Unit 1

Introduction
Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular
concern or research Problem using scientific methods. According to the
American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic
inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”
Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods
verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated
with qualitative analysis, and deductive methods are more commonly
associated with.
1. Research is conducted with a purpose to:
2. Identify potential and new customers
3. Understand existing customers
4. Set pragmatic goals
5. Develop productive market strategies
6. Address business challenges
7. Put together a business expansion plan
8. Identify new business opportunities
characteristics of research
Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data.
Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making
observations or drawing conclusions.
The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive
and deductive methods.
Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in
natural settings.
There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no
anomalies associated with it.
It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create
more research opportunities.
It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information
must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a
controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the
instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the
experiment’s final result.

Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of
fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research may
be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiate’s research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to

undertake research studies. Many more factors such as directives of
government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire
to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and
the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform
research operations.

Objectives of Research:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find
out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into

it
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing

data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of
your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key
decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what
type of data you need to answer your research question:
Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your data take the form of words or
numbers?
Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect original data yourself, or will
you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take measurements of
something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Research methodology

Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of a research

study. More specifically, it’s about how a researcher systematically
designs a study to ensure valid and reliable results that address the
Research aim objective and research Questions. Specifically, how the
researcher went about deciding:
What type of data to collect (e.g., qualitative and Quantitative)
Who to collect it from (i.e., the sampling strategy)
How to collect it (i.e., the data collection method)
How to analyses it (i.e., the data analysis Method)

points Method Methodology

Definition

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing
data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of
your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key
decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what
type of data you need to answer your research question:

 Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your data take the form of

words or numbers?
 Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect original data yourself, or
will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
 Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take measurements of
something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data.

 For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to

test relationships between variables.
 For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis
to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Methods for collecting data

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering
your research question. The type of data you need depends on the aims
of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the
type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study

something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data.

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or

your research involves hypothesis testing, collect quantitative data.
  Pros  Cons

Qualitative  Flexible – you can often  Can’t be analyzed statistically,

adjust your methods as you and not generalizable to
go to develop new broader populations.
knowledge.  Difficult to standardize
 Can be conducted with small research, at higher risk
samples. for research bias.

Quantitative  Can be used to  Requires statistical training to

systematically describe large analyze data.
collections of things.  Requires larger samples.
 Generates reproducible
knowledge.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the
purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys,
observations and experiments). Secondary research is data that has
already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census
or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to

collect primary data. But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge,
analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary
data might be a better choice.

 Pros  Cons

Primary  Can be collected to answer your  More expensive and time-

specific research question. consuming to collect.
 You have control over the  Requires training in data
sampling and measurement collection methods.
methods.
  Pros  Cons

Secondar  Easier and faster to access.  No control over how data

y  You can collect data that spans was generated.
longer timescales and broader  Requires extra processing to
geographical locations. make sure it works for your
analysis.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research, you collect data about your study subject without
intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling
method.

In experimental research, you systematically intervene in a process and

measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on
your experimental design.

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent

variable, precisely measure your dependent variable, and control
for confounding variables. If it’s practically and ethically possible, this
method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and
effect.

 Pros  Cons

Descriptive  Allows you to describe your  No control over confounding

research subject without variables.
influencing it.  Can’t establish causality.
 Accessible – you can gather
more data on a larger scale.

Experimenta  More control over  You might influence your

l confounding variables. research subject in
 Can establish causality. unexpected ways.
  Pros  Cons

 Usually requires more

expertise and resources to
collect data.

Methods for analyzing data

Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect
and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For

example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying
the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies
of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences.
You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

 From open-ended surveys and interviews, literature reviews, case

studies, ethnographies, and other sources that use text rather than
numbers.
 Using non-probability sampling methods.

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the

researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices
and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias.

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand
frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-
and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected
either:
  During an experiment.
 Using probability sampling methods.

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way,

the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared
among researchers.

Examples of data analysis methods

Research methods for analyzing data

Research Qualitative or When to use

method quantitative?

Statistical Quantitative To analyze data collected in a statistically valid

analysis manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and
observations).

Meta- Quantitative To statistically analyze the results of a large

analysis collection of studies.

Can only be applied to studies that collected data

in a statistically valid manner.
Thematic Qualitative To analyze data collected from interviews, focus
analysis groups, or textual sources.
To understand general themes in the data and how
they are communicated.
Content Either To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data
analysis collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other
sources.
Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or
Research methods for analyzing data

Research Qualitative or When to use

method quantitative?

qualitative (i.e. meanings of words).

Types of Research Methods

An area is selected, a specific hypothesis is determined and a defined

conclusion is required to be achieved. But how is this conclusion
reached? What is the approach that can be taken up? As per CR
Kothari’s book “Research Methodology Methods and Techniques” (The
Second Revised Edition), the basic types of Research Methods are the
following :

Types of Research Methods

1. Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research is a form of research that incorporates surveys

as well as different varieties of fact-finding investigations. This
form of research is focused on describing the prevailing state of
affairs as they are. Descriptive Research is also termed as Ex post
facto research.

This research form emphasises on factual reporting, the researcher

cannot control the involved variables and can only report the details
as they took place or as they are taking place.

Researchers mainly make use of a descriptive research approach for

purposes such as when the research is aimed at deciphering
characteristics, frequencies or trends.

Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to

discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The
descriptive research methods are mainly, observations, surveys as
well as case studies.

(Speaking of variables, have you ever wondered - What are

confounding variables?)

2. Analytical Research
 Analytical Research is a form of research where the researcher has
to make do with the data and factual information available at their
behest and interpret this information to undertake an acute
evaluation of the data.

This form of research is often undertaken by researchers to uncover

some evidence that supports their present research and which makes
it more authentic. It is also undertaken for concocting fresh ideas
relating to the topic on which the research is based.

From conducting meta analysis, literary research or scientific trials

and learning public opinion, there are many methods through which
this research is done.

3. Applied Research

When a business or say, the society is faced with an issue that needs
an immediate solution or resolution, Applied Research is the
research type that comes to the rescue.

We primarily make use of Applied Research when it comes to

resolving the issues plaguing our daily lives, impacting our work,
health or welfare. This research type is undertaken to uncover
solutions for issues relating to varying sectors like education,
engineering, psychology or business.
 For instance, a company might employ an applied researcher for
concluding the best possible approach of selecting employees that
would be the best fit for specific positions in the company.

