir
cui
ts;
diff
erenceof6Vi sappl
iedacr
ossit
.

RESI
STORINSERIES
Ther
esi
stor
sint
hefigur
ebel
owar
einser
ies.

Thet ot
alresi
stanceRi sequaltothesum of
theresi
stancesR1,R2,andR3 ofthesepar
ate
resi
stor
s,i.
e.
R=R1+R2+R3

RESI
STORSI NPARALLEL
The resi
stor
sinthe fi
gur
e bel
ow ar
ein
par
all
el.

Sol
uti
ons:
Fort
heseri
escir
cuit:
Tot
alresi
stance(
R)
=3+6+6
Experiment shav eshownt hatther eciprocal =15Ω
ofthet otalresist
anceisequalt othesum of
thereciprocalsoft heseparateresistances, Forpar
all
elci
rcui
t;
i
.e. 1=1+1+1
1=1+1+1 R 6 6 3
R R1R2 R3 =1+1+2
Forthe si mplercase oft wo resistorsin 6
paral
lel =4
1=1+1 6
R R1 R2
=R2+R1 Ther
efore,
R=6/ 4=1.5Ω
R1R2 From theaboveresult
sitisobserved
I
nvertingbot hsides, that the combi ned or ef fecti
ve
R=R1R2 =pr oductofresistance resi
stanceisgreaterinseri
escircui
t
R1+R2 sum oftheresistances thaninparal
l
elcir
cuit
.
NOTE:Thi sformul aappli
esonlyi fthereare
tworesistorsconnect edinparall
el. 2.Ap.d.of24Vfr
om abatt
eryisappl
i
edto
thenet
workofr
esi
stor
sint
hefigur
ebel
ow:

©TemboJPPCDSS -58-
 I=V
R
=8V
6Ω
=4/
3A

Wor k:
1.( a)Thest udentobt ainst hef ollowi ng
(
a)Whatisthecombinedr esi
stanceof resul t
s( fi
lamentl amp) .
t
he6Ωand12Ωr esist
orsinparall
el? Voltage 0 3. 0 5. 0 7. 0 9. 0 11. 0
1 =1+1 (V)
R R1 R2 Cur r
ent 0 1. 0 1. 4 1. 7 1. 9 2. 1
=1+1 (A)
6 12 i
. Pl ota gr aph ofcur rentagai nst
=2+1 v oltage.
12 ii
. Usey ourgr apht of indt hecur rent
=3/
12 whent hev oltagei s10V.
R=12/3=4Ω Or i
ii
. Usey ouransweri n( ii
)tocal culate
ther esi st
anceoft hel ampwhen
R=6x12=72=4Ω thev oltageis10V.
6+12 18 (b)i .Whathappenst ot her esist anceof
the l amp as t he cur rentt hrough i t
(b)Whati scurr
enti
nthe8Ωr esi
stor
? incr eases?
Totalresi
stanceofthecircui
t=4+8= i
i.Expl ainyouranswer .
12Ω 2.The6Ωand3Ωr esi storsar econnect ed
Totalvol
tage =24V i
n
Currentpassi
ngthr
oughthe8Ωr esist
ori
s paral l
elandan8Ωr esi stori sconnect ed
thesamet hetot
alcurr
entintheci
rcui
t, i
n
serieswi ththem.Acur rentof2Apasses
I=V throught he8Ωr esi stor.
R=24V (a)Sket cht heci r
cui tdi agram.
12Ω (b)Fi ndt hecombi nedr esistancei nt he
=2A circui t.
(c)Fi nd t he pot ent ialdi fference acr oss
(c)Whatitthevolt
ageacrosst
hepar
all
el thecombi nedr esi stor.
network? (d)Cal cul atet hep. d.acr osst hepar allel
Totalcurr
entinthecir
cui
t =2A net wor k.
Combi nedresi
stanceofparal
l
elnet
work=4 (e)Cal cul atet hecur r entt hrought he3Ω
Ω resi stor .
3.A4Ωcoi landa2Ωcoi lareconnect edin
V=IxR par allel. What i s t heir combi ned
resistance?
=2Ax4Ω At otalcur r entof3Apassest hrought hecoi l
s.
Whatcur rentf lowst hrought he2Ωcoi l?
=8V 4.Thedi agr am bel owshowsa2Vbat tery
connect edt oanar r
angementofr esi st
or s,
(
d)Whati
sthecurrenti
nthe6Ωresist
or? part
Volt
ageacrossthe6Ωresi
stor=8V inser iesandpar tinpar all
el.
Resi
stance =6Ω
©TemboJPPCDSS -59-
 GaveinWil
l
ingl
y
Bl
ackBrownRedOrangeYel
l
ow Gr
eenBl
ue
Vi
oletGr
eyWhite

Examples:
1.Find the val
ue ofa r esist
orwiththe
i
. Whati sthetot
alresi
stanceoft
hetwo fol
lowi
ngcolourbandsinthatorder
:
4Ωresistorsi
nparall
el? (a)Brown,gr een,brown,(no f
our
th
ii
. Whati sthecurrentfl
owinginthe1Ω band)
resi
stor? Sol
uti
on:
i
ii
. Whati st hecur
rentinoneoft he4Ω -Fir
stdi giti
s1( browncorrespondst o1inthe
resi
stors? table)
-Seconddi gi
tis5( greencorrespondsto5i n
RESI
STANCEOFRESI
STORS thet able)
-therei sonl yonezer o(nought)i.e.br
own
COLOURCODEFORRESI STORS cor r
espondst o1andt hethir
dbandgi ves
Itisusef ult oknow t hev al
ueofar esist
or; thenumberofzer os(noughts)
thi
si sindicatedbyt hefourcolouredbands -tol
er anceis±20%( t
herei
snof ourt
hbandi.e.
ont heresistor. none)
Thef i
rstthr eecoloursgivethef i
rstdigi
t,t
he Ther efore,ther esi
storhasav alueof150Ω
second di git and t he number of zer os ±20%
(noughts),t hef our
thband,i fthereisone,
givesthet olerance(accuracy)asfoll
ows; (
b)r
ed,
viol
et,
orange,
gol
d
None =±20% Sol
uti
on:
Sil
v er =±10% -fi
rstdigi
tis2
Gol d =±5% -seconddigitis7
Red =±2% -thenumberofzer osis3i.
e.000
Brown =±1% -thetoler
ance( accuracy
)is±5%
Ther ef
ore,theresist
orhasav al
ueof27000Ω
±5%

2.Det
erminet hecol
ourcodesofaresi
stor
whoseresi
stanceval
uei
s3500Ω±10%.
Sol
uti
on:
-fi
rstcol
ouri
sor ange(3cor r
esponds
Colou Blac Brow Re Or ang Yel low Gr ee Blu Vi ol
e Gr e Whi t to
r k n d e n e t y e
Fi
gure 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 orangeinthe
tabl
e)
- second col our i s gr een ( 5
Hint for r
emember
ing t
he order of the cor
respondsto
colour
s: gr
een)
BadBoy sRapedOurYoungGir
lsButVi olet -thir
dcolourisr ed( t
henumberof
©TemboJPPCDSS -60-
zer
os t
erm‘
tol
erance’
or‘
accur
acy
’.
i
s2and2cor
respondst
ored)

-four
thcol
ouri ssil
ver(
sil
vercol
ourmeans
anaccur
acyof±10%)
Ther
efore,thecol
ourcodei si
nt hi
s
or
der:or
ange,green,r
ed,si
lv
er.

THERESI STANCECODE
Resist ancekeepcur rentsandv oltagesatthe
l
ev elsneededf orot hercomponent stowor k
proper ly.Ther esi
stancei nohmsi smar ked
onbyusi ngeithert hecol ourcode( t
heone ELECTRI CALPOWER
discussed abov e)ort he resi
stance code. Poweri sdefinedaswor kdoneperuni tti
me.
Thev aluei sonl yappr oximate.Resistance Power=wor kdone =ener gytr
ansf erred
valuesar eprintedont her esi
storincl
uding t
imet aken t
imet aken
the t olerance (accur acy).Tolerance ofa Insymbol s,P=W/ t
resistor t ell
s y ou by how much t he wher eW isi nj oules( J)andti nseconds
resistancemaydi fferf r
om t hemar kedvalue. (s).
Then,Pi si nJ/sorwat ts(W) .
R27means0. 27Ω From thedefiniti
onofpot ential
differencep. d.
2R7means2. 7Ω (volt
age),wor k done ( W)i sthe el ectr
ical
3K0means3. 0kΩ energyt r
ansferredwhenast eadycur rentI(in
5K6means5. 6kΩ amper es)passes f ort ime t( in seconds)
47Kmeans47kΩ through a dev ice wi th a p.d.V ( i
nv olts)
Note:WherethereisRi tmeansr esi
stance acrossi t
.
wil
lexpr
essedinohms( Ω)andwher ethere Then, W =ItV
i
sKi tmeans resi
stanceiscal
cul
atedinkil
o- Substitut
ingforW i nt hefir
stequat ionweget
ohms(kΩ). P=W/ t
=It
V/ t
Theextral
ett
eratt
heendgi
vest
het
oler
ance P=IV
(accur
acy)
:F=1%,G=2%,J=5%,K=10% Thereforet o calculatet he powerP ofan
andM =20% electr
icalappliancewemul t
ipl
yt hecur r
entI
throughitbyt hep. d.Vacr ossit.
Exampl
e:Wor
k outt
he v
alue ofr
esi
stor
bel
ow; Example:
I
fal ampona240Vsuppl yhasacurr
entof
0.
25At hr
oughi
t,cal
cul
atethepowerofthe
l
amp.
Sol
uti
on:
Sol
uti
on: P=I
V
Ther
esi
stancev
aluei
s6.
8kΩ±1% P=0.
25AX240V
P=60wat
ts
Work: P=60W
What ist he resi
stance of each of t
he
r
esistorsi
nthefigur
esbelow?Whati ti
sthe Not
e:1kW =1000W and1MW =1000000
t
oleranceofeach?Explai
nwhati smeantby W

©TemboJPPCDSS -61-
 Ther
efor
e,cur
rent(
I)=3000W/
250V
Thepowerequat ionmaybewr itt
enint hree =12A
forms:
P=IV (
b)Whati
sther
esi
stanceoft
heel
ementof
P=I2
R t
he
P=V2 f
ir
e?
R
Thepowerofnor malelectri
calappli
ancesi s R=V2/
P
usually stated i n wat t or kil
owatt. The R=250X250Ω
potentialdifference p.d.whi ch should be 3000
applied toiti s also stated,because i tis R=20.
83Ω
meani ngl
ess t o statet he wattage without
also stati
ng t he volt
age.Forexampl e,an Wor
k:
electri
clightbul bf orusei nthehousei s 1.Findt her esistanceof48W
mar ked100W 240V,acarheadl ampbul bis 12Vcarheadl ampbul b.
mar ked 48W 12V.The r esist
ance oft he 2.Whatcur renti st akenbya
bulbsmaybeobt ai
nedf rom theequation:P 3kW el ect ri
cf i
re on t he
=V2/ RorR=V2/ P 240Vmai ns?Whatsi zef use
shoul dbeusedi nt hepl ug?
Exampl e:Fi ndt her esistanceof100W 240V 3.What i s t he maxi mum
bulb. poweri n kilowat ts oft he
R=V2/ P appliance( s) t hat can be
R=240X240Ω connect edsaf elyt oa13A
100 230Vmai nssocket ?
R=576Ω 4.Abul bi sl abel l
ed12V36W,
Thisi st hewor kingr esistanceoft helight whenusedona12Vsuppl y,
bulb,i.e.t her esistancewhent hebul bishot. (a)whatcur rentwi l
litt ake?
Whent hebul bi scol dt her esi
stanceismuch (b)Whati si t
sr esi st ance?
l
ess,butput ti
ngap. d.of12Vacr ossitwi l
l 5.A3kW heat eri sf i
t tedwi t
ha
notmakei tli
ghtandt hepowerpr oducedwi l
l 35W i ndicatorl amp and a
bev eryl ow. 15W f an. These t hree
Itisobser vedt hati fmuchl owerv olt
agesar e component s of the
appl i
edt oel ectricalappl iancest hewat t
age appliance ar e connect ed
i
s much l ess than t hatr equir
ed,and ifa directlyt ot he250V mai ns
voltagegr eatert hant hest i
pulat
edv olt
agei s and swi tch on and of f
appl i
edi tisl i
kelyt hatt heel ementorf il
ament together . When the
willbur nout . appliance i s oper ating,
Electri
calappl iancesshoul dnotbeusedwi th calculate
voltages hi ghert han t hose mar ked upon a)t hetot al power
them. b)t hetot al cur rent
c)t heener gyusedi n
Example: 4hour s.
A3kW elect
ricfi
rei
sdesignedtoberunona 6.A car bat tery sends a
250Vsupply.Assumingittobeoper
atingat cur r
entof8A t hr ough i t
s
thecor
rectvolt
age, headl ampf or1mi nut e.
(a)Whatcur
rentwil
litdr
awf r
om t
hesupply
? Thel ampr esist ancei s4Ω.
P=I V a)Whati st hepower
I=P/V oftheheadl amp?
P=3kW =3000W, V=250V b)How much heat
©TemboJPPCDSS -62-
 ener gyisgi v
enout? =7.5uni
ts
7.Anel ect
ricket tl
egi vesout 1uni
tcosts15t
1250 joules ofheatev er
y Ther
efor
e,7.5uni
tswil
lcost=7.
5x
second wor ki
ng on 250V 15t
mains, =112.5t
a)Whati st hepower =K1.125
dissipated by t he =K1.13
kettleelement ? (to t
he near est
b)Whatcur rentwould t
ambal
a)
normal lyflowinthe 2.I
fa1uni tofel
ectri
calener
gycost
s
element ? 75t,work outthe costofa 150W
c)What is t
he ref
ri
gerat
or
resistance of t he worki
ngfor48hours.
element ? Sol
uti
on:
Electr
icalener
gy=powerxt i
me
=150KW x48h
1000
ELECTRI CALENERGY =7.
2KWh
Electr
icalener gyiscal culatedbymul t
ipl
yi
ng =7.
2units
powerbyt i
me. 1uni
tcost s75t
Electr
ical energy=power x t i
me 7.
2unitswi l
lcost =7.2x75t
(wattorJ/ s) (s) =540t
Electr
icalener gythati susedi nhomesand =K5.40
i
ndust rieshast obepai dforandt hatiswhy
el
ect r
icity supply compani es (i.
e.ESCOM) Work:
chargef ortheelectri
calener gytheysuppl y
. 1.Each dayi nt heschoolki t
chen,t he
Aj oul
ei sav erysmallamountofener gyand 10KW cookerr unsf or6hour s, t
het wo
alargeuni t
,thekil
owat t–hour( kWh)i sused. 1.5KW deepf r eezersar er unf or20
This means el ectr
ici
tyi s soldi n units of hour sandf ive100W l i
ghtbul bsr un
ki
lowat t – hour s ( kWh) . As t he name for15hour s.I fthecostofIuni tof
suggest s,a ki l
owat t
-houri st he electr
ical electri
calener gyi s250t ambal a,then
energyusedbya1kW appl iancein1hour . wor koutt hecostt ot heschoolf ora
1kWh=1000J/ sx3600s whol emont hof31day s?
=3600000J=3. 6MJ 2.Whati st hecostofheat i
ngat ankof
1KWhofel ectricalener gy=1uni t wat erwi tha3000W i mmer sionheat er
Thismeansa3KWhel ect
ricf i
rewor ki
ngf or for80 mi nutes i f electri
city cost s
2 hour s uses 6KWh ofel ectr
icalener gy K2.10peruni t?
usuall
ycal l
ed6uni t
s. 3.Mr .Thomasusesaket tl
etoboi lwater.
Itisa2KW ket tle.Ittakes6mi nutest o
Examples: boil t
hewat er .
1.I
f1uni t(1KWh)cost
s15t
,workout a)Cal cul ate t
he energy
thecostofa5KWhov enr
unni
ngfor transf er
r ed i n ki l
owat t-
hour s
90mi nutes. (KWh) .
Sol
uti
on: b)El ectricitycost sK2.70perKWh.
Power=5KW,t
ime=90/
60hour
s= How much does i tcostMr
1.
5h Thomast oboil t
hewat er?
El
ect
ri
cal
ener
gy=powerxtime 4.Anel ectri
ccookerhast hef ollowing
=5KW x1.
5h speci f
ication:
=7.
5KWh I
tem No.ofi
tems Powerof
i
tem
©TemboJPPCDSS -63-
Cerami
chob(
small
) 2 1250W ferr
omagnets and t hey are classi
fied as
Cerami
chob(
lar
ge) 2 1500W magnet i
cal
l
yhar dorsoft.
Gri
ll 1 2000W
Oven 1 2500W
Softmagnet i
c mat eri
als such as i
ron are
rel
ativ
ely easy t o magnet i
se but t hei
r
a)Cal culatehow muchener gy( i
n magnet i
sm i
sonlytempor ary.
KWh)t hecookerwi l
lusei n30 Hardmagnet i
cmat eri
alssuchasst eelare
mi nuteswhenal lt
hei t
emsar e themostdi ff
iculttomagnet i
sebutdonot
usedsi multaneousl y. readi
lylosetheirmagnet i
sm.Theyusedt o
b)Howmuchwi l
li tcosttorunt he makeper manentmagnet s.
cooker dur i
ng t his time i f
elect r
icalener gy costs K2. 75 MAKI
NGMAGNETS
for1uni t
?
c)Cal culatethemaxi mum cur rent 1.STROKI NGMETHOD
thatwi l
lbecar ri
edbyt hecabl e A pi ece of met al ( steel) becomes
connect i
ng t his cooker t oa permanent l
ymagnetisedwhenpl acedneara
250Vmai nssuppl y. magnet ,butitsmagnet ism isusual lyv ery
MAGNETI SATION weak.The st eelcan be magnet i
sed mor e
Mater
ial
ssuchasi ronandst eelareattracted stronglybystr
okingi
twi thabarmagnet .The
to magnet s because t hey t hemsel ves magnetmustbemov edalongt hesteelov er
become magnet ised int he pr esence ofa andov eragaininonedirecti
ononl y.Thepol e
magnet. producedatt heendoft hestrokei salway s
theoppositeofthestroki
ngp