The crux of Applied Research is to figure out the solution to a

certain growing practical issue.

The 3 Types of Applied Research are mainly

1. Evaluation Research - Research where prevailing data

regarding the topic is interpreted to arrive at proper decisions

2. Research and Development - Where the focus is on setting

up fresh products or services which focus on the target market
requirements

3. Action Research - Which aims at offering practical solutions

for certain business issues by giving them proper direction, are
the 3 types of Applied Research.

(Related blog - Target Marketing using AI)

4. Fundamental Research

This is a Research type that is primarily concerned with formulating

a theory or understanding a particular natural phenomenon.
Fundamental Research aims to discover information with an
 extensive application base, supplementing the existing concepts in a
certain field or industry.

Research on pure mathematics or research regarding generalisation

of the behavior of humans are also examples of Fundamental
Research. This form of research is mainly carried out in sectors like
Education, Psychology and Science.

For instance, in Psychology fundamental research assists the

individual or the company in gaining better insights regarding
certain behaviors such as deciphering how consumption of caffeine
can possibly impact the attention span of a student or how culture
stereotypes can possibly trigger depression.

5. Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research, as the name suggests, is based on the

measurement of a particular amount or quantity of a particular
phenomenon. It focuses on gathering and interpreting numerical
data and can be adopted for discovering any averages or patterns or
for making predictions.

This form of Research is number based and it lies under the two
main Research Types. It makes use of tables, data and graphs to
reach a conclusion. The outcomes generated from this research are
measurable and can be repeated unlike the outcomes of qualitative
research. This research type is mainly adopted for scientific and
field based research.

Quantitative research generally involves a large number of people

and a huge section of data and has a lot of scope for accuracy in it.

These research methods can be adopted for approaches

like descriptive, correlational or experimental research.

Descriptive research - The study variables are analyzed and a

summary of the same is seeked.

Correlational Research - The relationship between the study

variables is analyzed.

Experimental Research - It is deciphered to analyse whether a

cause and effect relationship between the variables exists.

Quantitative research methods

 Experiment Research - This method controls or manages

independent variables for calculating the effect it has on
dependent variables.
  Survey - Surveys involve inquiring questions from a certain
specified number or set of people either online, face to face or
over the phone.

 (Systematic) observation - This method involves detecting

any occurrence and monitoring it in a natural setting.

 Secondary research : This research focuses on making use of

data which has been previously collected for other purposes
such as for say, a national survey.

6. Qualitative Research

As the name suggests, this form of Research is more considered

with the quality of a certain phenomenon, it dives into the “why”
alongside the “what”. For instance, let’s consider a gender neutral
clothing store which has more women visiting it than men.

Qualitative research would be determining why men are not visiting

the store by carrying out an in-depth interview of some potential
customers in this category.
This form of research is interested in getting to the bottom of the
reasons for human behaviour, i.e understanding why certain actions
are taken by people or why they think certain thoughts.

Through this research the factors influencing people into behaving

in a certain way or which control their preferences towards a certain
thing can be interpreted.

An example of Qualitative Research would be Motivation Research.

This research focuses on deciphering the rooted motives or desires
through intricate methods like in depth interviews. It involves
several tests like story completion or word association.

Another example would be Opinion Research. This type of research

is carried out to discover the opinion and perspective of people
regarding a certain subject or phenomenon.

This is a theory based form of research and it works by describing

an issue by taking into account the prior concepts, ideas and studies.
The experience of the researcher plays an integral role here.

The Types of Qualitative Research includes the following methods :

Qualitative research methods

  Observations: In this method what the researcher sees, hears
of or encounters is recorded in detail.

 Interviews: Personally asking people questions in one-on-one

conversations.

 Focus groups: This involves asking questions and discussions

among a group of people to generate conclusions from the
same.

 Surveys: In these surveys unlike the quantitative research

surveys, the questionnaires involve extensive open ended
questions that require elaborate answers.

 Secondary research: Gathering the existing data such as

images, texts or audio or video recordings. This can involve a
text analysis, a research of a case study, or an In-depth
interview.

7. Conceptual Research
 This research is related to an abstract idea or a theory. It is adopted
by thinkers and philosophers with the aim of developing a new
concept or to re-examine the existing concepts.

Conceptual Research is mainly defined as a methodology in which

the research is conducted by observing and interpreting the already
present information on a present topic. It does not include carrying
out any practical experiments.

This methodology has often been adopted by famous Philosophers

like Aristotle, Copernicus, Einstein and Newton for developing
fresh theories and insights regarding the working of the world and
for examining the existing ones from a different perspective.

The concepts were set up by philosophers to observe their

environment and to sort, study, and summarise the information
available.

8. Empirical Research

This is a research method that focuses solely on aspects like

observation and experience, without focusing on the theory or
system. It is based on data and it can churn conclusions that can be
confirmed or verified through observation and experiment.
Empirical Research is mainly undertaken to determine proof that
 certain variables are affecting the others in a particular way.

This kind of research can also be termed as Experimental Research.

In this research it is essential that all the facts are received firsthand,
directly from the source so that the researcher can actively go and
carry out the actions and manipulate the concerned materials to gain
the information he requires.

In this research a hypothesis is generated and then a path is

undertaken to confirm or invalidate this hypothesis. The control that
the researcher holds over the involved variables defines this
research. The researcher can manipulate one of these variables to
examine its effect.

Other Types of Research

All research types apart from the ones stated above are mainly variations
of them, either in terms of research purpose or in the terms of the time
that is required for accomplishing the research, or say, the research
environment.

If we take the perspective of time, research can be considered as either

One-time research or Longitudinal Research.
  One time Research : The research is restricted to a single time
period.

 Longitudinal Research : The research is executed over multiple

time periods.

A research can also be set in a field or a laboratory or be a simulation, it

depends on the environment that the research is based on.

We’ve also got Historical Research which makes use of historical

sources such as documents and remains for examining past events and
ideas. This also includes the philosophy of an individual and groups at a
particular time.

Research may be clinical or diagnostic. These kinds of research

generally carry out case study or in-depth interview approaches to
determine basic causal relationships.

Research can also be Exploratory or Formalized.

 Exploratory Research: This is a research that is more focused on

establishing hypotheses than on deriving the result. This form of
Research focuses on understanding the prevailing issue but it
doesn’t really offer defining results.

 Formalized research: This is a research that has a solid structure

and which also has specific hypotheses for testing.
We can also classify Research as conclusion-oriented and decision-
oriented.

 Conclusion Oriented Research: In this form of research, the

researcher can select an issue, revamp the enquiry as he continues
and visualize it as per his requirements.

 Decision-oriented research: This research depends on the

requirement of the decision maker and offers less freedom to the
research to conduct it as he pleases.

The common and well known research methods have been listed in this
blog. Hopefully this blog will give the readers and present and future
researchers proper knowledge regarding important methods they can
adopt to conduct their Research.
3 types of research problems

Here are three types of research problems that can help you decide on
the best format to use:

1. Theoretical research problems

Theoretical research problems allow you to contribute to the overall

information and knowledge in an area of study. These kinds of research
problems are exploratory and provide basic definitions of a problem's
overarching nature or areas of informational gaps. Theoretical research
problems can address contradictions between two or more perspectives
or address an unresolved question. Researchers develop their hypotheses
for these problems according to a particular theory, typically stemming
from social philosophy. For example, Albert Einstein's theory of
relativity began as a theoretical research problem before he eventually
proved it in the early 20th century.

2. Applied research problems

Applied research problems, or nonsystematic problems, involve the

practical use of theoretical knowledge, meaning that scholars may use a
particular theoretical framework to gain information. It also includes an
exploratory hypothesis and tests to verify the accuracy of the hypothesis.
Social scientists typically use applied research problems in studies where
the objective is to provide practical and applicable solutions to help
specific individuals and groups if they encounter challenges. For
example, a marketing company may define an applied research problem
of how to better market its services to a particular audience.

3. Action research problems

Similar to applied research problems, action research problems also aim

to provide solutions for problems but are typically more time-sensitive
in nature. Action research problems can also be one component of a
larger reflective process that combines ongoing research, analysis and
action. Researchers develop and implement a research strategy to create
innovative solutions and discoveries as soon as possible. For example,
an action research problem in education might include finding a solution
for a district-wide problem impeding student success. This may include
school staff members working together and using district-wide action
research data to find a solution
Identify a research problem

To identify a research problem you need a systematic approach and a

deep understanding of the subject area. Below are some steps to guide
you in this process:

1. Conduct a Literature Review: Before you dive into your research

problem, ensure you get familiar with the existing literature in your
field. Analyze gaps, controversies, and unanswered questions. This will
help you identify areas where your research can make a meaningful
contribution.

2. Consult with Peers and Mentors: Participate in discussions with

your peers and mentors to gain insights and feedback on potential
research problems. Their perspectives can help you refine and validate
your ideas.

3. Define Your Research Objectives: Clearly outline the objectives of

your study. What do you want to achieve through your research? What
specific outcomes are you aiming for?

2 Learn more about the problem

The next step is to learn more about the area of interest. Ask yourself
what you need to know about a particular topic before you begin your
study. Assess who or what it might affect and how your research could
address those relationships. Consider whether other
3. Review the context of the information

Reviewing the context of your research involves defining and testing the
environmental variables in your project, which may help you create a
clear and focused research problem. It may also help you note which
variables are present in the research and how to account for the impact
that they may have on it. By reviewing the context, you may easily
estimate the amount of data your research is likely to require

4. Determine relationships between variables

After identifying the variables involved in your research, you can learn
how they're related to one another and how these relationships may
contribute to your research problem. Consider generating as many
potential perspectives and variable interactions as possible. Identifying
the relationships between variables may be useful when deciding the
degree to which you can control them in your study and how they might
affect potential solutions to the problem you're addressing.

5 Select and include important variables

A clear and manageable research problem typically includes the

variables that are most relevant to the study. A research team
summarizes how they plan to consider and use these variables and how
they might influence the results of the study. Selecting the most
important variables can help the study's audience better understand the
trajectory of your research and the potential impact of the solution.

6. Receive feedback and revise

Consider contacting mentors, teachers or industry experts for feedback
on your research problem. They may present you with new information
to consider or suggest you edit a particular aspect of your research
design. Revising your research problem can be a valuable step in
creating impact ful and precise research, as well as developing beneficial
research skill However, before asking for feedback, try asking yourself
these guiding questions:

• Does my research problem allow for several solutions and

outcomes?

• Am I creating a study that has a testable hypothesis or theory?

• Am I defining all the terms correctly?

• Is my research objective comprehensive?

• Are all parts of my project understandable?

Formulating a Research Problem Once you have identified the general

area of interest and specific research objectives, you can then formulate
your research problem. Things to consider when formulating a research
problem:

 Clarity and Specificity: Your research problem should be concise,

specific, and devoid of ambiguity. Avoid vague statements that
could lead to confusion or misinterpretation.
 Originality: Strive to formulate a research problem that addresses a
unique and unexplored aspect of your field. Originality is key to
making a meaningful contribution to the existing knowledge.
 Feasibility: Ensure that your research problem is feasible within
the constraints of time, resources, and available data. Unrealistic
research problems can hinder the progress of your study.
 Refining the Research Problem: It is common for the research
problem to evolve as you delve deeper into your study. Don’t be
afraid to refine and revise your research problem if necessary. Seek
 feedback from colleagues, mentors, and experts in your field to
ensure the strength and relevance of your research problem.

Selection of Research Problem

There are some suggestion for the graduate students and researchers
which are drawn from the different areas of education, social sciences as
well as psychology. There are two factors in the selection of topic

external and personal. External criteria involves how the topic is

important for the field, availability of both data and data collection
methods and the administration is cooperative or not. Personal Criteria
means researcher own interest, time and cost. Criteria for selection of
research problem depends on the following characteristics.

Personal Inclination. The chief motivation in the way of selecting

research problem is the personal inclination of the researcher. If a
researcher has personal interest in the topic, he would select that
problem for his research work.

Resources Availability. During the selection, a researcher will see to

the resources available. If these resources like money, time,
accommodation and transport are available to the selection place, then
the selection of the problem is easy.

Relative Importance. The importance and the problem also play a vital
role in the selection of research problem. If the problem is relatively
important, then the researcher tends towards the selection of the
problem.
Researcher Knowledge. The researcher knowledge should play a vital
role in the selection of the research problem. The wisdom and
experience of an investigator is required for well collection of the
research data. He can bitterly select a problem.
Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection. The
practical usefulness of the problem is the main motivation for a
researcher to attend it.