Themagneti ssaidt oi nducemagnet ism in

bothmet als(i
ronandst eel)andt heinduced Magnet isat
ionbystr
oki
ngcanbesi ngl
eor
polenear erthemagneti stheopposi teoft he divided.
poleatt heend oft hemagneti .
e.i nt he Single–whenonemagneti susedjustl
ike
abovedi agram theinducedpol ei sS-poleand thecaseabov e.
i
sopposi tetoN-poleoft hemagnet.I tisthe Divided–whent womagnet
sareusedinthe
att
racti
on bet ween t heseunl ikepol est hat strokingprocess.
holds each pi ece ofmet alf i
rmlyt ot he
magnet . 2.ELECTRI CALMETHOD
Ift
hest eelispulledawayf rom themagnet ,i
t Themostef fect
ivemethodofmagnet isinga
keepssomeoft heinducedmagnet i
sm,and pieceofst eelistoplaceitinalongcoi lor
i
tselfbecomesaper manentmagnet . solenoidmadeupofsev er
alhundredturnsof
Magnet ism i nduced i nt he iron is onl y conductingwi r
e,andthenpassal ar
gedi rect
tempor aryandi sv irtuall
yalllostwhent he currentthr
ought hecoilforasecondorso.
i
roni spulledawayf rom t hemagnet . Thisproducesav er
ymuchst rongermagnet
thanthestrokingmethod.
SOFTANDHARDMAGNETI
CMATERI
ALS
Magnet
ic mater
ial
s ar
e known as

©TemboJPPCDSS -64-
 thesameef fectasi nc)isproduced
whenasteelr odislef
tinthesol
enoid
whil
ethecur rentisreducedtozero.
Ana.c.currentisessent i
alforboth
methodsi
.e.inc)andd) .

ELECTROMAGNETI SM
Thet erm‘ el
ectromagnet
ism’combi nesboth
thepr oducti
onofmagnet i
cfi
eldsbymeans
ofel ectr
ic currentand the producti
on of
elect
riccurrentbymeansofmagnet icfi
elds.
Toi dentifytheNandSpol es,ther i
ght
-hand
gri
pr uleisused. USESOFELECTROMAGNETI
SM
Imagine y ourr i
ght-hand gr i
pping the coil
sucht haty ourf i
ngerspoi ntthesamewayas 1.El
ect
ri
cbel
l
theconv enti
onalcur r
entar r
ows.Yourt humb
thenpoi ntstowar dstheN- pole.
Tobeexact ,theright-handgr ipr ul
est ates
thatift hef i
nger soft her ighthandgr i
pt he
solenoidi nt he di recti
on of t he current
(convent i
onal )
,thet humbpoi ntst otheN-
pole.

DEMAGNETI SATI ON
Theprocessofr emov ingmagnet ism f rom a
magnetisknownasdemagnet i
sation.The
fol
lowi
ngar esomeoft heway st hatcanbe An el ectri
c bel l cont ains an
usedtodemagnet iseamagnet . electromagnett hatswi tchesi t
selfon
a)Heat i
ng – a magnet wi l
lbecome andof fv eryrapi dly
,mov i
ngt hebel l
demagnet i
sedi fi tisheat edst rongly hammerasi tdoesso.
because t he v i
br ati
ng mol ecular When t he bel lswi t
ch i s pr essed,
magnet s ev ent ual l
y gai n enough current fl
ows through the
energyt oov ercomet hef orceshol ding electromagnet and i t becomes
them inacommondi rection. magnet i
sed. The sof t i ron bar
b)Hammer ing–hammer ingt hemagnet (armat ure) i s at tracted t o t he
ordr oppingi tr epeat edl ymakest he electromagnet .The har merhi tst he
magnett obedemagnet ised. gongbutt heci r
cuiti snow br okenat
c)Alternati
ngcur rentmet hod–t hebest the poi nt of cont act . The
met hodt odemagnet i
seamagneti s electromagnetl oses i ts magnet ism
to connect an al ready magnet ised andnol ongerat tr
actst hear matur e.
solenoidtoanal ternatingcur rent( a.c.
) Thespr i
ngymet alst ri
pi sthenabl et o
suppl y
. Hol d t he magnet i n t he pullthear matureback,r emaki ngt he
solenoid and swi t
ch on t hecur r
ent. contactandsocompl eti
ngt heci r
cui t
Witht hecur rentst i
llswi tchedon,pul l again.Thi scy clei sr epeat edsol ong
outt her od( steelori r
on)al ongt he as t he bel l swi tch i s on and
axisoft hesol enoidi naneast–west continuousr ingingoccur s.
dir
ect i
on unt i
li ti sa good di stance 2.Electromagnet ism i s al so hel pf
uli n
away . The magnet becomes l
ifti
ngofscr apmet al
.
demagnet i
sed. 3.Electromagnet ism i s used i n t he
d)Stoppingt hef lowofel ectriccur rent–
©TemboJPPCDSS -65-
 ear pieceofat elephone.
4.Rel ayandci r
cuitbreakermakeuseof
elect romagnet i
sm.
5.Mi cr ophonesal soappl ythepri
nci
ple
ofmagnet i
sm.
6.Elect romagnet i
sm i s hel pf
ul i n
remov i
ng st eel splint
ers fr
om a
pat ient’
sey e.
Not
e:Thedi
rect
ionoft
hefiel
dli
nesi
sfr
om
t
heN–poletotheS–pole.

ELECTROMAGNETS Acopperwirecoi
l
edi
ntoahel
i
calshapei
s
A si mpleel ectromagneti smadeofacoi l cal
l
edasolenoi
d.
whichconsi stsofsev eralhundredst urnsof
i
nsul atedcopperwi r
e,woundr oundacor e I
ncreasingthestrengt
hofanel ectr
omagnet
madeofasof tferr
omagnet i
cmat er i
alsuch Thestrengthofanel ectromagneti ncr
eases
asi ron.Amagnet i
cfieldispr oducedwhena i
f
currenti s passed t hrough t he coil.Thi s a)Thecur r
entint hecoilincreasesi.
e.
magnet i
ses t he iron cor e,whi ch int urn increasi
ngnumberofcel ls.
producesamagnet icf i
eldaboutat housand b)The number of t urns on t he coil
ti
messt rongert hant hatfrom thecoi lalone. increases.
As t he cor e i s magnet i
call
y sof t,i ts c)Thepol esar eclosertogetheri.
e.li
ke
magnet i
sm isonl ytempor ar
y,andi sv i
rtuall
y inU–shapedel ectromagnet.
alllostwhent hecur rentthrought hecoi lis
switchedof f.El ect
romagnet saremadei na FORCEONACONDUCTORI NAMAGNETI C
varietyofshapesandsi zes.TheU- shaped FIELD
electromagnetpr oducesav eryconcent rated When a cur rent i s passed t hrough a
magnet i
cf i
eldi nt hegapbet weeni tspol e conduct or,a magnet i
cf ieldi s pr oduced.
pieces. Whenacur r
ent -carryi
ngconduct ori spl aced
i
namagnet i
cf i
eld,af orcei spr oduced.The
figure bel ow shows an exper iment t o
demonst r
atet he f orce pr oduced when a
cur r
enti spassedt hroughaconduct ori na
magnet icfield.Theconduct orint hiscasei s
al engthofst iffcopperwi re,andi ti satr ight
angl est ot hef i
eldpr ovidedbyt hemagnet .
When t he swi tch i s cl
osed,cur rentf lows
throught hewi re.Thewi r
emov esupwar ds,
i
ndi catingt hatt herei supwar df orceact ing
Magneticfiel
ds ofa barmagnetand a oni t.Ift hedi rectionofei thert hecur rentor
sol
enoid the f ield i s r eversed, t he wi re mov es
Amagnet i
cf i
eldofabarmagneti sinvi
sibl
e downwar ds.
andspreadsoutabi tli
keaspider’sweb,but Itshoul dbenot edi neachcaset hatt hefor ce
i
tcanbedet ectedandmappedout .Todo ont hewi r
eact satr i
ghtangl est obot ht he
thi
s,i
ronfil
i
ngsar esprinkl
edontoapi eceof cur r
entdi r
ectionandt hef ielddi rect i
on.The
whit
epaperpl acedont opofabarmagnet . wi r
ei s mov ed acr oss the f ield;i ti s not
Themagnet i
cf i
eldreachesoutfrom thebar at t
ractedt oei t
herpol eoft hemagnet s.
magnetandat tr
actsthepiecesofironfi
li
ngs
atadist
ance.
©TemboJPPCDSS -66-
 a)Thest rengthofthemagnet i
cfi
eld
b)Thesi zeofthecur rent
c)Thel engthoftheconductor.
Ani ncr
easei nanyoft hesethr
eepr oduces
ani ncr
easei nt hemagni t
ude(si
ze)oft he
for
ceact i
ng.

FLUX(FIELD)PATTERNS
FLEMING’SLEFT-HANDRULE The f
igure bel
ow is a si
de vi
ew oft
he
Knowingthedir
ecti
onofthecur r
entandt he magneti
cf i
eldl
inesduetothewir
eandt
he
fi
eldi
nthediagr
am, t
hedirect
ionoftheforce magnet:
canbefoundusingFlemi
ng’slef
t-
handrule:
“Ifthet humbandt hefi
rsttwof ingers
oft helefthandar ehel
datr i
ghtangl es
tooneanot her,t
heTHumbgi vest he
directi
onoft heTHr ust(thef orce)if
the Firstf i
ngerpoi nt
si nt he same
directi
onast heFieldandt heseCond
fi
ngerpoi nt
si nthesamedi r
ectionas
theCur rent.
” Themagnet i
cf i
eldli
nesduet othewi r
ear e
cir
clesandwewi l
lassumet heirdir
ecti
oni s
as shown.The dot t
ed li
nes r epr
esentt he
fi
eldli
nesofthemagnetandt heirdi
rect
ionti
the ri
ght.The result
antfiel
d obt ai
ned by
combiningbothfiel
dsisshowni nthefigure
below:

Inapplyingt her ule,remembert hefollowi ng;

a)Thedi r
ect i
onoft hef i
eldi sfrom t heN-
polet ot heS- pole.
b)Thedi r
ect i
onoft hecur rentisf rom t he
positive( +)t ermi naloft hebat teryt o Therear emor el i
nesbelow t hanabov ethe
the negat ive ( -)i .e. conv entional wire since bot hf i
elds acti nt he same
currentdi rection. dir
ecti
onbel owbuti noppositi
onabov e.Ifwe
c)The r ule appl i
es onl y wher e t he supposet heli
nesar eli
kest retchedel ast
ic,
currentandf i
elddi recti
onsar eatr ight thosebel ow wil
ltrytostraightenoutandi n
angles.Af orcest il
lact sifthecur rent sodoi ngwi llexer
tanupwar df or
ceont he
andf i
elddi recti
onsar eatsomeot her wire.
angle, buti tsdirectionismor edi ffi
cult
topr edict. ELECTROMAGNETI CI NDUCTI
ON
Magni t
ude( size)oft hef orceonacur rent- By 1821,sci enti
sts had di
scovered that
carry
ingconduct or mot i
oncouldbepr oducebypassingcur r
ent
Experi
ment s with current-carrying throughaconductorinamagnet i
cfield.Ten
conductors pl aced at r ight angl es t oa yearslater
,MichaelFaradayfoundt hatthe
magnet icf i
eld show t hatt he f orce act ing reverse was possi
ble:a cur
rentcoul d be
dependson: producedbymov i
ngaconduct orthrougha
©TemboJPPCDSS -67-
magnet i
cf i
eld. b)Usi ngast r
ongermagnet
Whenawi r
ei smov edacr ossamagnet i
c c)I ncreasingthenumberoft ur
nsint he
fi
el dasi nt henextf igure,asmal le.m.f.is coil,asthisincreasesthelengthofthe
produced i nt hewi re.Theef fecti scalled wi r
e cut ti
ng t hrough t
he magnet i
c
electromagnet icinduct ion;an e. m.f.has fiel
d.
beeni nduced.I fthewi ref ormspar tofa Allthesef act
orswi l
lmakemor e“ cut
sper
circui
tasi nt hedi agram,t hei nducede. m. f. second” .Itmustbenot edthatNOe. m.f.or
causest hecur r
entt oflow.Thecur rentcan currentisi nducedi fthemagneti sheldst i
ll
bedet ectedusi ngasensi ti
v egal vanomet er. because no magnet icf i
eldli
nes aret hen
Thei nducede. m.f
.ispr esentonl ywhi l
et he beingcut .
wireismov i
ng, andcut t
ingt hroughmagnet i
c
fi
el dli
nes.Ther eisNOi nducede. m.f.i
ft he
wireishel dstill
,norifiti smov edpar al
lelto
thef i
eld.

Itshouldbelearntt hatitisthe‘cut
ti
ng’eff
ect
thatproducest heel ectr
ici
ty.Itisobserved
thatthecurr
enti sr eversedwhent hemagnet
i
spul l
edoutoft hecoi l
.
Electr
iccurr
entpr oducedbymagnet icli
nes
The size of the i nduced e. m.f.can be off or
cecutti
ngt hecoi liscall
edani nduced
i
ncreasesby: current.The name oft he ef
fectis call
ed
a)Mov ing t he wire ata hi gher electr
omagnet i
ci nduct i
on.
speed
b)Usi ngast rongermagnet Di
rect
ionofinducedcur
rent
:Thedi
rect
ionof
c)I ncreasing t he l
ength oft he i
nducedcurr
entcanbedeter
minedbyusing
wirei nthemagnet i
cfield–f or a)Lenz’
slaw:
exampl e,by l ooping the wire “Aninducedcur
rentalwaysf
lowsina
throught hef i
eldsever
al t
imes. dir
ecti
on such t
hati topposes t
he
The abov e results ar e summed up by changeproduci
ngit.
”
Far
aday ’
slawofel ectromagnet i
cinducti
on: b)Fl
emi
ng’
sri
ght
-handr
ule:
“Thee.m.f
.inducedinaconductoris “Ifthethumbandt hef i
rstt
wof i
ngersof
dir
ectl
y pr
oportionaltothe r
ate at therighthandar eheldatr i
ghtanglest o
whichtheconductorcut
sthr
ought he oneanot herthentheseCondf i
ngergi ves
magneticf
iel
dlines.” thedirecti
onoft heinducedCurrentifthe
Fir
stf i
ngerpoi nt
sint hesamedi r
ection
Inducede. m.f.andcurr enti
nacoi l astheFi eldandt hethuMbpoi ntsint he
Ifabarmagneti smov edintoacoilane. m.f. dir
ectionoftheMot ion.”
i
si nducedi nt hecoi l
.I nthi
scasei ti sthe
magnett hatisbeingmov ed,butthemot i
on Toav oidconfusiononhowt ouseFleming’
s
sti
llcausesf iel
dl i
nest obecutbyt hewi re. ri
ght-
handandl eft-handrulesthereisneed
Thecoi lf
ormspar tofacompl etecircuit
,so toknowt hat:
acur r
entisalsoinducedwhent hemagneti s  The l eft
-hand r ul
e applies when a
mov ed.Thesi zeoft hei nducede.m. f.and curr
entcausesmot i
on.
therefore oft he induced current,can be  The r i
ght-hand rule applies when
i
ncr easedby : motioncausesacur r
ent.
a)Mov i
ngthemagnetatahi gherspeed
©TemboJPPCDSS -68-
Appl
icat
ionsofelectromagnet i
cinducti
on
a)Mov ing-coilmicr
ophone Thepr imaryi sconnectedt oalowv oltagea.c.
b)Magnet i
cr ecordi
ng (magneti
c supply.The secondar yis connect ed toa
tapesanddi sks) smal lbulb.Ascur rentflowsbackwar dsand
c)Hy droelectr
ic power stati
ons forwardsandbackwar dsthroughthepr imary,
(HEPs) i
tset supanal ter
natingmagnet i
cfieldinthe
d)Alternatorsinmostcarst ogi
ve core.Thi sinducesanal ternat
inge. m.f.and
agr eateroutputthandynamos. currenti nt he secondaryand so t he bulb
e)Bicycledy namos. l
ightsup.
Thepr i
mar yandsecondar ycoilsandcor e
TRANSFORMERS together f orm a t r
ansformer . When a
transformeri sconnect edt oana. c.suppl y,
electri
calener gyiscont i
nuousl ytr
ansf er
red
from theprimar ytothesecondar ycircuit
.

STEP- DOWNANDSTEP- UP
TRANSFORMERS
Bychoosi ngsuitablenumber soft urnsfor
Whent heswi tchi scl osed,cur rentf l
owsi n thecoi l
sofat r
ansformer,itispossi bl
et o
thepr imar yci r cuitandt hepr imar ycoi lacts maket healt
ernati
nge. m.f
.( a.
c.v ol
tage)in
ast heel ectromagnetandt hecor egui dest he the secondary dif
ferentfrom t he v ol
tage
magnet icf i
eld so t hat f i
eld l i
nes pass acrossprimary.I
notherwor ds,atransformer
throught hesecondar ycoi ltherebyi nduci ng canbeusedt ochangeort ransform ana. c.
current. vol
tagef rom onevaluet oanother.Asi mple
Soi tisachangei nt hecur rentt hroughone equation li
nks the a. c. volt
ages acr oss
coilwhi chbr ingsaboutani nducede. m.f.in pri
mar yandsecondar ycoil
sandt henumber
the ot her . The ef f
ect i s cal led mut ual ofturnsoneach.
i
nduct i
on. Mut ual i nduction has many
applications,i ncl udingt hehear tpacemaker , Secondar
yvolt
age = No.ofsecondar
y
carignit i
onsy st em andt ransformer s. tur
ns
Whent hecur renti sst eadyandt hemagnet i
c Pri
maryvolt
age Numberofpr
imar
y
fi
eldunchangi ng,noe. m.f.isinducedi nt he tur
ns
coil.Thi smeanst herei sneedt oswi tchon I
nsy mbol
s, VS = NS
andof ft heel ect r
omagnetcont inuousl yso VP NP
that t her e i s cut ti
ng and r e-cutting of At r
ansfor
meri ssai
dtobeast ep-downi fi
t
magnet icfieldsont hesecondar ycoi lthereby hasf ew t
urnsinsecondarythaninpr i
mar y
,
i
nduci ngane. m. f.mucht hesameef fectcan andt hesecondar
yorout putvolt
agei sless
be pr oduced mor e si mpl y by passi ng thanthepri
maryorinputvol
tage.
alt
er natingcur rent( a.c.)throught hepr imar y
.
Unlikedi rectcur rent(d. c.)
,a.c.i
schangi ngal l Ast ep-
uptransfor
merhasmor eturnsi
nt he
thet i
me. secondaryt
hani nthepr
imar
y,andtheoutput
vol
tageisgreatert
hanthei
nputvolt
age.

Thecir
cuitsymbol
sforst
ep-
downandst
ep-
uptr
ansformersar
egi
venbel
ow;

©TemboJPPCDSS -69-
 NS = 1
NP 23
100= 1
NP 23
NP= 23x100
NP= 2300t urns
c)Whatisthecur r
entint hepr i
maryif
t
hetransfor
meri s100% ef fici
entand
t
hecurrentint heanswer i
ngmachi ne
i
s2A?
VPxIP =V SxIS
230VxI P =10Vx2A
Ifnoener gyi swastedinat r
ansformer,al
l
IP =10Vx2A
thepower( energypersecond)suppli
edt o
230V
the pr i
mary wi l
l be deli
ver
ed by t he
IP =0. 09A
secondary. As power i s calculat
ed by
multi
plyi
ngv olt
agebycurr
ent,
Example2:
Pri
mar yvolagexpr
t i
marycurrent=
Theprimaryoft hetransf or
meri sconnected
secondaryvolagexsecondar
t ycur
rent
toana.c.supply,andt hesecondar ytoabulb
rat
edat12V36W.Ther eare4000t urnson
I
nsy
mbol
s: VP xI
P =VSxI
S
thepri
maryand200ont hesecondar y.Ift
he
bulbi
sdeliver
ingitsrat edpower,find
Tr
ansf
ormersther
efor
etr
ansf
orm cur
rentas
a)Thesuppl yvoltage
wel
lasvol
tage.
VS = NS
VP NP
Anotherrel
ationshi
pi sbetweenthecur
rent
s
12V = 200
andnumberoft ur
ns:
VP 4000
NS=IP
VPx200=12Vx4000
NP IS
VP =12Vx4000
NS =numberoft urnsinthesecondary
,IP=
200
curr
entinpr i
mar y,NP =numberoft ur
nsin
VP =240V
pri
maryandI S=c urr
entinsecondar
y.
b)thecurrentthrought heprimary
VPxI P= VSxIS
TRANSFORMERCALCULATI ONS
240VxI P = 36W
Example1:
At r
ansformerst epsdownt hemai nssuppl
y
IP =3 6W
fr
om 230Vt o10Vt ooper ateananswer i
ng
240V
machine.
=0. 15A
a)What i s t he turns r ati
o of the
c)thepowert akenfrom t
hesuppl y
,ift
he
transformerwi ndings?
transf ormeri s100%effi
cient.
Pr i
mar yvolt
age( VP)=230V
Secondar yv olt
age( VS)=10V
Powert akenf rom thesuppl yisthe
Tur nsrati
o=VS = NS
sameast hepowerdel i
v er
edt othe
VP NP
bul b.
NS = 10V
Ther efore,Power=36W
NP 230V
Or
NS = 1
P=IV
NP 23
P=0. 15Ax240V
b)How manyt urnsareont hepr i
maryi
f
P=36W
thesecondar yhas100t urns?
©TemboJPPCDSS -70-
 iv. Thepowert akenf ormt he
WORK: supply
a)Thest ep- upt ransf ormerhasani nput v. Thepowerdi ssi
pat ed( wasted
suppl yof20Vanddel i
v ersanout put asheat)intheresistor.
of250V.Thi st ransf ormeri s80% e)A6V, 12W bulboperatesf rom a
efficientandt hesecondar ycoi l i
s transf
ormerconnect edtoa240Va. c.
connect edt oa250V, 100W bul b. supply.I
fthereare8000t urnsonthe
Wor koutt hef ollowi ng: primary,howmanyt urnsar et her
eon
i
. t hei nputpoweri nt hepr imar y thesecondary?Whati sthecur r
entin
circui t theprimary?(Assumet hatt he
ii
. t hesecondar ycur r
ent transf
ormeris100%ef f
icient.
)
iii
. t het ur nsr atio
iv. i fther ear e50t ur nsi nthe
pr i
mar ycoi l,howmanyt ur ns
ar et her ei nt hesecondar ycoi l? EFFECIENCYOFATRANSFORMER
b)At ransf ormerhasani nputofv ol tage Atransformerasamachi ne,thei nputpower
of240Va. c.andacur rentof10/ 3A. ofthetransfor
meri salwaysgr eat ert
hanthe
Thev ol tagei sst eppeddownt ol ight outputpower .A measur eoft hel ossesof
an80Vbul bnor mal ly,usi ngacur rent anymachi neisgivenbyt heefficiency,whi
ch
of9A.Wor koutt hef ollowi ng: i
sdef i
nedas:
i. Theout putpoweri nt he %Ef f
ici
ency=out putener gyx100
secondar y i
nputenergy
i
i. Thet urnsr at io %Ef f
ici
ency=out putpowerx100
ii
i. Thei nputpoweri nthepr imar y i
nputpower
iv. Theef fici encyoft he
transf ormer . ENERGYLOSSESI NATRANSFORMER
c)i.Cal cul at et henumberoft urnson (CAUSES OF LOSS OF EFFI CI ENCY I NA
thesecondar yofast ep- down TRANSFORMER)
transf or mer , a)Ther esi stanceoft hewi ndi ngs( coils):
whi chwoul denabl ea12Vbul bt o As t he coi ls hav e some r esistance,
beusedwi tha230Va. c.mai nspower ,i
f they gi ve of fheatwhen a cur rent
therear e460t urnsont hepr imar y. flows t hrough. Sol ution: Coi l
ii
.Whatcur rentwi llflowi nt he resist ancei skeptasl ow aspossi ble
secondar ywhent hepr imar ycur rentis bymaki ngt hecoi lsf rom t hickwi re.
0.10A? Lar ge t ransf or mer s hav et o be oi l
-
Assumet her ear enoener gyl osses. cool edt opr ev entov er heat i
ng.
d)At ransf ormerhasapr imar yof6000 b)Eddycur r
ent s:Thei roncor eisi nt he
turnsandasecondar yof150t urns. changi ngmagnet icfieldoft hepr imar y
,
Thepr i
mar yi sconnect edt oana. c. andcur rents, callededdycur r
ents, are
suppl yof240V.A3Ωr esistori s inducedi ni t( sincei ti saconduct or )
connect edacr osst hesecondar y. whi chcauseheat ng.Sol
i ution:Eddy
Dr awaci rcui tdi agr am t oshowt he cur rentsar er educed bymaki ng t he
abov ear rangement .Assumi ngt hat cor ef rom t hin sheet s ofsof ti ron
thet ransf or merhasanef ficiencyof whi char einsul at edf rom eachot her
100%, calcul at e sot hatt heirt otalr esist ancei shi gh.A
i
. Thev ol tageacr osst her esi stor cor emadei nt hiswayi ssai dt obe
ii
. Thecur rentt hr ought her esi stor lami nat ed( lay ered) .
iii
. Thecur renti nt hepr imar y c)Leakageoff ieldl i
nes( fluxl eakage) :
circui t Al lt he f i
eldl i
nes pr oduced by t he
©TemboJPPCDSS -71-
 primar ymaynotcutt hesecondar y,
especi allyift hecor ehasanai rgapor
i
s badl ydesi gned.Thi sr esul tsinto
l
ossofener gy .Soluti
on:Foral lthe
fl
uxgener atedbyt hepr i
mar yt opass
through( cut)t hesecondar yt hereis
need f or a good desi gn f or the
transf ormer . Thi s is achi ev ed by
wi nding t he pr imary on t op oft he
secondar yandhav i
nga‘ closed’i ron
cor e.
d)Hy ster esislosses( magnet isat i
onand
demagnet i
sat ion): The magnet i
c
fi
el di
ngt hecor ei sinonedi rect i
on50
ti
mes/ second and i nt he opposi te
direction 50 ti
mes/ second.
Consequent ly t he domai ns ar e
cont i
nual lychangi ngtheiral ignment.
Theener gyneeded t o effectt hi
si s
takenf rom t hei nputenergy( pr imary).
Sol ut
ion: t hese ener gy l osses ar e
reducedbymaki ngcoref rom asof t
magnet i
cmat erialsuchasi r
onwhi ch
magnet i
sesanddemagnet iseseasi ly.

TOPIC:ELECTRI
CITYAND
ELECTROMAGNETI CI
NDUCTI
ONI
I

THEBANDTHEORY
Materi
alsbehav ediff
erentl
ywheni tcomes
toconductingelectri
cit
y.
a)Met all
ic substances arevery good
conduct orsofel ectr
icit
ye.
g.copper
met al.
b)I nsulators e.
g.wood orgl asses do
notconductel ectri
cit
y.
c)Howev er, material
s cal
led
semi conductors show pr opert
ies
©TemboJPPCDSS -72-
 inter
medi atet hose of met als and b)Semi conduct or
sconductwhensome
insul
ators.They conductel ect
ri
cit
y energy( voltage)issuppl i
ed so that
buttheyar enotv erygoodconduct or
s. electrons ar e promot ed fr
om t he
Bandt heoryexplainswhyt hesubstancesin valencebandt otheconduct i
onband.
suchaway . Theener gygapbet weent hev alence
Inatoms,someshel lscont ai
nelectr
onsand bandandt heconduct i
onbandi snot
theyarecall
edv alenceshel l
sororbit
als. toolar ge.
Howev er,there are some shel lst hatare c)Insulatorsdo notconductel ectri
cit
y
emptyandt hesear ecal l
edempt yshellsor because of a l arge energy gap
orbi
tal
s.Forexampl et hediagram oflit
hium between t he v al
ence band and t he
atom below showsbot hempt yandv al
ence conduct ionband.I tisv er
ydiffi
cultto
orbi
tal
s. promot eel ectr
onsf rom thev alence
bandt otheconduct ionband.

Allthi
sexpl
anat
ioni
swhatbandt
heor
yis
about.

ELECTRONI CS
El
ectr
onicsi sbei ngusedmor eandmor ein
When at omsbecomebonded,t hev alence ourhomes,f act
ories,off
ices,schools,banks
orbital
sofal lat omsi nteracttof orm new e.
t.
c.The dev el
opmentofsemi conductor
valenceor bit
al s.Howev er,thesesti
llremain devi
ces such as t ransi
stors has given us
to each at om and t heyf orm the valence among ot her things, automat i
c banki ng
band( sincet heyar emany ). machines, l aptop comput ers, comput er
The empt y or bital
s i nt
eract to f or
m gamese. t
.c.
delocalised or bitals. These or bi
tal
s ar e
availabletoal latomsandt heyarecall
edt he SEMI CONDUCTORS
conduct i
onband. Semiconduct ors, of whi ch si l
ica and
Int ermsofener gy,theconduct i
onbandi s germanium ar et he t wo bestknown,ar e
highert hant hev alenceband. i
nsulatorsi ft
heyar ev erypur e,especi all
yat
Not e:Foranel ectront omov eorconducti t l
ow t emper atures. Thei r conduct i
v it
y
mustbei nt heconduct ionband.St udyt he i
ncreasesathi ghertemper atures.Thi si st he
foll
owi ngf i
gur es. oppositet othecasewi thmet als.Inmet als
the number of el ectrons av ai
lable f or
conductioni .
e.t ocar rycur rent,isf i
xed.As
the temper aturei ncreases t he resi stance
i
ncreasesduet oi ncreasedv ibrati
onoft he
atomsmaki ngel ectr
onf lowmor edi fficult.In
semiconduct or
s,r aising t he t emper ature
causesel ectr
onst oshakel ooseandt hust he
abil
i
ty of a semiconduct or t o conduct
i
ncreases wi tht emper ature.Consi dert he
bondinginsi l
iconi nthef i
gurebel ow:
a)Metals are good conduct ors of
el
ectri
cit
ybecausei tiseasy(needs
l
essener gy)topr omoteanelect
ron
fr
om t he valence band t o the
conducti
on band t her
eis no gap
betweenthetwobands.