Time-lines of the Problem. some problems take little time for its
solution while others take more time. So, it depends on the time in which
we have to complete his research work.

Data Availability. If the desired data is available to the researcher, then

the problem would be selected.

Urgency. Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research

problem. Urgent problem must be given priority because the immediate
solution can benefit the people.

Feasibility. Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the

research problem. The researcher qualification, training and experience
should match the problem.

Area Culture. The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts
his research is also responsible for the selection of research problem.

Characteristic of Research Problem

Any research is a difficult task to achieve and research needs to do a
great effort. Selection of research topic is the first step to success.

1. Research topic must be very clear and easy to understand. It

should not distract people.
 2. If a topic is well define is the only way to successful research.
The topic should not create doubt and double impression.
3. Easy language is a key to success. Use technical words if
necessary otherwise focus of simplicity.
4. Research title should be according to the rules of titling. There
are different rules of titling, a researcher must aware before
writing a research title.
5. While selecting a research topic current importance of a
researcher should also be considered. Topic should not be
obsolete and it should have great importance in the current
day.

Necessity of Defining a Research Problem

The problem to be researched needs to be described unambiguously as

that will help you to discriminate useful data from the unrelated ones. A
proper formulation of research problem will allow the investigator to
be on the track in contrast to an ill-defined problem may possibly create
difficulties.
Questions like: What data are to be gathered? What attributes of data are
appropriate and need to be analyzed? What relations should be
investigated. What methods should be employed for the purpose? as well
as other questions turn up in the head of the investigator who can well
plan his strategy and find solutions to these kinds of questions only
when the research problem has been well defined. Therefore, defining
the problem accurately is a necessity for any research and is a step of the
highest value.
In fact, formulation of a problem is often vital than its solution. It is only
on thoroughly describing the problem that we can work out the research
design and can efficiently proceed all the consequential steps needed
while doing research.

Important Points to Keep in Mind while Defining the Research

Problem
 1. The correct question needs to be addressed if research is to
help decision makers. A right answer to the wrong question
leads either to bad advice or to no advice.
2. Usually in problem we have an inclination to rationalize and
defend our actions once we have started upon a specific
research plan. The perfect time to examine and think about
alternative techniques is in the planning stage. If it is
completed unnecessary expense of false start and redoing work
may be prevented.
3. An excellent beginning in problem definition is to ask what the
decision maker want to know if the requested information can
be gathered without error and without expense.
4. Another excellent rule to follow is “Never settle on a specific
strategy” without developing and taking into consideration at
least one alternate option”.
5. The problem definition stage of research is the determination
and structuring of the decision maker’s question. It should be
the decision maker’s question and not the researcher’s
question.
6. What decision do you face? Unless you have decision to make,
there isn’t any research problem.
7. What are the alternatives? In case there are no options to
choose, once again there is absolutely no research problem.
8. What are the factors for selecting the best alternative? Unless
you have criteria for evaluation, again there’s no problem.
9. The researcher should stay away from the acceptance of the
superficial and the obvious.
Frequently we all hear that a problem clearly expressed is a problem half
solved. This statement indicates the necessity of defining a research
problem in research methodology. This actually also results in a
smoother progress on all the following steps which are needed for
finishing a research project.
Importance of literature review in research:
The importance of literature review in scientific menuscript can be
condensed into an analytical feature to enable the multifold reach of its
significance. It adds value to the legitimacy of the research in many
ways:
1. Provides the interpretation of existing literature in light of
updated developments in the field to help in establishing the
consistency in knowledge and relevancy of existing materials
2. It helps in calculating the impact of the latest information in the
field by mapping their progress of knowledge.
3. It brings out the dialects of contradictions between various
thoughts within the field to establish facts
4. The research gaps scrutinized initially are further explored to
establish the latest facts of theories to add value to the field
5. Indicates the current research place in the schema of a
particular field
6. Provides information for relevancy and coherency to check the
research
7. Apart from elucidating the continuance of knowledge, it also
points out areas that require further investigation and thus aid
as a starting point of any future research
8. Justifies the research and sets up the research question
9. Sets up a theoretical framework comprising the concepts and
theories of the research upon which its success can be judged
10. Helps to adopt a more appropriate methodology for the
research by examining the strengths and weaknesses of existing
research in the same field
11. Increases the significance of the results by comparing it with
the existing literature
12. Provides a point of reference by writing the findings in
the scientific menuscript
13. Helps to get the due credit from the audience for having done
the fact-finding and fact-checking mission in the scientific
manuscripts
14. The more the reference of relevant sources of it could
increase more of its trustworthiness with the readers
15. By preventing plagarism, it saves the scientific manuscript
from rejection and thus also saves a lot of time and money
16. Helps to evaluate, condense and synthesize gist in the
author’s own words to sharpen the research focus
17. Helps to compare and contrast to show the originality and
uniqueness of the research than that of the existing other
researches
18. Rationalizes the need for conducting the particular research
in a specified field
19. Helps to collect data accurately for allowing any new
methodology of research than the existing ones
 20. Enables the readers of the manuscript to answer the following
questions of its readers for its better chances for publication
 What do the researchers know?

 What do they not know?

 Is the scientific manuscript reliable and trustworthy?
 What are the knowledge gaps of the researcher?
21. It helps the readers to identify the following for further
reading of the scientific manuscript:

 What has been already established, discredited and accepted in

the particular field of research
 Areas of controversy and conflicts among different schools of
thought
 Unsolved problems and issues in the connected field of
research
 The emerging trends and approaches
 How the research extends, builds upon and leaves behind from
the previous research
.

points must also be observed while defining a research problem:

 a) A technical terms and words or phrases, with special
meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be
clearly defined.
b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the
research problem should be clearly stated.
c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation
(i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be
provided.
d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data
availableust also be considered by the researcher in defining
the problem.
e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in
defining a research problem.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW IN DEFINING A

PROBLEM A new research is depends on the past knowledge, and
not includes a part of knowledge. A literature review is an account
of what has been published in books, journals and internet on a
topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In general, the
literature review should:

1.Literature review is most important to identify the problem of

the study. It can be solved by collection of data. It is very
important to know that the work is doing by researcher in a
research should not be repeated again (or if it is repeated, that it is
marked as a "replication study").