©TemboJPPCDSS -73-
 Theseatoms,whichdonotgi
veanel
ectr
on
toacov al
entbondareknownasacceptor
atoms.

Thest abi lit

yofanel ementdependsont he
numberofel ectronsi nt heout ershel l
;the
most st abl e st ruct ures hav e eight out er
electrons.Si l
i
conhasf ourout erelect ronsi n Theaccept oratom ( Al)int hef i
gur eabov e
i
tsv alenceshel l
.Thi sat om shoul dgai n( or hassev enel ectr
onsi nitsout ershells.I fthe
mor ecor rectlyshar e)f ourel ectronsi ni ts gap orhol eisf ill
ed byone el ectron t he
outershel lt or each t he nextmostst able str
uctureoft heshel lbecomesst able.Thi s
structur e.Each of t he f our sur rounding posit
ive ‘ hole’ readily accept s el ect rons
atomsshar esoneel ectronwi tht hecent ral whichmaybemov i
ngi nthesi l
icon.Howev er
,
atom,whi cht husappear st ohav east able theelect ronsmov ef rom at om toat om,and
outershel lofei ghtel ectrons.Eachoft he anelect ronwhi chmov esintot he‘hole’must
fouror iginalel ectronsf ormswhati scal l
ed l
eavea‘ hol e’i
ntheat om ithascomef rom.
cov alentbond wi th one el ectron f rom a Thereforet hepositive‘hole’appear stomov e
surroundi ngat om. thr
ought hemat erialintheopposi tedi rection
Ther efor e,pur e sili
con has al lt he out er, totheel ect ronmov ement .Thisimpr ov est he
valence el ectrons i ni t
s at oms l inked by conduct ivit
yoft hesi li
consi ncealumi ni um is
cov alentbonds;t herear enof reeel ect r
ons acceptingel ectr
onsandi tisknownasan
and so pur e si l
icon i s a good i nsulator. acceptori mpur ity
.
Howev er,asl ightr i
sei nt emper ature‘ breaks’
someoft hebonds,byi ncreasingtheki netic Elementswhi ch havef iveel ectronsint he
ener gy of t he el ectrons unt ilthey hav e outershelloft heiratomse. g.phosphor ous
sufficient ener gy t o br eak l oose.These given-typepr operti
est ot hesi li
con.These
electrons ar ef r
ee t o mov e and hence atoms ar e call
ed donorat oms,and each
const ituteanel ectriccur rent. formscov al
entbondswi thfoursur r
ounding
atomsofsi li
con.Oneoft hedonorat om’s
Theconduct i
vityofsemiconductor scanbe outerelectr
onsi sheldv eryl ooselybyt he
great
ly i ncr
eased by addi ng t i
ny but protons int he nucleus.Thi s electron can
contr
olled amount s of cer t
ain ot her easilybedetachedbyt hermalener gyorbya
substances(call
ed‘i
mpur i
ti
es’
)byapr ocess smal lpotentialdi f
ference appl ied tot he
knownasdopi ng.Theycant henbeusedt o sil
icon.
make di odes,t r
ansist
ors and i ntegr
ated
ci
rcui
ts.

P-typeandn- typemat eri

al(Semiconductor s)
Nat ure oft he doping elementdet ermines
whet herthesemi conductorbecomesp- type
(positi
vetype)orn- type(negati
ve).Element s
whichhav ethreev alenceelect
ronsi nout er
shell
soft heiratomse. g.aluminium,bor on,
givep-typepr operti
estothesemi conduct
or s.

©TemboJPPCDSS -74-
The at oms oft he i mpur ityincrease t he t
hep-
type
conduct i
v i
ty oft he si l
icon by pr ov i
ding a
maj ori
t yofposi tivechar gecar r
iers( ‘hol
es’) Ifthep. d.i
sappl i
edint heoppositedirecti
on
i
nt he p- type si li
con and a maj orit
y of asi nf igur
ebel ow,thecur rentthrought he
negat i
v echar gecar riers( el
ectr
ons)i nt hen- crystali sv irt
ually zero.Thi sis because
typesi li
con. elect
r onsandhol esarepul l
edawayf rom the
Itmustbest ressedt hatbot hp-typeandn- depletionlay er,maki ng itmuchwi derand
type si li
con ar e el ectrical
ly neutral.Each greatlyincreasingi t
sr esi
stance.Thecr ystal
atom ofsi l
icon ori mpur i
tyhas an equal i
nt hiscasei ssai dtober eversebi
ased.
numberofel ect ronsandpr otonsandhence
i
sel ectricall
yneut ral.Howev er,the‘ doped’
mat erialhast heabi lityt oacceptel ectr
ons
easilyf rom cer tainsur roundingatomsort o
releaseel ectronseasi lyt otheatomsoft he
semi conduct or .

SEMI CONDUCTORDI ODE

A diodei sat wo–t erminal,one- waydev ice
which l ets cur rentpass t hrough i tin one
dir
ect i
ononl y.
Thep- nj unct iondi ode
Adi odecanbepr oducedbydopi ngacr yst al
ofpur esi l
iconsot hataj unct i
oni sf ormed
between p- type and n- type r egions.P- t
y pe
mat eri
almeet s n- type mat eri
alacr oss a
narrow l ayer cal led t he depl et i
on lay er.
Mat eri
al i
nt hisl ayerconduct sv erypoor l
y.
Thewirenear estt
hebandi sthecathodeand
Ifa pot ent i
aldi fference ( p.d.)i s applied
theoneatt heotherendist heanode.
acrosst he cr y
stalasi nt he f i
gur e below,
Thediodeconduct swhent heanodegoest o
currentf lows.Despi t
et hepoorconduct ing
theposit
ive(+)terminalofthevolt
agesuppl y
abil
ityoft hemat er ialint hedepl eti
onlay er,
andthecat hodet othenegat i
ve(-)terminal
.
thel ayeri ssonar row t hati t
sr esistancei s
Itisthenf orwardbi ased;itsresist
ancei s
l
ow.Thecr ystalint hiscasei ssai dtobe
smallandconv enti
onalcurrentpassesi nthe
for
war dbi ased.
dir
ecti
onoft hearrowoni tssymbol.

Not
ethat: I
ftheconnect
ionsaretheot herwayround,
it
i
)t hep-typemater
ialhasbeenmade doesnotconduct;i
tsresi
stanceislar
geand
posit
ive i
tisrev
ersedbiased.
i
i)thep.d.i
sassi
sti
ngt henatur
al
tendencyofel
ectronsinthen-t
ype
regi
on t o move across and fi
ll
hol
esin

©TemboJPPCDSS -75-
 Ift
hebat ter
yinthefigur
ebelowisconnected
acrossthet ransi
storasshown,t heupper
j
unct i
on becomes r everse bi
ased,so no
currentf
lows.

Adi odechangesal t
er natingcur r
ent(a.c.)to
directcur rent( d.c).Int hiswaydi odesar e
usedasRect if
iers.
Rect if
icationi st hechangi ngofal t
ernating
cur r
ent( a.c)t odirectcur rent(d.c).
Nowaday s, soli
dst atedi odesarepr efer
redt o Thef oll
owi ngfigur eshowswhathappensi fa
vacuum di odes.Thi sisbecausesol i
dst ates smal l p.d. is appl i
ed acr oss t he l ower
diodesar e j
unct i
onsot hati tisforwardbi ased.Notonl y
a)Cheapert omake doesacur rentf low throught hebase,t hi
s
b)Mor eruggedandl esseasi l
ybroken currentgr eatl
yr educest he‘cur rentblocking’
c)Muchsmal ler effectoft he upperj uncti
on.The j unct
ion
d)Useupl essel ectricalpower startstoconductandcur r
entf l
owsbet ween
emi t
ter and col l
ector.Ty pically,a smal l
TRANSI STORS currentint hebaseori nputci rcuitcancause
Tr ansi stors ar et he smal lsemi conduct or acur rentf if
tyt oahundr edt i
mesl argerto
dev ices whi ch hav e r evolutionised fl
owi nthecol lect ororoutputci rcui
t.
elect roni cs.Theyar emadebot hassepar ate
component sandal soaspar tsofi ntegrated
circui t
s( I.
Cs).
Tr ansi stors hav et hree connect i
ons cal l
ed
thebase( B)thecol lector(C)andt heemi tt
er
(E) .Int het ransistorsy mbolshownbel ow,
the ar row i ndicatest he directi
on i n whi ch
conv ent i
onalcur rentf lowst hroughi twhenC
andBar econnect edt obat ter
y+,andEt o
bat tery- . Below i s the di agram of a
transi stor ’
ssy mbol : Int hefol
lowingf i
gure,theabov ef i
gurehas
beenr edrawnusi ngt hecircuitsymbolf oran
n-p-njunction transistor
.Thear row int he
symboli ndicates t he conv enti
onalcur rent
direct
ion,thought hegener almov ementof
electr
onsi sfrom emi tt
ertobaset ocol l
ector.
Wi ththeout putandi nputci r
cuit
sj oi
nedas
shown,t he t r
ansistor is sai d to be i n
Then- p-njuncti
ont ransistor common- emi t
termode.
Basi call
y,thi
sconsist sofofasemi conduct
or
chip,usual lysil
icon,dopedsot hatt wop-n
j
unct i
ondiodesar ef ormedbackt oback.The
n-typej unctionregionsar etheemi t
terand
collectoroft he transistor;the t
hin p-t
ype
regioni sthebase.
©TemboJPPCDSS -76-
 a)Anelectroni
cswi tch:Transistorshave
many adv antages ov er ot her
el
ect
ricall
y operated swi tches.They
ar
e smal l,cheap,r eliabl
e,hav e no
movi
ng par ts, their lif
e i s also
i
ndefi
niteandt heycanswi t
chonand
of
fmi l
li
onsoft i
mesasecond.
b)Anampl ifi
erofelectricalcurrent:t
his
meanst heyincr
easecur r
ent.
Bel
ow i
s anothercircui
tdi agr
am showi
ng
Theref
ore,at ransist
orisasemi conductor
howatr
ansi
storisconnected.
devi
cet hatcontr
olscurr
entasanel ect
ronic
swit
chandcanal soampli
fycur
rentaswell
.

TOPI
C:OSCI
LLATI
ONSANDWAVES
Ther e ar et wo cur r ent pat hs t hrough a
transi st or.Onei st hebase- emi tterpat hand OSCI LLATIONS:Repeat ing mov ements are
theot heri st hecol lect or-emi tter( v i
abase) call
ed oscill
ationsorv i
brati
ons.Osci l
lat
ion
pat h. canal sobedef i
nedasat oandf rooran
Thet ransi stor ’susef ulnessar isesf rom t he upwar d and downwar d mov ementof an
factt hati tcan l inkci rcui t
s connect ed t o objectfrom it
sr estposit
ion.
eachpat hsot hatt hecur renti nonecont r
ols Exampl esofosci ll
ati
ngmat erial
si ncl
udea
thati nt heot her .Whenswi tchSi sopent he spring, pendul um, cant i
l
ever e.t.c. Each
basecur renti szer oandnei therB1norB2 oscill
ati
ng sy stem i s an exampl e oft he
l
ight sup,showi ngt hatt hecol l
ect orcur rent cont i
nuousi nterchangeofpot ent
ialenergy
i
s al so zer o ev en t hough t he bat teryi s (PE)andki neti
cener gy(KE).
cor rect ly connect ed acr oss t he col l
ector-
emi tt erpat h.Whenswi t
chSi scl osed,base CHARACTERI STICS OF OSCI LLATI
NG
connect ed t ot hrough r esistor R t ot he SYSTEMS
posi tiv et er mi naloft hebat tery ,B2l i
ght sup Supportaspiralst eelspri
ngasbel ow and
butnotB1.Thi sshowst her ei snowcol l
ector hangamassf rom itslowerendsot hati
tis
cur rent( whi chpassest hroughB2)andt hatit str
etchedseveralcentimetr
es.Pullt
hemass
i
smuchgr eat ert hant hebasecur r
ent( whi ch ver
tical
lydownwar dsaf ew centi
metresand
passest hr oughB1, buti ti stoosmal ltolight rel
easei tsothatitoscill
atesupanddown
i
t). aboveandbelowi t
sr estposit
ion.
Ther efor e,i nat ransf or mert hebasecur rent
swi tchesonandcont rolst hemuchgr eater
collect orcur rent .Resi storRmustbei nt he
circui tt ol imi tt hebasecur rentwhi chwoul d
other wi secr eat esol argeacol l
ect orcur rent
ast odest royt het r
ansi storbyov erheat ing.
In concl usi on,wi t
h a smal lcur renti nt he
circui t,a l ar ge cur renti s pr oduced i nt he
mai ncol lect or -emi tterci rcuit.

USESOFTRANSI
STORS

©TemboJPPCDSS -77-
 Onecompl eteosci l
lat
ion(cycle):
at obt oct obtoa.
Measur ingt hef requencyfofapendul um
Oneosci l
lati
oni sf
rom At oOtoBtoOtoA. Pr ocedur e:
Peri
od:The t ime taken fora syst
em to Apendul um issetupj ustasi nt hediagram
perf
or m one osci l
lat
ion. Itis nor
mall
y abov e.Thest op-clocki ssettozer or eading
expressedi nseconds. andt hependul um bobi spulledasi deabout
Period=t ot
alti
met aken 10cm t o t he ampl itude position a and
number of complet
e released.St ar tthest op-cl
ockassoonast he
osci
llati
ons bob i s r eleased. Count 10 compl ete
osci l
lati
onandst opt heclockandr ecordt he
Frequency: The number of compl et
e ti
met aken.Theexper i
mentcanber epeated
oscil
lat
ionspersecond. forsev eraltimesandcal culatet heav erage
Frequency=numberofosci l
l
ati
ons frequencyatt heend.I nal
lexper imentst he
t
otalti
met aken mass ( bob) ,l ength oft he st r
ing and t he
Frequencyi smeasured inHer tz(Hz)
.The ampl itudeshoul dnotbeal teredi .
e.shoul d
rel
ati
onshipbetweenfrequencyandperiodis: remai nt hesame.At ableofr esultscanbe
drawnasbel ow:

Time for 10 Time f or 1 Frequency

fi
sfr
equencyandTi
stheper
iod. oscil
lat
ions osci l
lat
ion (Hz)
(s) (s)
Amplitude: This i s t he maxi mum
displ
acement of an osci
ll
ati
ng from t he
equil
i
br i
um posi
ti
on (
restpositi
on).Int he
abovedi agr
am,t
heampli
tudeisfrom pointO Av
eragef
requency
toApoi ntOtoB.Ampl
it
udeisismeasur edin
mm, cm orm.
Factor s aff
ect
ing frequencies ofv i
brati
ng
(oscil
lati
ng)systems
Displ
acement:Ist hedi
stancebetweent
he
Osci l
lati
ng Fact ors Factorsnot
extr
emepositionsofanosci l
l
ati
ngbodyi
.e.
system affectingit
s af f
ectingit
s
fr
om At oB.
frequency fr
equency
Spiralspring Masson Lengthof
Av i
brat
ingpendulum
spring spri
ng
Mat eri
alof Changesi n
spring amplit
ude
Pendul um Lengt hof Small
pendul um amplit
ude
changes
Mat eri
alof Massofbob
©TemboJPPCDSS -78-
 pendulum Pr
ocedur
e:
Amplitude a)Settheappar at
usasshowni n
changes diagr
am ofpendul um abov e
withthelengt hofst r
ing75cm
Acti
vit
y1: l
ong.
Aim:Tof i
ndoutt heef f
ectofmassont he b)Setthependul um toosci l
lat
e
fr
equencyofst r
ing( pendulum) andr ecordt imet akenf or10
Materi
als: oscil
lat
ionsf or75cm lengthof
 ast ri
ng thependul um.
 differ
entmasses i .
e.20g,25g,30g c)Repeatst epb)wi thlengthsof
and35g pendulum 60cm,45cm,30cm
 ast and and 15cm r especti
vely and
 awr i
stwat chorst opwat ch recordther esultsint hetabl
e
Procedure: below:
a)Sett heappar atusasshowni n
thedi agram ofpendul um abov e. Length Time Time (T) Frequenc
b)Hangamassof20gandl etit of taken for takenfor y(f)
oscill
ateandr ecordt i
met aken pendul
u 10 1 F = 1/ T
for10osci l
l
ations. m( cm) oscill
ati
o osci l
lat
io (Hz)
c)Repeat st ep b) wi t
hout ns( s) n( s)
changi ng length ofst ri
ng f or 75
the25g,30gand35gmasses 60
respect i
vely. 45
d)Recor dy our findings i
nt he 30
tablebelow: 15

Mass Timetaken Time ( T) Frequency Fr

om yourfindi
ngsdiscusswhat
(
g) for 10 for 1 (f
), i
shappeni
ngt ot hefr
equency(f)
osci
ll
ati
on oscil
lat
ion f = 1/ T whenthelengthofthependulum
s(s) (s) (Hz) i
sdecr
easi
ng.

Discussionquest
ion
Uset hegraphbel
owt oanswert
hequest
ions
thatfol
low:

From yourfi
ndingsdiscusswhati
s
happening t o frequency when
massisi ncr
eased.

Acti
vi
ty2:
Aim:Tof indoutt heef f
ectoflengt
hont
he
fr
equency( f)ofthependulum.
Materi
als:
 ast ri
ngoflength100cm a)How manycompl eteoscil
lat
ionsare
 amass i
nthefigur
eabove?
 ast and There are t hr
ee compl ete
 1met r
eruler osci
ll
ati
ons.
 St opwat ch b)Whatist he fr
equency (
f)oft hese

©TemboJPPCDSS -79-
 oscill
ati
ons? decr
easeswi
tht
imeasshowni
nthef
igur
e
Fr equency = No. of compl ete bel
ow:
oscil
l
ations
totalt
imet aken
Fr equency=3Hz
6
Frequency=0.5Hz
c)Whati sthePeri
odict i
me( T)?
Peri
od(T)=1/ f
=1/ 0.
5s
=2s
d)Whati sthemeani ngoft he( +)and( -
)
respecti
velyabov e and bel ow the 0 Work:
sign? The graph bel
ow isthatof a swi
ngi
ng
The positiv
e( +)si gn simply pendul
um.Youar er
equi
redt
oanswerthe
means t he upwar d di r
ection questi
onsthatf
oll
ow:
andthenegat iv
e( -
)si gnsimply
tel
lsusthedownwar ddir
ection
oftheosci l
lati
ngbodyi .e.the
oscil
l
ati
ngbodywasmov ingin
opposit
edi r
ecti
ons.

Idealandr ealoscil
lat
ions
Thesear eperfectoscil
lat
ionswherebybot h
potentialenergy(PE)andki neti
cenergy(KE)
are conser ved. No ener gy isl ost. The
ampl i
tude oft he oscil
lat
ing bodyr emains
constantasshowni nthefigurebel
ow: a)Whatnamei sgivent osuchoscil
lati
ng
system patt
ern?
b)Whati sthevalueoft heamplit
ude?
c)Whati stheperiodictime(T)?
d)What i s the f requency of t he
pendulum?
e)Apar tf rom a swi ngi
ng pendulum,
nameanyot herv ibrati
ngsourcethat
woul d gi
ve a si milarshape oft he
graph.
f) Commenton t hePE and KE i nt he
Howev er,i
tisnotpr acti
calt
oachiev
esucha
system.
si
tuat
ionduet o:
 airresistance WAVES
 f r
ict
ionatt hepivotandwherethebob Energy can be sentf rom one pl ace to
isconnect edtot hest
ri
ng anotherbymeansofwav es.I
nev erycase,
 gr avi
tati
onalforceonthebob thewav estravelf
rom asour cetodetectoror
receiv
er .Someoft heexampl esofwav es
Dampedosci l
lati
ons i
ncludesound, li
ght,
r adiowavese.t
.c.
Theseareoscill
ati
onswherebybothpot enti
al Defini
tion:
and kinet
ic energies are not conserved. A wav e can be def ined as a di
sturbance
Thereis energyl oss due t
of r
icti
on.The which car r
ies energy f r
om one pl ace to
ampli
tude of t he oscill
ati
ng sy stem
©TemboJPPCDSS -80-
anotherwi
thouttr
ansf
erri
ngofmat ter
. Al ongi
tudinalwav e can be sentalong a
Awav ecanalsobedefinedasat ranspor
tof spri
ng,stret
chedoutont hebench andf i
xed
energywhichdoesnotper manentl
ydispl
ace atone end,i ft he f
ree end isrepeatedly
amedi um t
hroughwhi
chi tmightpassandi s pushedandpul ledsharply.Compressi
onsC
oft
en carri
ed by a repeated and regular (wheret he coi
ls ar
e closertogether
)and
motion. rar
efact
ionsR ( wheret hecoil
sar efarther
apart
)travelal
ongthespr i
ng.
TYPESOFWAVES
Adisturbancewhichcar r
iesenergyfr
om one
pl
acet oanotherwithouttransfer
ri
ngmatter
i
ssaidt obeapr ogressi
ve( tr
avel
li
ng)wave.
Therearet wotypes:tr
ansv er
seand
l
ongitudinal.

Transv ersewav es A soundwav e,pr oducedf orexampl ebya

Inat ransv er
sewav e,thedi r
ecti
on oft he l
oudspeaker , consi sts of a t rain of
disturbancei satr ightangl est othedi recti
on compr essions( ‘squashes’)andr aref acti
ons
oft r
av eloft hewav e.I not herwor ds,t he (‘
stretches’)i nt heai r.Thespeakerhasa
direction of mot i
on of t he par t
icles i s conewhi chi smadet ovibrateinandoutby
per pendi culartot hedi rectionofmot ionof anel ectriccurrent.Whent heconemov esout
the wav e,and t he wav ei s‘ progressive’ theai rinf r
ontiscompr essed;wheni tmov es
becauset hewav ecr estmov esforward. i
nt heai risrarefied(goes‘thinner’
).Thewav e
When t ransverse wav eis pr opagated ( i
.e. progr essest hrought heairbutt heai rasa
ener gy i s transmi tted as a wav e) t he whol e does notmov e.The ai rpar t
icl
es
par ti
cles j ust v ibrate i n a di recti
on (mol ecules)vibratebackwar dsandf or warda
per pendi culartot hedi rectionofmot ionof l
itt
least hewav epasses.
thewav e.Wat erwav esar etransversewav es.
Soar eal lty
pesofel ect r
omagnet i
cwav ese.g.
radio,TV,l aser,inf r
ar ed,visibl
el i
ght,X- r
ay s
and gamma r ays. Bel ow i s a di agram
showi ngat r
ansv ersewav egener atedi na
ropeorspr i
ngbyay ounggi rl
.

Wavecharacteristics
a)Wav el
engt h( λ)
The wav elength of a wav e,
repr
esent ed by t he Gr eek l
ett
er λ
Longi tudinalwav es (l
ambda) ,i st he di
stance between
Longi tudinalwav es aref or med when t he successive cr est
s ort roughs.Ina
particles v ibr
ate al ong t he di r
ecti
on of l
ongitudinal wav e, t he di st
ance
mot ion oft he wav e.I n ot herwor ds,ina betweensuccessi vecompr essi
onsis
progr essivelongitudinalwav et heparti
clesof thewav elengt h.
thet ransmi tti
ngmedi um v ibr atetoandf ro
alongt hesamel i
neast hati nwhi chthewav e
i
st rav ell
ingandnotatr i
ghtangl est oitasin
at r
ansv ersewave.

©TemboJPPCDSS -81-
 g)Crestsandt r
oughs
I
nt het r
ansver
sewav ediagram,t
he
uphilli
sknownast hecrestandwell
belowt heequil
ibr
ium i
sknownasthe
tr
ough.

WAVEPROPERTI
ES

a)Reflect
ion
Thisist hesendi ngbackorbounci ng
b)Fr equency( f) back of a wav e.Li ke l
ight,wat er
The f requency fi st he numberof wav esarer eflect
edwhenanobst acle
compl et e wav es gener ated per i
spl acedi nt heirpath,andt hesame
second.Af r
equencyofawav ei sal so l
awsofr ef
lect i
onappl yi.
e.angl eof
the number of cr ests passi ng a i
ncidence ( i)i s equalt o angle of
chosenpoi ntpersecond.Fr equencyi s refl
ecti
on( r).Thef i
gur ebelow shows
measur edi nHer t
z( Hz)i .e.numberof the refl
ection of wat er wavefronts
compl et e cy cles (wav es) /second or uponf all
ingonamet alstri
pwhi chi s
vibrations/ second.I nal ongi t
udi nal placedatanangl e.
wav e,t he numberofcompr essions
producedpersecondi st hef requency
f. i t must be not ed t hat t he
frequenci es of t he wav e and i ts
sour cear eequal .
Frequency=1/ peri
od
f=1/ T
c)Speed( v)
The speed v of t he wav ei st he
distancemov edbyacr estoranypoi nt
ont hewav ein1second. b)Ref racti
on
d)Ampl itude Thisi sthebendi ngofawav e.Li ke
Theampl itudei sthehei ghtofacr est l
ight ,wat erwav esunder gor efract ion
ort he dept h ofa t rough measur ed (bendi ng)whent heyar esloweddown.
from t he undi sturbed ( equi li
bri
um) Wat erwav est rav elmor eslowlyi fthey
posi t
ionofwhati scar ryingt hewav e. entershal lowerwat er,sot heycanbe
Ingener al,ampl it
udei st hemaxi mum refractedi nr ippl et ankbypl aci nga
distanceapoi ntmov esawayf rom i ts pieceoff latpl ast ici nt hebot tom of
restposi ti
onwhenawav epasses. thet raytor educet hedept h.
e)Di spl acement Whent hewav esent ertheshal lower
Thisi st he di stance mov ed by a wat ert her ei s no change i nt hei r
vibratingobj ectorosci l
lat i
ngobj ecti n frequency( as thi s depends onl yon
ast ateddi rection. thef r
equencyoft hesour ce/vi
br ator .
f) Per i
od( T) Ther educt ioni nspeeddoeshowev er
Aper iodi st het i
met akenf orone causear educt ioni nwav elengthλa
compl et ewav e. factwhi ch emer gesi fy ou consi der
PeriodT=1/ f theequat ion:speed( v )=frequency( f)
Int heabov edi agram,onecompl et e xwav el
engt h( λ)wi thf requencykept
wave const ant.Ast hewav efr
ont scloseup
i
sf rom poi ntAt hroughBt oC. oneachot her,thedi recti
onoft rav el
©TemboJPPCDSS -82-
 oft
hewav eschanges.Li
keli
ght
,water
waves bend intowards t
he nor
mal
whentheylosespeed.

d)I
nt erference
Thisi st he over
lapping ofset s of
wav
es.
I
ft woi denti
calsetsofwav est r
avel
throught hesamer egionofwat er
,they
c)Diffraction may , dependi ng on t heir phase,
Thisi st hebendingofwav esast hey rei
nfor ceeachot herorcanceleach
passt hr oughagap. otherout .The ef f
ecti s known as
Somet hing is obser ved when t wo i
nter ference.
obst acleswi thanarrow gapbet ween Whent wosetsofcont inuousci r
cular
them i nt hepat hofpl anewav esar e wav escr ossinaripplet ank,apattern
placedi nar ippl
etank.Wav espassi ng l
iket heonebel owisobt ained.
through t he gap spread outi n all
directi
ons and t he wav efronts
produced ar e cir
cular . Thi
si s an
exampl e of an ef fect known as
diffr
act ion–t hebendi ngofwav esas
theypassar oundobst acles.

Atpoi ntwher e a crestf rom one

source,S1,ar r
ivesatt hesamet i
me
asacr estfrom theothersource,S2,a
bi
ggercr estisformedandt hewav es
Diff
racti
on i s only signifi
cantift he aresaidtobei nphase.Atsuchpoi nts
sizeofthegapi scompar ablewiththe wavesar esaidt obei nphase.When
wav el
engthoft hewav es.Thef i
gure wavesar einphasei tmeanst hereis
below shows what happens when constructi
veinterf
erence.
plane wav es pass t hrough a much
wideropeni ng.Thewav escont i
nuei n
their original di r
ect i
on and t he
wav efr
onts r emai n st r
aight. Some
diff
racti
ondoesoccuratt heedgesof
the wav e‘ beam’ ,butt he eff
ecti s
sli
ght.Inotherwor ds,somespr eading
Atpoi ntswher eacr estandat r
ough
occursbuti tislessobv i
ous.
arri
vet oget
her,thewav esareexactl
y
outofphaseandt heycancelout(i
f
thei
r ampl i
tudes ar e equal
).When
wav es are out of phase t her
ei s
destructi
veinterf
erence.

©TemboJPPCDSS -83-
 =350m/s
250Hz
=1.
4m
Wavel
engt
his1.
4m.

Work:
a)Ifsome wat erwav es ar
ef ound to
hav e a wavelengt
h of2cm and a
frequencyof10persecond,wor kout
thespeedoft hewaves.
b)Thel i
nesbelow arecrestsofstrai
ght
WAVEEQUATION
ri
pples:
Thespeedofawav eandit
sfrequencyand
wavel
engt
h ar
elinked bysi
mple equati
on
knownasawaveequati
on.

Speedofawav e=f equencyxwav

r elength
v=fxλ
The equati
on impli
es thatthe higherthe
fr
equency of a wav e t he smaller it
s
i
. Whati st hewav elengthoft he
wavelengt
h.This equati
on appli
es to any
ri
ppl es?
wave.Thewav espeedismeasuredininm/ s,
i
i
. I frippleAoccupi ed5seconds
i
ff r
equency is measur ed in Hz and
agot heposi t
ionnow occupi ed
wavelengt
hinm.
by r ipple F, what i s t he
frequencyoft heripples?
Examples:
ii
i
. Whati st hespeedoft her
ipples?
a)Calcul
atethespeed ofa waveif4
c)Thewav ecr est sseeni nar i
ppl
et ank
completewavesareproduced ev
ery
are5mm apar t,andt hef r
equencyof
secondandthewavel
engt
his2m.
thevibratori s10Hz,whati sthewav e
Sol
uti
on: speed?I fthef requencyoft hevibr
ator
Fr
equencyf =No.ofcomplet
ewav
es=4
i
sdoubl ed,whatt henist hespaci ng
t
imetaken 1s
betweent hecr ests?
=4Hz
Wavelengt
hλ =2m
Speedofawav
e=fxλ
LI
GHT
=4Hzx2m
Defi
nit
ion:
=8m/ s
Li
ghtisaform ener
gy.
b)Avibr
at i
ngt uni
ngfor
kproduces500
Pr
oper
tiesofli
ght
wavesev erytwoseconds.I
fthespeed
a)Reflect
ion:
ofsoundi s350m/ s,
thenwor koutt
he
Thisisthesendingbackofli
ght.This
wavelengthofthesoundwav e.
isdonewhenar ayofli
ghtstri
kesa
Sol
uti
on: planesur f
ace.Thelightisrefl
ected
backatt hesameangleastheinci
dent
Fr
equencyf =No.ofcomplet
ewav
es=500
ray.
t
imetaken 2s
=250Hz

v=fxλ
λ=v /f
©TemboJPPCDSS -84-
 The colours arei nthis order:red,
orange,yel
low,green,bl
ue,indigoand
vi
olet(ROYGBIV).
A pure spectrum ist he one i
n whi ch t
he
colour
sdonotov erl
ap,ast heydowhena
pri
sm alonei sused.Itneedsalenst ofocus
eachcolourasshowni nthefi
gurebelow:
Inci
dentr ayi st he i ncomi ng rayof
l
ight.
Reflect
edr ayi st heout goingr ayof
l
ight.
Normall i
nei st hei magi nar yl i
nethat
i
sper pendiculart ot hef r
ontsur faceof
themi r
ror.
Angle ofi nci dence ( i)i st he angle
made bet ween t he inci dentr ayand
thenormal line.
LENSES
Angle ofr ef l
ect ion (r)i st he angle
Thesear epi ecesofgl assorclearpl ast
ic
madebet weent her eflect edr ayand
with curv
ed sur faces.Lenses ar
e used i n
thenormal line.
manyopt icalinstruments.Theselensescan
b)Refracti
on:
eit
herbecur ved out wardsorinwar dsand
Thisi sthebendi ngofl ightwheni t
ther
ear etwot ypes;convexandconcav e.
changes t he medi um oft raveli.e.
from airt o wat er.The r ay bends
Convex(convergi
ng)lens
towardsthenor mall i
newhenent eri
ng
Aconv exlensistheonewhi chisthi
ckerin
a denser medi um and away f r
om
the middl
et han ati t
s edges.The three
normall i
ne when goi ng i ntoal ess
diagr
amsbel ow show threeshapeswhi ch
densemedi um.
actasconvergi
nglenses.