2.It also helps to avoid the mistakes, which already done by

another one.

3.A new research is depends on the past knowledge, and not

includes a part of knowledge.

4.It verifies that it has not been already done (outline gaps in
previous research).
The literature review performs a number of important
functions:

1.It demonstrates to a Ph.D committee that the student has read a

large amount of statistical literature to prove that the student is
aware of the wide range of research in theory and methodology
related to the proposed research topic.

2.It provides proof to a Ph.D committee that the student has a deep
understanding of the published statistical research related to the
topic of the dissertation.

3.It should convince the Ph.D committee that the student can
communicate this understanding of the statistical literature and its
relationship to the proposed research.

4.It should support the originality and relevance for the Ph.D
research problem. i.This is done by identifying specific gaps in the
statistical literature. That is, the student identifies statistical
questions that have not been answered and problems that have not
been solved. ii.By identifying gaps in the statistical literature, the
student can justify the originality of the proposed dissertation
research. The originality can be an extension of research that has
been published or a modification of existing methodology or
theory that can be used to perform the Ph.D research.

5.In the proposal the student emphasizes or stresses the originality

of the dissertation. Without a good literature review, the student
cannot convince the committee that that the proposed research is
original.

6.A dissertation may be unacceptable because the Ph.D student

does not clearly show that the research problem is original due to a
poor literature review.
 7.Remember: the Literature Review is more than a summary of
publications. It provides evidence that your research will be an
original and relevant contribution to statistics. SURVE

Primary Sources
Primary resources contain first-hand information, meaning that you are
reading the author’s own account on a specific topic or event that s/he
participated in. Examples of primary resources include scholarly
research articles, books, and diaries. Primary sources such as research
articles often do not explain terminology and theoretical principles in
detail. Thus, readers of primary scholarly research should have
foundational knowledge of the subject area. Use primary resources to
obtain a first-hand account to an actual event and identify original
research done in a field. For many of your papers, use of primary
resources will be a requirement.
Examples of a primary source are:

 Original documents such as diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters,

interviews, records, eyewitness accounts, autobiographies
 Empirical scholarly works such as research articles, clinical
reports, case studies, dissertations
 Creative works such as poetry, music, video, photography

Secondary Sources
Secondary sources describe, summarize, or discuss information or
details originally presented in another source; meaning the author, in
most cases, did not participate in the event. This type of source is written
for a broad audience and will include definitions of discipline specific
terms, history relating to the topic, significant theories and principles,
and summaries of major studies/events as related to the topic. Use
secondary sources to obtain an overview of a topic and/or identify
primary resources. Refrain from including such resources in an
annotated bibliography for doctoral level work unless there is a good
reason.
Examples of a secondary source are:

 Publications such as textbooks, magazine articles, book reviews,

commentaries, encyclopedias, almanacs

Introduction: Research Monographs are “separately published reports on

original research that are too long, too specialized, or otherwise
unsuitable for publication in one of the standard journals. Each
Monograph is self-contained, frequently summarizes existing theory or
practice before presenting the author’s original and previously
unpublished work, and is likely to be one of a series of such research
monographs in the same field.” However, it may be added that
ordinarily, a monograph is a short treatise. It differs from a treatise in the
same that it is work done on a more limited scale. Otherwise, both have
the same features and serve the same purposes. A research monograph
presents the results of the original research.Research Monographs

Reviews

A literature review is a scholarly paper which provides an overview of

current knowledge about a topic. It will typically include substantive
fndings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a
particular topic . Traditionally in education ‘reviewing the literature’ and
‘doing research’ have been viewed as distinct activities. Consider the
standard format of research proposals, which usually have some kind of
‘review’ of existing knowledge presented distinctly from the methods of
the proposed new primary research. However, both reviews and research
are undertaken in order to find things out.

Reviews to fnd out what is already known from pre-existing research

about a phenomena, subject or topic; new primary research to provide
answers to questions about which existing research does not provide
clear and/or complete answers. When we use the term research in an
academic sense it is widely accepted that we mean a process of asking
questions and generating knowledge to answer these questions using
rigorous accountable methods.

As we have noted, reviews also share the same purposes of generating

knowledge but historically we have not paid as much attention to the
methods used for reviewing existing literature as we have to the methods
used for primary research.

Research Monographs

A research monograph is a detailed, in-depth publication that delves into

a particular topic or subject matter. It is a type of academic writing that
is designed to present original research findings, analyses, and
interpretations. Research monographs are often published by academic
publishers or university presses, and they are typically intended for a
specialized audience of scholars, researchers, and graduate students.

Research monographs can take various forms, depending on the

discipline or field of study. They can be theoretical, empirical, or a
combination of both. They can focus on a single topic or cover a broad
range of related topics. They can also vary in length, from relatively
short publications to massive tomes that span hundreds of pages.

The primary purpose of a research monograph is to advance knowledge

and understanding in a particular field or discipline. To achieve this
objective, the author must undertake extensive research, analyze data,
and develop arguments based on evidence. The author must also
demonstrate mastery of the relevant literature and critically review
existing research on the topic.
The structure of a research monograph typically follows a standard
format, which includes an introduction, literature review, methodology,
results, discussion, and conclusion. The introduction provides an
overview of the topic and the research question, while the literature
review summarizes previous research on the topic. The methodology
section outlines the research design and methods for collecting and
analyzing data. The results section presents the findings of the study, and
the discussion section interprets and contextualizes those findings.
Finally, the conclusion summarizes the key points of the study and
identifies areas for further research.

Patents


Patent is an official document giving it’s owner sole right to make, use
or sell the invention and preventing others from using it or copying it.It
is an invention that is legally protected.

Types of Patent:
1. Utility Patent –
It is a patent which applies to the creation of a new or
improved product or process. Example:-Nail cutter, washing
machine, process of making steel etc.
2. Design Patent –
It is a patent which applies to the shape of any material, the
shape must be new and original. Design Patent is given for the
aesthetic of material not for utility. Example:-cut of a dress,
shape of an automobile etc.
 3. Plant Patent –
It is a patent which is given to the new variety of plants that are
asexually reproduced. A plant is asexually reproduced if it is
reproduced by a method such as cutting or grafting instead of
using seeds.
4. Example: - A golden color flower created through grafting.