A convexlensconver
ges(bri
ngstoget
her
)
c)Dispersi
on:
par
all
elray
sofli
ghtpassi
ngthr
ough.
Thisist hespli
tti
ngupofwhitel
ight
i
ntodi ff
erentcol
oursoft
hespect
rum
afterpassingt
hroughapr
ism.

Theli
newhi chpassessymmet rical
lyt
hrough
theopti
calcentr
eOoft helensi scal
ledthe
pri
nci
palaxi softhelens.Allr ayscloseto
and paral
lel to the pri
ncipal axis pass
thr
oughacommonpoi ntFont heaxiscall
ed
©TemboJPPCDSS -85-
thefocalpoi nt.Thedi stancef rom t heopt i
cal ofa l ens.The focallength hel
ps when
centreO oft hel enst ot hef ocalpoi ntFi s deci
di ng whi ch l
ens to use i n whi ch
knownast hefocall engt hfoft hel ens.I fthe i
nstrument .
paral
lelr ayswhi ch ar e notpar allelt ot he I
tshoul dalsobenot edt
hatthemor ecur v
ed
pri
ncipalaxi sar einci dentont hel enst hese the lens faces ar
e,the small
ert he focal
rayswillalsof ocusatonepoi ntF1whi chlies l
engthfandt hemorepowerfuli
sthelens.
dir
ectlybel ow F.Apl anepassi ngt hroughF
andF2i scal l
edt hef ocalplaneoft hel ens. IMAGEFORMATI ON( RAYDI AGRAMS)
Anypar allelbeam ofl ightr aysi ncidenton Ani mageofanyobj ectmaybel ocat edby
thelenswi l
lber efractedsoast of orma use of r ay di agrams.Ray di agr ams ar e
pointwhichl i
esont hef ocalpl ane.Thi scan alway s drawn t o scal e usi ng l ines t o
be easi l
y under stood i nt he f iguret hat representray s. Theposi tionoft heobj ect
fol
lows: decideswhatki ndofl ightraydiagr am wi l
lbe
drawnandt hei mageposi ti
on.I nfor mati
on
aboutt heimagesf ormedbyal enscanbe
obtainedbydr awinganyt wooft hef oll
owi ng
rays:
a)A r ay par al
lelt ot he princi palaxi s
whichi sr efracted( bent)thr ought he
pri
ncipalf ocusFont heothersi deof
convergi nglens.
Concav e(di
ver
ging)lens
Adi v
ergingl
ensistheonewhi chi
sthi
nnerin
themi ddlet
hanitisati t
sedge.Thefi
gures
belowshowdi v
erginglenses.

b)A ray t
hrough t
he opti
calcentr
eC
whichisundevi
ated(notref
ract
edor
bent)
.

Concavelensesdiver
ge( spreadout)parall
el
raysofli
ghtt hatpasst hroughthelens.In
otherwords,l i
ghtrays passing t
hrough a c)A raythrough t
heprinci
palfocusF
concaveordivergi
nglensarebentawayf rom whichref
racted(bent
)paral
leltothe
thepri
nci
palaxis. pr
inci
palaxis.

Allr
aysal
way sst
artf
rom t
hesamepointand
acombinati
onofanytwoofthr
eewil
lgiveus
theposi
ti
onoftheimage.

Lensesar eusedinmanydi f
fer
entkindsof
opti
calinstr
uments– cameras,tel
escopes,
microscopes,bi
nocul
arse.
t.
c.andthef ocal
l
engthfoft helensisanimport
antproperty
©TemboJPPCDSS -86-
Thei magesf ormedf rom obj ectswhi chare Afteraser i
esofexper i
ment s,posi
tionsof
placed atdi f
ferentobj ectdi stances hav e i
magesandt henat ur
eoft hei mages( with
diff
erentchar acteri
sti
cs.Thef oll
owi ngt hr
ee object splaced atdi f
ferentdist
ancesf rom
character
isticsshowt henatureoft hei mage thel ens)canbedet ermined.Thetablebelow
produceddependi ngont heobj ectdistance. summar i
sestherelati
onshipbetweenobj ect
a)Upr ightorupsi dedown distance,imagedi stanceandnat ur
eoft he
b)Real orvir
tual i
magef ormed.
c)Magni fi
ed( enl
ar ged)ordimi nished.
Object Image Nature of
MAGNI FICATION(m) distance(u) distance(
v) image
Thi
si sthecompar i
sonoft
heimageformed 1.Infini
ty AtF Real, upsi de
totheobjectandcanbecal
cul
atedusi
ngthe down,
fol
l
owi ngrel
ati
onshi
p: diminished
2.Af t
er2F Between F Real , upsi de
and2F down,
Magni
ficati
on=i magedi stance(v) or diminished
objectdist
ance( u) 3.At2F At2F Real, upsi de
Magni f
icat
ion=i magehei ght(hi) down, same
obj
ectheight(ho) size as t he
I
tshouldbenot edt hatmagni f
icati
onhasno object
uni
ts since t
he uni t
s ofdenomi natorand 4.Bet weenF After2F Real, upsi de
numeratorcanceleachot herout. and2F down,
magni fi
ed
Exampl e: 5.AtF Infi
nity Image not
Anobj ect2cm hi ghstandsont heprinci
pal formed
axisatadistanceof9cm f rom aconv
exlens. 6.Bet weenF Ont hesame Vi rt
ual,
Ifthefocall
engthoft helensis6cm, whatis andl ens side of the upright,
thepositi
on,height,magnifi
cat
ionandnature object magni fi
ed
of t he i
mage? ( Scal
e:1 cm on paper
represent
s2cm) Note:Al
ldi
stancesar
emeasur
edf
rom t
he
Sol
uti
on: l
ens.
Accordi
ngtothescal
e,onpaperhei
ghtof
object=1cm,obj
ectdi
stance=4.
5cm and THELENSFORMULA
focall
engt
h=3cm. Conv ergi
nglensescanuseal ensfor
mul
ain
ordert osolvel
ightraydi
agram pr
obl
emsby
calculati
on.Theformulai
s:

Wher e u i s
the di st
ance
from t
he
Thepositionoft hei
mage=9x2=18cm objectt
ot helens,visthedist
ancef rom the
from t
helens. i
maget ot helens,andfisthefocallength.It
Heightoftheimage =2x2=4cm f rom should be noted thatu,v and fcan be
thepri
ncipalaxi
s. measuredusi nganylengt
hunit,providedthe
Magnifi
cation =v /u=18/9=2or sameuni tisusedineachcase.
=hi/ho=4/ 2=2
The image f or
med i sr eal,upside down Example1:
(i
nvert
ed)andmagni f
ied(enlarged)
. Anobject2cm hi
ghst
andsont
hepr
inci
pal
©TemboJPPCDSS -87-
axisatadistanceof9cm f
rom aconv
exl
ens. magni
fi
cat
ion(
m)of0.
5.
Ift
hef ocall
engthofthel
ensi
s6cm, whati
s
thepositi
onandnatureoft
heimage? Wor k:
Sol
uti
ons: Bymeansofr aydi agr ams( usi ngsui table
u=9cm, f=6cm, v=? scales) or l ens f or mul a,wor k out t he
Usi
nglensf
ormula:1+1=1 fol
lowingpr obl ems:
u v f a)Anobj ect6cm hi ghpl aced18cm i n
1+1=1 frontofal ensoff ocall engt h6cm.
9 v 6 Find t he posi tion and si ze oft he
1=1–1 imagef or med.
v 6 9 b)Anobj ect3cm hi ghi spl aced24cm
1=1 away f rom a conv ex lens off ocal
v 18 length8cm.Fi ndt heposi tion,height
v=18cm andnat ur eoft hei magef or med.I fthe
Theimageisrealand18cm awayf
rom t
he objecti smov edt oapoi nt3cm away
l
ens. from t he l ens,what ar et he new
posi t
ion,hei ghtand nat ur e of t he
Example2: image?
Anupri
ghtobj
ect6cm longisplaced30cm c)Anobj ect1. 0cm hi ghst andsont he
i
nf r
ontofaconver
ginglensoff ocall
ength principalaxi sofaconv ergi ngl ensof
10 cm.by using l
ens formula,f i
nd the focall engt h 6 cm.What ar et he
posi
ti
on,si
zeandmagnifi
cat
ionoft heimage posi t
ion,hei ght ,magni ficat i
on and
for
med. nat ur
eoft hei magef or
medgi vent hat
Sol
uti
on: theobj ectdi stancei s9cm?
f=10cm,
u=30cm,hei
ghtofobj
ect(
ho)=6
cm DETERMINI
GFOCALLENGTHOFACONVEX
1+1=1 (CONVERGI
NG)LENS
u v f
1=1–1 a)Rough det erminat ion of t he f ocal
v fu l
engthofaconv er gingl ens.
1=1–1 Weuset hef actt hatr aysf r
om apoi nt
v 1030 onav erydistantobj ecti .
e.ati
nf i
nit
y,
1=1 arenear l
ypar al
lel.Sunl ightraysar r
ive
v 15 i
npar allelbeams.Usi ngt hewi ndow
v=15cm asanobj ect,y oucanf orm ashar p,
i
nv er
ted imageon a sheetofwhi te
Magnif
icati
on(m)=i magedi
stance card( acti
ngasscr een)byadj usti
ng
obj
ectdi
stance theconv ergingl ensbet weenthrough
m =15cm windowandt hescr een.
30cm
m =0.5
But m =imageheight(hi)
obj
ecthei
ght(ho)
0.5=hi
6cm
hi=0.5x6cm
hi=3.0cm
Ther
efore,theimageisfoundatadi st
ance
of15 cm,wi thahei ghtof3. 0 cm and a
©TemboJPPCDSS -88-
 b)Det ermi ningt hef ocall engthfbyt he value t o be r easonabl y sure of
planemi r
r ormet hod. focussi ng a r eali mage.I tmay be
The exper i
ment al ar rangement i s necessar yt o adj ustt he lens ini ts
shown i nt he f i
gure bel ow.A pl ane holderunt i
laci rcul arpatchofl i
ghti s
mi rrorispl acedbehi ndt hel ensanda seenont hescr een.Thenmov et he
brightobj ecti nf ront.Fori nstance,a screenunt ilashar p,inver
tedimagei s
setofi ll
umi natedcr oss-wi r
escanbe focussed on t he scr een. An
usedasanobj ectandi tsposi t
ioni s il
lumi natedwi regr idoraf lameofa
adjust ed unt i
li ts i mage appear s burni ng candl e i s sui t
able obj ect
alongsi deont hecar d.Int hi
sposi t
ion, whi chcanbef ocussedt ogiveashar p
rays of l i
ght f rom t he obj ect ar e image.
par all
elwhen t heyst r
ike t he mi rror Using a met rer uler,measur et he
andar er eflect edbackt ot helensasa objectdi st anceuf rom thecent reof
par all
elbeam.Thecr oss-wi resand thel enst ot heobj ectandt heimage
cardmar kt heposi t
ionoft hepr i
ncipal distancevf rom t hecent r
eoft helens
focusoft hel ens. tot he shar pi mage f ormed on t he
screen.Recor dt hev al
uesofuandvi n
at abl eofr esultsl iket heonebel ow.
Repeat t he exper i
ment f or mor e
valuesofu.t akingeachpai rofv al
ues
ofuandv ,cal culatet hefocallengthf
usingl ensf or mul a:
1+1=1
u v f
Hence,cal cul atet heav er
agev alueof
thef ocal l
engt hf
c)Deter mi
ning thef ocall engt
hfofa Object I
mage Focallengt h
conv exlensbyt heobj ectandi mage dist
ance distance (f
)/cm
distancemet hod. (u)/
cm (v)/cm
When a r eal,inv er
ted i mage is 70
focussed ont o a scr een using a 60
conv exlens,itsfocall engthcanbe 50
determinedusingthel ensf or
mula: 40
1+1=1
u v f Av
erage
Ani ll
uminatedobject,aconv exl
ensin
ahol derandawhi tescr eenaresetas Anotherwayoft reat
ingtheresult
sin
below: the abovet abl
ei s by pl
otti
ng 1/u
against1/v.ast rai
ghtli
negr aph i
s
obtainedandextrapolat
edasshown
bel
ow:

Ar ealimagecanbepr oducedonlyif
theobj ectdi
stanceisgreatert
hant he
focallength.Theref
ore,settheobject
distance at some sui t
able (l
arge) Ati
nter
ceptx,
1/u=x
©TemboJPPCDSS -89-
 u=1/ x
But1/ v=0, v=1/ 0→ (
infini
ty:very
verylarge)
v=i nfi
nity
Forr aysemer gi
ng f r
om t he conv ex
l
ensmeetati nfinit
y,thent heseray s
mustbe t r
avell
ing par al
lelt o each
other.Fort histohappent heobject
mustbepl acedatt hef ocalpoi ntFof
thelensandt herefore,u=f

f=1/
x(si
nceu=1/
x) Howacamer awor ks
Asal readydi scussed,aconv exl ensi sused
Atinter
cepty , tof orm asmal l
,i nv erted,r eali mageona
1/v=y pieceofphot ogr aphi cf il
m.Thef il
m, whi chi s
v=1/ y nor mal l
ykepti nt ot aldar kness,cont ainsa
But1/ u=0,u=1/ 0→ ,sou= l
ight -
sensi t
ive chemi cali .e.si l
verbr omi de.
i
nfini
ty. Wheny oupr esst hecamer abut t
on, ashut ter
This means t he objectmustbe at i
nf r
ontoft hef i
lm openst henshut sagai n,
i
nfini
ty(sof araway )l i
keast ar
.The exposi ngt hefilmt ol ightf orabr iefmoment
rayswhi char eincident(arr
ivi
ng)on only.
theconv exlensar et r
avel
li
ngparall
el Focussi ng
toeachot herandt hisappl
iesthatt
he Insi mpl ecamer ast hel ensi sf ixedandal l
i
magemustbef ormed att hefocal distantobj ects,i .
e.bey ondabout2met res,
pointF. arei nr easonabl ef ocus.I not hercamer as
v=f exactf ocussi ng ofan obj ectata cer tain
v=1/ y distancei sdonebyal teringt helensposi tion.
f=1/ y. Fordi stantobj ect s,t hef i
lm mustl ieatt he
principalf ocusoft hel ensi ft hei magei st o
OPTICALI NSTRUMENTS be i n shar pf ocus.Forcl oserornear er
Thesear einstr
ument sthatuseli
ghti
nthei
r object s,t hedi stancebet weent hel ensand
operat
ions.Thei nst
rumentsto bestudi
ed fi
lm mustbei ncreased.Thi si sachi ev edby
areacamer aandapr oj
ector
.Thehumaneye screwi ngt helensbackwar dsorf orwar dsi n
wil
lalsobel ookedatt ocompareitwitha i
ts hol der t o sui tt he par ti
cul ar obj ect
camera. distance.
The br i
ght ness oft he i mage on t he f i
lm
CAMERA depends on t he amountofl ightpassi ng
Aconv enti
onalcamer aisali
ght-t
ightboxi n throught hel enswhent heshut teri sopened
whichaconv exlensf or
msar ealimageona and i s cont r
olled byt he si ze oft he hol e
fi
lm.Thei magei ssmal l
erthantheobj ect (apertur e) i n t he di aphr agm. I n some
and nearert othe lens.The fi
lm contains camer ast hi
si sf ixedbutot her si tcanbe
chemicalsthatchangeonexposuretolight;i
t madel ar gerforadul lsceneandsmal l
erf ora
i
sdev elopedt o gi
v eanegat i
ve.From t he brightone.
negati
veaphot ographismadebypr inti
ng.
Thefollowi
ngdi agram showssomepar t
sof THEHUMANEYE
asimplecamer a: Bel
owisdi
agram showi
ngsomeoft
hepar
ts
ofahumaney
e:

©TemboJPPCDSS -90-
 screencal l
edr et
ina.
Pupi
l A bl ackhol e used t o
admi tlight.
Cor
nea Forms a tough,
transpar ent and
protectiv eout ercov er
to t he ey e. Some
refracti
on t akespl ace
as light passes
throughi t
.
Ret
ina Found on t he bl ack
Howt hehumaney ef unctions i
nner sur f
ace of t he
Likeacamer a,t heey eusesaconv exl ens ey eand i tiscov ered
sy stem t opr oducear ealinvert
edi mageof wi t
h l ight sensi ti
ve
anobj ecti nfrontofi t.Ani magei sfor medon cellst hatmake up a
ther etinaoft heey ebysuccessi ver ef r
action screen wher ei mages
att hecor nea, aqueoushumour ,
thel ensand canbef or med.
thev i
treoushumour .El ectri
calsignal st hen Ci
l
iar
ymuscl
es Thei rjobi st ochange
trav elal ongt heopt i
cner vetothebr ai ntobe the shape oft he ey e
i
nt er preted. l
ens,sot hatl i
ghtr ays
Obj ect satdi fferentdi stancesar efocussed entering t he ey e ar e
byt heci l
iarymuscl eschangi ngt heshape madet ocr ossont he
and si ze oft he l ens,hence so t he f ocal reti
na.
l
engt h of t he l ens – a pr ocess cal l
ed Opt
icner
ve Thei magef ormedon
accommodat ion. ther eti
nai spassedon
Accommodat ioni st heabi l
it
yoft heey et o tot he br ain by t he
focusl i
ghtf rom obj ects,placedatdi ff
erent opticner v
e.
dist ances,ont ot her etinawher et heycanbe
seencl ear lyandshar ply . SI
MILARI
TIESANDDI
FFERENCESBETWEEN
The l ens f attens ( thickens)t ov iew near ACAMERAANDANEYE
obj ects,andt heey el enshasashor tfocal
l
engt h.Thei rishasacent ralhole,thepupi l, SI
MILARI TIES
whose si ze decr eases i n brightl i
ghtand a)Aney eusesal ightsensi ti
ver eti
naas
i
ncr easesi ndi ml i
ght .Excessivebr ight ness i
t sscr eenandacamer ausesal i
ght
can damage t he ey e. The t able bel ow sensi t
ivefi
lm asitsscr een.
summar isest hef unct i
onsofsomet hepar t
s b)Aney ehasaconv ergi nglensanda
oft hehumaney e. camer ahasaconv ergingl ensalso.
c)I nsidesur f
aceofaney eisbl ackjust
Par
toft
heey
e It
suse( functi
on) thesameasi nacamer a.
I
ri
s The iri
s cont rol
st he d)Thei ri
scont r
olslightent eri
ngt heey e
amount of l ight andt heshut t
er/di
aphr agm.
enter
ingt heey e.Ina e)Bot huselightintheiroper ati
ons.
darkr oom,t he pupil
automaticall
y gr ows
l
argert ol eti n mor e DI
FFERENCES
l
ight. a)The f ocallength of t
he eyelens
Ey
elens Used by t he ey et o changes whi
let hatofa camerais
focus a shar p and fi
xed.
i
nv er
ted image on a b)Thepupi l(hole)oftheeyenormall
y
©TemboJPPCDSS -91-
 opens whi l
e the apertur
e of the muchlightaspossi
bleont
otheobject(sl
i
de)
camer aisclosedexceptwhenpi
cture soastoi l
l
uminatei
tverywel
l.Araydiagr
am
i
sbei ngtaken. can be drawn t
o show how the i
mage is
c)Theey ehasaf ixedimagedi
stance for
med.
whil
e t he camer a has an i
mage
dist
ancet hatchanges.

PROJECTOR
Apr ojectorf ormsar ealimageonascr eenof
asl i
dei nasl i
depr oj
ector,orofaf il
mi na
cine-projector.Thei magei sl argerthant he
slideorf rameoff i
lm andi sf ur
theraway
from t he l ens. I ti s usual l
y so hi ghly Themagni fication( m)oft hei mageont he
magni fied t hat v er
y st rong but ev en screeni s
i
lluminat i
onoft hesl i
deorf ilmi sneededi f m =imagehei ght; m =v
the image i s al so to be br ight.Thisi s obj ectheight u
achievedbydi rect i
nglightfrom asmal lbut i
nor dertoi ncreaset hemagni fi
cationofthe
power fullampont othe‘object’bymeansof i
mageont hescr een,theremustbe:
a concav e mi rrorand a condenserl ens a)a decr ease i n object
sy st
em. height
b)an i ncrease i n i
mage
height
To do t hi
si ti s necessar yt o mov et he
projectionlensnear ert otheobj ect(sl
ideor
fi
lm)ort heobj ectnear ert ot hepr oj
ecti
on
l
ens.Anot herwayi sbymov ingt hescreen
awayf rom thepr ojectionlens.Eachoft hese
acti
onswi l
li ncreasevanddecr easeu,and
soincr easem.
Inapr ojectort heobj ect(sli
deorf i
lm)must
be inv erted t o give an upr i
ghti mage and Anot hert ypeofpr oj
ect orinf airlycommon
must be bet ween 2F and F f r
om t he usei neducat i
oni stheov erheadpr ojector
projectionlens. (OHP) .Thisconsi stsofaquar tz-
hal ogenl i
ne-
Thepr ojectionl ensi sal ensofl ongf ocal fi
lamentl ampsi tedatt hecent r
eofcur vature
l
engt h and i tsf unct ion ist o pr oduce a ofaconv ergingmi rr
orsucht hatl i
ghtgoes
focussed,magni fied,r ealandupr i
ghti mage directl
yf r
om t hel ampandbyr eflecti
onf rom
(whenobj ecti sinver ted)ont hescreen. themi r
rort oaspeci alt ypeofl enscal l
eda
Thel amp( l
ightbul b)i susedt oil
lumi natet he Fresnell ens.The f i
gur e below shows t he
object( sli
deorf il
m) .Butmuchl i
ghtf rom t he mai ncomponent sofanOHPi nuseandar ay
l
ampi slostbecausesomer aysdonotst r
ike diagram oft hef or mationoft heimageont he
andl ightupt heobj ect .Thelightrayst hatar e screen.
dir
ect edawayf r
om t heobj ectar ether efore Inusi nganOHPt het eacherorl ecturercan
refl
ect ed back t owar ds the objectby t he wr i
teordr aw ont heacet atesheetwi thout
concav emi rror. turning away f rom t he audi ence and t he
In ordert o concent r
atet hel i
ghtf rom t he i
magei spr ojectedont oawhi tescr eenwhi ch
l
ampupont heobj ect,apai rofconv erging i
sal sof acingt heaudi ence.
l
ensesofshor tfocall engthcal l
edcondenser
i
sused.Thef unctionoft hecondenseri st o
conv erge and condense ( concent rate)as
©TemboJPPCDSS -92-
 Prot onsandneut r
onsi nt hecent ralnucl eus
arecol l
ectivelycallednucl eons.Eachpr oton
andneut roni sabout1800t imesheav i
ert han
anel ectron,sov i
rtuall
yallofanat om mass
i
si ni tsnucl eusori not herwor ds,anel ectron
hasnegl igiblemass.
Elect ronsar ehel di norbitsbyt hef orceof
attract i
on bet ween opposi te char geswhi l
e
protons and neut rons ar e bonded t ightl
y
toget heri nthenucl eusbyadi fferentkindof
forcecal ledst rongnucl earf orce.
Each el ementhas a di fferentnumberof
TOPI
C:NUCLEARPHYSI
CS protonsi ni tsatoms;i thasat omi cnumber
(Z),somet imescal l
edpr otonnumber .Bel ow
STRUCTUREOFANATOM i
sdi agram showi ngt hestructureofnucl eus:
Ever ythi
ng ismadeofat oms.An at om is
referredt oasuncut table(indivi
sible)basic
unitofmat t
er.The at om consi sts oft he
cent ralpar
tcall
edthenucl eusandnegat iv
ely
char gedpar t
icl
escal l
edel ect r
onst hatare
foundi norbitsaroundt henucl eus.At oms
aref artoosmal lt
obeseenwi t hanyor di
nary
micr oscope. Howev er, by usi ng v ery IsotopesandMassnumber
adv ancedmi croscope,scientistshav ebeen Theat omsofanyoneel ementarenotall
ablet odevelopmodel sofst r
uctureofan exactlyal i
ke.Somemayhav emor eneut
rons
atom andi tappearsasshownbel ow: than ot her
s. For example, l
ook at the
struct
ur es of two heli
um at oms int he
foll
owingdi agram:

Composi tionofanucl eus

The cent ralnucl eus i s made up oft he Thedi ff
er encei nt henumberofneut r
onsi n
protons and neut r
ons. Pr otons hav e a thet wohel i
um at omsabov er esultst otwo
positi
ve( +)char gewhi l
eneut ronshav eno diff
erentat oms,onewi thamassnumberof
charge.Electronsar enegat i
vely(-)charged. 3amuwhi letheot herwi thamassnumberof
Nor mall
y,anat om hast hesamenumberof 4amuandar ecal ledhel i
um- 3andhel i
um- 4
electr
onsaspr otons,soi t
sov erallchargeis respecti
v ely.Thesedi fferentt y
pesofat oms
zero.As an exampl e,consi dera sodi um oftheel ementar ecalledi sotopesi .
e.atoms
atom ( Na) :ithas at omi c numberof11 oft he same el ementwi th diff
er entmass
(numberofpr ot ons)andar oundt henucl eus number sduet ot hedifferencei nt henumber
thereare11el ectrons. ofneut r
onsi nt heirnuclei.
Total char geofpr otons =+11 Mostel ement sar eami xt
ur eoft woormor e
Total char geofel ectr
ons =-11 i
sot opes.I sotopes hav et he same at omi c
Over all
char ge=+11–11=0 number( numberofpr otons)butdi ff
erent
massnumber s(totalnumberofpr otonsand
©TemboJPPCDSS -93-
neut
ronsi
nthenucl
eus)
. number 2 less than bef
ore. The
equat
ioncanberewri
tt
enasshown:
RADI OACTI VITY
Some subst ances contai n at oms wi th
unstable nucl ei.In ti
me,each unst able
nucleusdi si
ntegrat
es(breaksup) .Asi tdoes Theequat ionsabov ear er eferredt o
so,itshoot soutt i
nypar t
iclesand,i nsome as Nucl ear Equat ions. Fr om t he
cases,abur stofwav eener gyaswel l.The equation abov e, t her e ar e t wo
parti
cles and wav es ‘radi ate’ f r
om t he product swhi chhav ebeenf or medon
nucleus, so t hese are cal l
ed Nucl ear therighthandsi deandt hesepr oduct s
Radiations. are cal l
ed Daught er nucl eus and
The mat eri
als whose unst able nucl ei Alpha par ticler espect i
v el
y,and t he
disi
ntegrateandemi tnucl earr adiat i
onar e ori
ginal nucl eus i s cal l
ed Par ent
known as Radi oact
ive Mat erials. The nucleus.
processwher ebythenucleidi sintegrateand Duringt heal phadecay :
emitnucl earr adi
ati
oniscal l
edRadi oactive  The t op number s bal ance on
Decay . bot hsi desoft heequat i
oni .e.
(226 = 222 + 4) ,so t hatt he
nucl eonnumberi sunchanged.
 The bot tom number s al so
TYPESOFNUCLEARRADI ATION balanceon bot h sidesoft he
There aret hree maint ypes of nuclear equat i
oni .
e.( 88=86+2) ,so
radi
ati
onandt heseare: thatt hechar gei sconser ved.
a)ALPHAPARTI CLES( α)  Anew el ementi sf ormedwi th
Anucl eusofanat om ofapar t
icul
ar atomi c number 2 l ess t han
substanceissaidt ohav eunder gone bef oreandt hemassnumber4
alpha decay when i tloses two (2) l
esst hanbef ore.
protonsandt wo( 2)neutronsleav i
ng  Checki ngont heper i
odi ct abl e
the nucleus wit
h 2 pr otons and 2 the el ement wi t
h at omi c
neutrons less t han bef or
e. For number86i scal ledRadon( Rn) .
exampl e,Radium-226 ( wit
h at omic So t he Radi um ( Ra)nucl eus
number 88) , when t he nucl eus hasunder goneal phadecayt o
undergoes alpha decay ,itloses 2 form aRadon( Rn)nucl eusand
protonsand 2 neut ronsmaki ng the alphapar ti
clei.e.
atomicnumbert odr opby2andt he alphadecay
massnumberby4i .
e. Radium nucl eus Radon
Atomicnumber=88–2 =86 nucleus
Massnumber =226–4= Parentnucl eus) (Daught er
222 nucleus)

+ al
phapar
ti
cle(
Hel
ium nucl
eus)

Thealphapart
icl
eistheheli
um-
4nucl
eus
andcanbeshownasfol
lows:
Theequationabov eisshowingthat
theRadium-226 nucl
eus,ont hel
eft
handside,islosi
ng2neutronsand2
prot
onsforminganewnucl eusonthe Work:
ri
ght hand si de wi
th the atomic Pl
utoni
um (
Pu)-
240hasat
omi
cnumber94
©TemboJPPCDSS -94-
and it undergoes al
pha decay to for
m nucl
eusmaki
ngt
heat
omi
cnumbert
o
Urani
um (U)-236. be54i.
e.
i. Wr it
et he nucl
earequati
on forthe
decay.
i
i. Identif
yt he parent and daught
er
nucl
eifrom t
heequat
ion.
Thi
si s a nuclearequat ion forbet a
PROPERTI
ESOFALPHAPARTI CLES minusdecay .Duri
ngt hi
st ypeofdecay :
 Each al pha par ti
cle i s 2 i
. The t op number s balance on
protonsand2neut ronsandi t bothsi desoftheequat i
on(131
isident i
cal toHel ium- 4nucl eus. = 131 + 0) ,so t he nucleon
 Alphapar ticleshav ear elative numberi sconserved.
char geof+2. ii
. The bot tom number s bal
ance
 Alphapar ticleshav ear elative onbot hsidesoft heequat ion
biggermassascompar edt o [53 = 54 + ( -1)]
,so t hatt he
theot herpar ticles. chargei sconserved.
 Alpha par ticle hav e st rong i
ii
. Anew el ementi sformed,wi th
ionisingef fect ,thati st osay , anat omi cnumber1mor ethan
alpha par t
icles hav e a bet ter before.
abili
ty t o r emov e el ectrons i
v. Checki ngatt heper i
odi
ct able
from t heir shel lsi n at oms. the el ementwi t
h an at omi c
Rememberal phapar t
iclesar e number54,i tisf ound to be
posi t
ively char ged and Xenon- 131 nucleus as
electrons ar e negat ively indi
cat edintheequat i
onbef ore:
char gedsot her eisat t
ract i
on.
 Alpha par ticles ar e notv ery
penet rati
ng; t hey ar e easi ly
stopped bya t hick sheetof
paper ,orbyski n,orbyaf ew bet
adecay
cent i
met resofai r. Iodine-131 nucl
eus
 Alpha par ti
cl es ar e deflected Xenon- 131 + bet
a par
ti
cle( an
bymagnet i
candel ectri
cf iel
ds. electron)
 Alphapar t
icl eshav easpeed
ofupt o0. 1xspeedofl i
ght (
thesear
edecaypr
oduct
s)
(one- t
enth of t he speed of
li
ght ). Work:
Radium (Ra)–228wi thatomicnumber88
b)BETAPARTI CLES( β) undergoesbetadecayt of or
m Acti
nium –
Duri
ng beta decaya neut ron i
nt he 228( Ac).Wri
teanuclearequationtoshow
nucl
eusdecay s( br
eaks)intoaproton thedecaypr ocessand ident
ifytheparent
andanel ectron.Theel ect
ronleaves anddaughternuclei
.
the nucl
eus ata hi gh speed.The
radi
oacti
ve par t
icl
ei st he el
ectr
on. PROPERTIESOFBETAPARTI CLES
The numberofnucl eons does not  Thebet apar ti
clei
sanelect
ron.
change,butwehav egotonepr oton  Betapar ti
cleshav ear el
ati
vecharge
morethanbef oredecay. of-
1 .
Forexampl e,Iodine – 131 (atomic  Betapar t
icl
eshav elowmass.
number53) ,decaysbybet aemissi
on.  Beta par ti
cles have weak ioni
sing
Therei s addit
ion ofpr oton i
nt he ef
fect.
©TemboJPPCDSS -95-
  Beta part
icles ar e penetrati
ng,but hav eav er
yl i
tt
le abil
it
yt oremov e
stopped by a f ew mi l
l
imet r
es of elect
rons from t hei
r paths i
nt he
al
umi ni
um oranyot hermet al. atoms.
 Beta particles ar e def lect
ed by  Gamma r ays ar ev ery penetr
ati
ng;
magneticandel ectr
icfi
elds. nevercompl etelyblockedorstopped,
 Betaparti
cleshav easpeedofupt o though lead and t hi
ckconcretecan
0.9xspeedofl ight(ni
ne-tenthofthe reducetheintensityofpenetr
ati
on.
speedofli
ght ).  Gamma r ays ar e notdef l
ect
ed by
magnet i
corel ectr
icfi
elds.
c) GAMMARADI ATI ON( γ)  Gammar ay
shav eno massand no
 Whenagammar adiationoccur s,high charge.
ener gy electromagnet ic wav es ar e
emi tted from t he at omic nucl eus. DI
AGRAM SHOWING PENETRATI
NG
These wav es ar e phot ons ( small DI
STANCESOFTHETHREEDECAYS:
amountofener gyr eleasedatat ime),
whi ch have gothi gherf r
equency .A
gammar adiati
oncanhappenaf t
eran
alphadecayorbet adecay .
 Wi t
hsomei sotopes,t heemi ssionsof
theseal phaandbet adecay sleavet he
prot ons and neut rons i n an excited
arrangement . As t he pr ot
ons and
neut ronsrear r
anget obecomemor e
stabl e,t
heyloseener gy.Thisener gyis THEEFFECTOFELECTRI CANDMAGNETI C
emi tted as a bur st of gamma FIELDS
radiat i
on/r
ay. Li
keanyst r
eam ofmov i
ngchar gedpar t
icl
es,
 Gammaemi ssionbyi t
selfcausesno al
phaandbet araysaredeflectedbyel ect
r i
c
change i n mass numberorat omi c and magneticf iel
ds.Bet a par t
icl
es show
numberoft henucl eus. muchgr eat
erdeflect
ionsthanal phaparti
cles
because oft heirlowermass.As st at
ed
The diagr
am below shows gamma decay al
ready,gammar aysarenotdef lect
edbya
processofPlut
oni
um-240for
mingPl
utoni
um magneticfi
eld.
-240withit
sbothmassandatomicnumbers
unchanged:

DETECTINGNUCLEARRADI ATION
Mostmet hodsofdet ecti
ngal pha,bet aand
gammar aysarebasedont hefactthatt hese
PROPERTIESOFGAMMARAYS
radi
ati
onshaveani oni
singef f
ect.
 They ar e electr
omagneti
c wav es
 Leafelectroscope:Al phaparti
clescan
si
mi l
art
oX-ray
s.
be det ected usi ng a char ged
 Gammar ayshaveaspeedofli
ght
. elect
roscope.Thesour ceisbr ought
 Gamma r ays have a v er
y weak near the cap of a char ged l eaf
i
onisi
ng ef
fect
,thatis,gamma rays elect
roscope,andt heai raroundt he
©TemboJPPCDSS -96-
 cap becomes i oni sed.I ons wi tha
char ge opposi t
e t o t hat on t he
elect r
oscopear eat tr
actedt ot hecap
wher etheyneutrali
sesomechar geon
i
t.Thel eaffall
sasar esult.Inef f
ect,
thei onisedairconduct schar geaway
from t he electroscope. The mor e
i
nt ense t he r
adiati
on,t he f astert he
l
eaff all
s.Themet hodi ssui t
ablef or
det ecti
ngbet aandgammar adi ati
on  Sol id-state det ect or:The i ncomi ng
ast hesecausei nsuf f
icientionisat i
on radiationi onisesat omsi nar everse-
oft heai r
. biasedp- njunct i
ondi ode.Thi smakes
the di ode conductand a pul se of
currentf lowsi nt heci rcui tasar esult
.
Aswi thGM t ube,cur rentpul sesar e
detect edusingascal erorar atemet er.
 I onisat i
onchamber s/det ector s
 Phot ogr aphicplat es
 Sci nt i
ll
at i
oncount er
 Spar kcount er
 Geiger -Mul lert ube:t het ubecont ains HALFLI FEANDACTI VITY
argongasatl ow pr essur e.Ap. d.of Inradioactivesampl e,theav eragenumberof
about400V i s appl ied bet ween t he disi
ntegrations per second i s cal l
ed t he
cent r
al wi re el ectr ode and t he Activi
ty. The SI uni t of act i
vit
yi st he
alumi nium wal loft het ube.Theendof Becquer el( Bq) .An act i
vityof ,say ,100Bq
thet ubei sseal edbyami ca‘ window’ meanst hat100nucl eiar edi sintegr atingper
thinenought oal lowal phapar ti
clest o second.
passi nt othet ubeaswel lasbet aand
gammar adi ation. Halfli
fei sthetimer equi
redf ortheacti
vit
yof
When a char ged par ticleorgamma ar adi
oact i
vemat eri
altober educedtohal f
radiation ent er st he t ube,t he ar gon i
ts originalv al
ue.Al lr adionucli
de havea
gasbecomesi onised.Thi str i
gger sa parti
cularhal fl
ife,someofwhi chverylong,
whol eav alancheofi onsbet weent he while ot hers ar e ex tremely short. For
electrodes.Fora br iefmoment ,t he exampl e,Ur ani
um- 238hasal onghal fli
fe,
9
gasconduct sandapul seofcur rent 4.5x10 y ears.Incont r
ast,Carbon-11hasa
fl
ows i n t he ci rcuits. The ci rcuit halfli
feofonl y20mi nutes.
i
ncl udesei therascal erorar atemet er
.
Ascal ercount sthepul sesandshows Thegraphsshowi
ng t
hisdecayar
ecal
l
ed
the tot alon a di spl ay .A r atemet er Decaycur
ves.
i
ndi cates t he numberofpul ses or
count s per second.The compl ete
appar atus i s of ten cal led a Gei ger
count er.

©TemboJPPCDSS -97-
 Work:
1)The t able bel ow shows how t he
act
ivi
ty ofa sampl e ofI odine-127
var
ieswitht i
me.
Time Acti
vity
(min) (Bq)
0 75.8
10 57.4
20 43.5
30 33.0
40 25.0
50 19.0
Exampl e: 60 14.4
Whenasour ceispl acedinfrontofaGM 70 10.9
tubeandscaler,
theinit
ial
countrat
eafterthe 80 8.3
background counthas been deduct ed is a.Pl otagr aphofact iv
ityagainst
4000.Af t
ertwentymi nutesthecountr ate ti
me.
afterdeducti
onoft hebackgroundcounti s b.Fr om y ourgraphf i
ndt heti
me
125.Whati st
hehalfli
feofthesource? takenf ortheactivi
tytodrop
from (i)60to30Bq
Fi
rstmet
hod: (i
i)40t o20Bq.
I
tisnecessar
yt of
indouthow manyhal
f c.Whati sthehal fli
feofasampl e
l
i
vest
herearein20minut
es.Thus ofI odi
ne-128?

1sthal
fli
fecountr
atefal
l
sfr
om 4000to2000 2)Whenasour ceofr adiat
ionisplaced
nd i
nf rontofaGM count er
,theinit
ial
2 “ “ “ “ 2000t o1000
rd countrateis128.Af ter16mi nutes,
3 “ “ “ “ 1000t o500 thecountr ateis8.Cal culat
et hehalf
th
4 “ “ “ “ 500t o250 l
ifeofthesour ce.(MANEB2008)
th
5 “ “ “ “ 250t o125 3)Giventhatt hehal fl
if
eofI odine-
128is
25mi nutes.Iftheact ivi
tyofasampl e
Thustheact
ivi
tyhashal v
edfivet
imesdur
ing i
tssampl ei s800Bq, whatwoul dyou
the20minut
einterv
al andthehal
fli
fei
s expecttheact ivit
ytobeaf t
er:
20/5=4mi nutes. a.25mi nutes?
b.50mi nutes?
Secondmet
hod: c.100mi nutes?
Ori
ginalcountrat
eA0=4000
Numberofhal fli
ves=n NUCLEARENERGY
Fi
nal countr
ateAn=125 The pr otons and neut rons i n a nucl eus
A0=2n possess nucl ear pot enti
al ener gy – or
An nuclearener gyf orshort.Whenal phaorbet a
4000=2n parti
clesar eemi tt
edbyar adi
oact iv
eisot ope,
125 they col l
ide wi t
h surrounding at oms and
32=2n maket hem mov efaster.Inot herwor ds,the
25=2n temper ature rises as nucl ear ener gy i s
5 =n transformedi ntothermal energy(heat).
Hal
flife=20/5=4mi nutes. Dur i
ngr adioacti
vedecay ,theener gyreleased
perat om i sar oundami l
li
ont imesgr eater
thant hatgi v
enof fduri
ngachemi calchange
©TemboJPPCDSS -98-
suchasbur ning.Howev er,ratesofdecayare fusi
onreact
ionbetweent
wonucl
eit
ofor
m
usuall
yv er
ysl ow.Muchf asterdecaycanbe oneheavi
ernucl
eus.
produced in some cases by bombar ding
nucleiwithot herpar t
icles.Neut ronsmake
themostef f
ect i
vemi ssiles;beingunchar
ged,
theyarenotr epell
edbynucl ei
,canpenetr
ate
anddisruptthem relati
vel yeasil
y.

Anyprocessinwhi
chaparti
clepenet
rat
esa
nucl
eusandchangesi
tinsomewayi scal
led
anuclearr
eacti
on.

Nuclearf i
ssion
When a neut ron is made t o strike and
penetratesanucl eus,t henucleusbecomes
highl
yunst able and spl i
tsintot wo nucl ei;
shoot i
ngoutt woort hreeneutronsasi tdoes APPLI
CATI ONS OF RADI OACTI VE
so.Thi ssplit
ting processi swhatwecal l SUBSTANCES
nuclear f i
ssion. Nucl ear fissi
on i s an  Radi oisotopes can be used t o
exampl eofchai nr eacti
onandt hefragment s estimat e t he amount of wear i n
arethrownapar tasener gyisreleased. bear i
ngs. I f t he r adi oisot ope i s
The numberofnucl eiunder going fission i
mpr egnat ed i nto bear ings,t he f ine
mul t
iplesrapidly,andanenor mousquant it
y bear i
ngf ili
ngsar eradioact iveandar e
ofener gyisreleasedi nashortspaceoft ime. carriedawaybyt heoi l
.I fasampl eof
theoi lcont ainingt hef ilingsi st est ed
forr adioact ivi
ty,theamountofwear
canbeest imat edfrom t her esul ts.
 Leaks i n pi pes may be t raced by
i
nt r
oduci ng a smal lquant ity of a
radioisotopei ntothef luidi napi pe.A
radiation det ectorcan be used t o
deter minewher et her adioi sotopei s
escapi ng.
 Radi otherapy :Cobal t
-60 emi ts hi gh
energyγ– r adiati
on.Thi si susedi n
cancert her apyi nstead oft he mor e
elabor ate hi gh ener gy X- radiat i
on.
Nuclearf usion These gamma r ays can penet rate
Nuclearf usion i st he pr ocess by whi ch de epi ntot heb od yandk i
lllivi
n gc ells.
mul t
ipl
enucl ei jointoget hertoform aheav i
er Soahi ghlyconcent ratedbeam f rom
nucleus.Nucl eihav et ocol l
i
deatv eryhi gh C oba l
t-60s ou r
cec anb eu se dt ok il
l
speeds f orf usi on to occur ,otherwise the cancercel l
s.Tr eatmentl ike t hisi s
repulsi
on bet ween t heirchar ges prevents ca l
l
e dr adioth erapy.
them from comi ngcl oseenought ocombi ne.  Radi oisotopes ar e wi dely used i n
Itisaccompani edbyar el
easeorabsor ption i
ndust ry
, e. g. t o check t hat t he
ofener gy.Thi sr eactionpr oducesf armor e thickne ss of a ma t eri
a l being
energyf oragi venmassofmat eri
althanany producedi sconst ant.Ast hemat erial
fi
ssionr eaction.Thedi agr
am belowshowsa pa sses b etw een the ra dioac t
ive
sour ceandacount er,anyv ar i
ationi n
©TemboJPPCDSS -99-
 thi
ckness causes a change i nt he b.l
eukaemi a(canceroftheblood)
countr ate( i
ft hethicknessdecr eases, c.ster
il
ity(i
nabil
i
tytoproducechildr
en)
the count r at
e i ncr
eases) and d.some chi ldr
en bor n wi th seri
ous
i
rregularit
iescanbepi npoi
nted. abnormalit
ies
 Carbon- dating: Radioactive e.damage t o t he blood may l ower
substancescanbeusedt of i
ndt he resi
stancetonormal diseases.
age of or gani c mat eri
als such as
woodandcl ot h. PRECAUTI ONS WHEN HANDLI NG
 Radioact i
v esubst ancescanbeused RADI OACTI VEMATERI ALS
i
n st er il
i
sat ion as wel l as f ood Thegr owthanduseofr adioacti
vepr oduct s
preservation. hasincreasedconsi der
abl ysinceabout1930.
 Tracers:Radi oactive substances ar e Radioacti
ve sour ces hav e become par tof
used as t racersi .e.checking t he normalschoolequi pmentandal thought he
functi
onofbodyor gans.Forexampl e, sourcesar ev eryweak,i ti sessentialtot ake
to check t hy roidf uncti
on,a pat ient str
ingentsaf etypr ecautions:
dri
nksal iquidcont aini
ngIodine-123, a a.Thesour cesshoul donl ybehandl ed
gammaemi tter. by f orceps pr ov ided and nev er
touchedbyhand.
Note: Nat ural
ly occur r
ing r adi
oacti
ve b.Theyshoul dnev erbepoi ntedt owar ds
substanceshav ehi ghnucleonnumber s. aper son.
Iti
s c.Foodshoul dnotbet akenwher et he
possibl
et omakear ti
fi
cialr adi
oacti
ve sources ar e being used,because i t
substances by bombar ding light
er maybecomecont ami nated.
nucli
deswi thalpha-part
icles,protons d.Nev er smoke near a r adioact i
v e
or neut rons. The r adi
oacti
ve source.
substancespr oducedi nt hismanner e.Theusershoul dwearr ubbergl oves,
areknownasr adioi
sotopes. andhandsshoul dbewashedaf terthe
sourceshav ebeenputawaysaf ely.
DANGERSOFRADI OACTI VESUBSTANCES f. Donotst aymuchl ongwi t
hint hear ea
Someoft heeff
ect
sonhumansofexposur e wher et herei sradioact i
vesubst ances
tolar
gedoses,orprol
ongedsmalldoses,of becauset hel ongert heexposur et i
me,
radi
ati
onsare thegr eatert heri
sk.
a.burns

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©TemboJPPCDSS -1-