Criteria for Patent:

 Novelty –
This means inventions should be new and original and not
disclosed to the public before filling the application date.
 Usefulness –
This means that invention must be useful and industrially
applicable.it must serve some Useful Purpose and help the
society.
 Inventiveness –
This means that invention could not be created by applying
previous knowledge and concepts .It should not be obvious and
lacking creativity.It must be an inventive solution.

Advantages of Patent:

1. It gives you a right to prevent imitating, manufacturing or

selling of your invention without your consent.
2. It provides a legal protection to the invention.
3. It gives you a way of generating income through licensing.
4. It encourages new invention and promotes growth in the
society.
5. It gives credits to the owner of invention and higher return of
investment.
 Research Database

A database is a searchable collection of information. A research database

is where you find journal, magazine, and newspaper articles also.
Each database contains thousands of articles published in many different
journals, allowing you to find relevant articles faster than you would by
searching individual journals.
It might be helpful for you to learn more about research databases,
especially if you frequently conduct research for your job or as part of
your academic program. Thus, the advantages of using a research
database are discussed in this article, along with a list of databases you
can use to acquire information.
ADVANTAGES OF USING DATABASES FOR RESEARCH
The following are a few advantages to the use of research databases;
Reliable sources
Research databases contain papers and other materials written by experts
in particular disciplines. As a result, they are typically more trustworthy
than a source you may locate via a standard search engine. You can
acquire support for your work and guarantee that you use accurate
information by using trusted sites. When studying a subject you are
unfamiliar with, knowing that a source you find through a database is
trustworthy can save you time and give you peace of mind.
Citations
Citations are frequently included in the sources you often discover in a
research database for any data they used from other sources. They
frequently include a reference you can use to acknowledge that
particular source. Therefore, using the source in a research paper or
presentation can help you save time and guarantee that you correctly
reference the source. Databases frequently provide citations in a variety
of styles, for instance MLA, APA, and Chicago.
 Accessibility
Research databases come in a wide variety, for instance some are
available for free, while some are paid for. Similarly, most databases are
for a particular field while some are general purposes This may make
them more accessible to academics and professionals. Professionals can
easily locate peer-reviewed, scholarly sources using research databases.
This experience differs from using a conventional search engine in that it
requires more time and effort to sift through the results to pick one that
is relevant and trustworthy

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN USING AN INTERNET AND A

DATABASE
Using a database for the location of resources is quite different from
using a search engine. Here’s what CSB/JSU Libraries has to say

Internet Database

Academic Search Premier,

Examples Google, Wikipedia
JSTOR, ScienceDirect

Anyone can publish and

anyone does. Difficult Authority/credentials are
Authority/Credentials to verify credentials. guaranteed. Most articles are
Results are not always scholarly and peer-reviewed.
scholarly.

Results Thousands. Duplicates Hundreds or fewer. Duplicates

are not filtered out. are filtered out. You can limit
 Internet Database

Many are not scholarly. to full text.

Lots of “noise” because

Databases focus on specific
there are no subject
subjects. Offer fewer but more
headings assigned.
Relevance relevant results. Results are
Information can be
from scholarly publishers and
biased, untrue, or
authors.
irrelevant.

Can limit by document Can limit by date, document

type such as pdf, doc) type, language, format, peer
Limiters
and source (for instance reviewed status, full text
gov, org, com) availability, and more.

Information from the

Internet is unstable. It Databases are a collection of
can disappear at any articles that have appeared in
Stability of
time. Researchers will journals. This makes their
information
often be asked to pay a status more stable than the
fee to access journal Internet.
articles.

Web as a Source
A Web source is the content you receive when sending a web request
into the web. A web request can take the form of a URI, URL, SPARQL
query etc.
Internet Sources
You might have discovered since you've come to ETSU that many
professors are leery about allowing students to use web sites in research
papers. The truth is that the internet contains a lot of information that is
not available elsewhere (e. g. the U.S. government publishes almost
exclusively to the internet). How do you find appropriate web sites for
your college papers?
Here are two suggestions that should help when you use Google:

1. Use Google Scholer - Google Scholer can help you identify the most
relevant research including peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, and
abstracts and articles from academic publishers, professional societies,
preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations.
The easiest ways to find Google Scholer is to google "Scholar" or type
the URL, "https://scholar.google.com/" into either the search or address
box.
You can make this search more powerful by setting a library link for
ETSU. Click on Settings (located in the upper right corner of the page).
The library links button is located on the left side of the page under the
language link. We recommend that you set a language limit to English
unless you can read other languages.
2. Use domain searching. Not all domains are created equal (the
domain is the part of the URL that comes after the dot). The three
domains that would be most useful for your searches will be:

BENEFITS OF USING THE WEB

With the preceding litany of problems with using the web, one might
wonder whether the frustration and expense of such a resource can be
justified. Looking now at the potential of the web with its superior
timeliness and currency, interactivity, multimedia and hypertext
capabilities, flexibility, and wealth of information, librarians can ill
afford to ignore this resource.
4.1. Timeliness

One of the web's strongest assets is its ability to provide current and
timely information. Sites with business data (currency exchange rates,
stock market data), geo-political information, weather, and current news
exploit the webs potential to provide information with an immediacy
than is impossible in print. Examples of these sites include the Weather
Net (http://cirrus.sprl.umich.edu/wxnet), which provides access to
current conditions, forecasts, satellite images, and other weather-related
information, and current news sites (such as
http://www.yahoo.com/news) which provide newswire services, world
headline news, and links to online daily newspapers. The volatility of
this data and the time lag between gathering, publishing, and making it
available on the library's shelves strongly mitigates against
disseminating it in traditional print media.

4.2. Interactivity

The web's interactive capabilities provide functions not possible through

standard print sources. An increasing number of sites have interactive
features where calculations such as unit conversion
(http://www.eardc.swt.edu/cgi-bin/ucon/ucon.pl), local times around the
world (http://www.aus.net/times), and distance calculations
(http://www.indo.com/distance) are performed automatically. Moreover,
interactivity with librarians is increasingly possible, as numerous library
reference departments now provide the opportunity for users to ask
reference questions via the library's web site. One of the principle
innovators of this service in the U.S., is the Internet Public Library
(http://ipl.org), which provides an interactive information service at it's
"Ask a Reference Question" page. Guidelines are provided and users
submit question on online form or initiate an interactive reference
session.

4.3. Multimedia and Hypertext Capabilities

In the traditional library, print is the primary means by which
information is acquired and disseminated. Separate media centers may
provide audio and video recordings, but largely there is little integration
of these media with the print collection. Web sites, like the new
generation of CD-ROMs, provide for true integration of text, sound, and
image, including video, for example, the web hosts dictionaries which
include audio pronunciation guides, and sites which integrate music and
dance clips into the text. Moreover, with its dynamic system of links, the
web is able to draw related materials and information together far more
seamlessly and effectively than is possible in print. As Stuart Weibel
observes, "The opportunity to weave a publication into the context of
related scholarship (by embedding explicit links to related articles) will
enhance the usefulness of the literature to the scholar." (Weibel, 1995).

4.4. Availability

Unlike traditional library collections, which must be used in a specific

place and time, the web offers greater flexibility regarding where and
when its information can be accessed. While achieving this capability
requires powerful and properly configured hardware, necessary
software, and ability to connect to the network, the consequent
availability in the classroom, lab, office, or home, offers unprecedented
accessibility. Despite the instability of web sites and unpredictable
access to servers, the web offers the advantage of simultaneous use by
multiple users. Since library materials can only be used by one person at
a time, and are subject to being lost or mutilated, web access to a heavily
used resource can help ensure its availability to users.

4.5. Library-Related Resources

Perhaps the most powerful feature of the web, however, is the wealth of
information it contains, much of which is not available in even the
largest library collections. If the intrepid librarian succeeds in wading
through the morass of advertising, popular culture, and hype that
accompanies using the web, he or she finds that useful sites actually do
exist. Foremost among these are the home pages of libraries, universities
and research centers, and professional organizations, which frequently
contain value added resources. For instance, the U.S. Library of
Congress site (http://www.loc.gov) includes historical photographs and
audio recordings, specialized databases such as the Vietnam War Era
POW/MIA Database, and exhibits, in addition to providing access (via
telnet) to their online catalog.

Though commercial databases such as the full text of Encyclopedia

Britannica are available through the web, their use is restricted to
subscribers. Nevertheless, librarians can access a considerable amount of
unrestricted (i.e., free) information, such as national and commercial
telephone directories, dictionaries, almanacs, etc. Numerous libraries
have organized links to these electronic reference sources (see
http://www.ipl.org/ref/RR). In some cases, however, quality may be
sacrificed for convenience as the some of these resources are not as
authoritative or dependable as their print counterparts.

Journal literature is of particular interest to scholars, and delivery of

current, authoritative articles to a desktop is a researcher's dream. Since
this literature is subject to copyright restrictions, however, full text
articles are generally available only on a subscription basis, frequently
through a vendor such as OCLC's FirstSearch. Though an increasing
number of electronic journals published on the net are freely available
(see http://www.edoc.com/ejournal for a classified listing) they may not
be subject to the peer review quality-control process. The availability of
newspapers is somewhat better, since an increasingly diverse collection
of newspapers from around the world is online (see
http://www.yahoo.com/news/newspapers). While these are rarely the
exact equivalent of the paper copy, they nonetheless provide vital
information beyond the library's budget to acquire in print.

In summary, the web's potential for expanding a library's existing

resources is considerable. Whether providing timely information such as
international news, interactive information services, multimedia, or
connections to remote libraries, the dynamic nature of the web offers a
rich complement to the static and stable print collection.

5. STRATEGIES FOR FINDING INFORMATION ON THE WEB

The next challenge is to determine whether useful sites exist for meeting
specific information needs. Unfortunately, current tools for locating a
specific site--analogous to finding a book if you know the title--are not
yet up to the task. Precise recall is possible only by knowing the URL
(uniform resource locator), the "address" of a site. Otherwise, browsing
through topically arranged web directories, such as Yahoo, or submitting
keywords to one of the indexes, such as Alta Vista, offer the best
possibility for locating information on a topic. Thanks to the dynamic
system of links which connect a site to related resources on the web,
navigating is easy once you get started--the problem then becomes one
of evaluating the quality of the information you've accessed. The
following section proposes general strategies for searching and
evaluating information on the web.

5.1. Published Directories

The easiest way to get to a specific site is by knowing the URL, which is
analogous to the call number. Various publications such as Yahoo
Unplugged (1995) or specialized titles such as Deutschsprachige Seiten
im Internet (1995) provide a starting point for reaching sites on various
topics. Since the sites have been pre-selected and possibly reviewed,
they may be among the better resources. Though easy to use, the
disadvantage of these printed directories is that they do not stay current
and become quickly dated.

5.2. Web-Based Subject Directories

Whether generated by the altruism of energetic individuals or created as

an entrepreneurial venture, classified "lists" of sites are a useful
mechanism for organizing web resources by general topic. In most
cases, a keyword search through the sites in the directory provides an
additional search strategy. One pioneering service, the Clearinghouse for
Subject-Oriented Internet Resource Guides
(http://www.clearinghouse.net) offers over 200 topical guides, each
containing dozens or hundreds of links to related resources. Other sites,
such as the Internet Public Library (http://ipl.org) are smaller, more
focused, and highly selective. Though reviews of web sites and other
Internet resources are beginning to appear in the literature (Collins,
1996), and critical reasoning skills tell us what to look for in appraising
information, applying quick evaluative judgments to web sites is
difficult. These classified lists, particularly when carefully chosen,
represent the closest equivalent of recommended sites. These lists are far
from comprehensive, however, and there is an inverse relationship
between the quantity of links generated by one of these directories, and
the overall quality of the links. Larger sites, such as Yahoo
(http://www.yahoo.com) contain thousands of links in hierarchically
organized categories, but the quality of the sites varies considerably.

5.3. Search Engines

Unlike the relatively controlled universe of sites contained in the subject

directories, web search engines such as Alta Vista
(http://www.altavista.digital.com) or Lycos (http://www.lycos.com)
scour millions of pages in a search. These search engines provide
keyword and Boolean searching capabilities, so that one can find sites
relating to a specific subject (e.g., Nelson Mandela). Due to the size of
the database and imprecision of the search fields, however, searches
frequently result in too many irrelevant hits.

While the Internet is popularly referred to as the Information Highway, a

more apt analogy is a labyrinth. A journey through a labyrinth is not
linear and multiple options must be attempted before success is met. So
too with searching the web. The preceding discussion offers a few
starting points, but finally, multiple strategies with multiple tools
(classified lists, search engines, following links) yield the best results.

Searching the Web

he World Wide Web (WWW) is one of the most used Internet
applications and contains a variety of information resources. It is an
information system based on hypertext and hypermedia with Uniform
Resource Locators (URL), which are addresses that allow users to move
from document to document within the computer network.
This system allows users to view documents that often include formatted
text, graphics, audio, and video..
While the Web has a vast amount of information such as current news,
government organizations, and links to libraries, it is important to
understand that the WWW does not contain everything and all
information is not factual. Additionally, it is important to note that some
resources are proprietary or fee based.To effectively do research using
the WWW, you should understand the tools to search, the Web's content,
its organization, and its strengths and weaknesses.

Navigating and searching the web

Introduction
 The World Wide Web is a collection of web pages stored on
computers connected to the Internet.
 We call the ‘World Wide Web’ the ‘web’ for short.
 Often when you see WWW at the front of a website address,
this means that it was created to be part of the World Wide
Web.

The World Wide Web

 Each webpage has a unique address, known as a Uniform
Resource Locator (URL).
 If you know the address, it can be typed into the web browser
address bar, and the browser will retrieve a copy of the page
 and display it on your computer.

2 Navigating the web

 Webpages contain information in the form of text, pictures and

videos, as well as providing links to other webpages using
URLs.
 These links are called hyperlinks and they make the web an
easy way to search for information.
 A hyperlink may be a link to another page on the same website, or
it may be a webpage from another website from elsewhere in the
world.

 If you drew lines between linked pages, it would appear to be a

giant mesh or web spanning the world, hence the name ‘World
Wide Web’.
3 Hyperlinks
 Moving your mouse cursor over a hyperlink will typically
change the cursor to a pointing hand:
 The hyperlink itself can be shown as a full URL:
http:\\www.google.com

 Alternatively, the hyperlink can be embedded within an image

or a section of on-screen text:
 Regardless of how the hyperlink is presented on the webpage,
it will provide a connection to the page or resource required.
 You should always be cautious when using hyperlinks, as they
can be created to connect to a different site than the one shown
on the page. Hyperlinks can be used to take you to a website
created by criminals who wish to learn private information
about you and perhaps steal your passwords.
 Activity: URLs
1. Try following the link below. Does it take you to the website
you expect?
http://www.itv.com/

2. Try this link too. Does it take you to the website you expect?
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ newThe web contains a vast number of
pages on a multitude of subjects. What sort of things do you
search for? Perhaps some of the following:

o films
o friends
o celebrities
o help with homework
o shopping
o games
o local services (eating out, train times, etc.).
 When you search for things on the web, you normally use
a search engine, which is an extremely large computer
algorithm that discovers new webpages as they are created, and
then lists relevant webpages when asked by you. Google, Bing
and Yahoo! are examples of popular search engines.
 When you open up a web browser such as Edge, Firefox or
Chrome, you will often be taken to the search engine preferred
by the browser’s developer, for example Microsoft Edge is
very fond of Microsoft Bing!
 When you type something into a search engine, it will search
through all the webpages it knows about and provide a list of
relevant sites. Depending on what you have asked the search
 engine to look for, you may be presented with a very long list
of possible websites!
critical literature review
A critical literature review is an essential component in academic
research, providing a detailed analysis and evaluation of existing
literature in a specific field. This review goes beyond mere summary,
offering a critical appraisal of the strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in
current research. It’s an opportunity to engage deeply with the material,
challenging assumptions, and contributing original perspectives to the
academic discourse. hether you are writing the literature review as a
stand-alone chapter or as part of your research project, writing a critical
review of literature is one of the basic skills that you need to develop
during your studies It is important to be aware of what makes a
literature review ‘critical’ as compared to 'descriptive'.

Purpose of a Critical Literature Review

 Identifying Research Gaps: It helps in pinpointing areas that
require further investigation.
 Establishing a Theoretical Framework: The review assists in
framing the theoretical basis for the research.
 Demonstrating Knowledge: It showcases the researcher’s
understanding and expertise in the subject area.

Steps in Conducting a Critical Literature Review

1. Defining the Scope
 Clearly outline the boundaries of the review, focusing on
specific topics, time frames, and methodologies.
2. Sourcing Relevant Literature
 Conduct a thorough search across various databases and
academic journals to gather pertinent literature.
3. Evaluating Sources
 Critically assess the credibility, relevance, and quality of the
sources selected.
4. Analyzing and Synthesizing Information
 Analyze the literature for key themes, trends, and patterns.
Synthesize the information to present a coherent narrative.
5. Critical Appraisal
 Critique the methodologies, findings, and arguments of the
literature, noting any biases or limitations.

Writing the Review

 Introduction: Set the context and state the objectives of the
review.
 Body: Organize the literature into themes or categories. Discuss
each piece of literature critically.
 Conclusion: Summarize the key findings and highlight the
research gaps or questions that emerge.

Challenges in Critical Literature Review

 Information Overload: Managing a vast amount of literature
can be overwhelming.
 Bias in Selection: There’s a risk of selecting literature that only
supports the researcher’s viewpoint.

Best Practices for an Effective Review

 Maintaining Objectivity: Strive to be unbiased and balanced in
the evaluation of literature.
 Regular Updates: Keep the review updated with the latest
research to maintain its relevance.

Conclusion
A critical literature review is a rigorous, analytical process that demands
a high level of scholarly expertise. It’s a foundational element in
research that not only informs but also challenges and shapes the
academic field. By following a structured approach and adhering to best
practices, researchers can produce a comprehensive and insightful
review that significantly contributes to their area of study.
Development of Working Hypothesis

 After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences.
 As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is
particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They
also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of
data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis
 In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an
important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece
of research in hand because it has to be tested.
 The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and
focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also
indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis
to be used.

How does one go about developing working hypotheses?

 The answer is by using the following approach:

a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and
the objectives in seeking a solution;

b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for

possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems
d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews
on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure
greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.

 Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the

subject, examination of the available data and material including related
studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties. Working
hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms.
 It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a
problem where we do not need working hypotheses, especially in the case of
exploratory or formulate researches which do not aim at testing the
hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in
another basic step of the research process in most research problems.