INTRODUCTION AND

OVERVIEW OF MANUFACTURING

1. What is Manufacturing?
2. Materials in Manufacturing
3. Manufacturing Processes
4. Production Systems
5. Manufacturing Economics
 What is manufacturing?

―act of making something (a product)

from raw materials‖
 Manufacturing is Important

 Manufacturing is important to the United States and

most other developed and developing nations
 Technologically
 Economically
 Historicaly

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Manufacturing -Technological
Importance

What is technology?
 Technology - the application of science to provide
society and its members with those things that are
needed or desired
 Technology affects our daily lives, directly and
indirectly, in many ways
 Technology provides the products that help our
society and its members live better

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Manufacturing - Technological
Importance
 What do these products have in common?
 They are all manufactured
 They would not be available to our society if they
could not be manufactured
 Manufacturing is the essential factor that makes
technology possible

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Manufacturing - Economically
Important
U.S. Economy
Sector: %GDP
Agriculture and natural resources 5
Construction and public utilities 5
Manufacturing 12
Service industries* 78
100
* includes retail, transportation, banking,
communication, education, and government

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 What is Manufacturing?

 The word manufacture is derived from two Latin

words manus (hand) and factus (make); the
combination means ―made by hand‖
 ―Made by hand‖ described the fabrication
methods.
 Most modern manufacturing operations are
accomplished by mechanized and automated
equipment that is supervised by human
workers
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Manufacturing - Technological

 Application of physical and chemical processes to alter the

geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a starting
material to make parts or products

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Manufacturing - Economically

 Transformation of materials into items of greater value

by one or more processing and/or assembly operations

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Manufacturing Example:
Artificial Heart Valve
Left: Heart valve Right: Starting titanium billet

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Manufacturing Industries
 What is industry?
 Industry consists of enterprises and organizations that
produce or supply goods and services.
 Industries can be classified as:
1. Primary industries - cultivate and exploit natural
resources, e.g., agriculture, mining
2. Secondary industries - take the outputs of primary
industries and convert them into consumer and capital
goods
3. Tertiary industries - service sector
Specific Industries in Each
Category
 Manufacturing Industries -
continued

 Secondary industries include manufacturing,

construction, and electric power generation
 Manufacturing includes several industries whose
products are not covered in this book; e.g., apparel,
beverages, chemicals, and food processing
 For our purposes, manufacturing means production of
hardware
 Nuts and bolts, forgings, cars, airplanes, digital
computers, plastic parts, and ceramic products
 Manufactured Products

 Final products divide into two major classes:

1. Consumer goods - products purchased directly by
consumers
 Cars, clothes, TVs, tennis rackets
2. Capital goods - those purchased by companies to
produce goods and/or provide services
 Aircraft, computers, communication
equipment, medical apparatus, trucks,
machine tools, construction equipment

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Production Quantity Q

 The quantity of products Q made by a factory has an

important influence on the way its people, facilities, and
procedures are organized
 Annual quantities can be classified into three ranges:
Production range Annual Quantity Q
Low production 1 to 100 units
Medium production 100 to 10,000 units
High production 10,000 to millions of units
 Product Variety P

 Product variety P refers to different product types or

models produced in the plant.
 Different products have different features
 They are intended for different markets
 Some have more parts than others
 The number of different product types made each year in a
factory can be counted
 When the number of product types made in the factory
is high, this indicates high product variety.
P vs Q in Factory Operations
 More About Product Variety

 Although P is quantitative, it is much less exact

than Q because details on how much the designs
differ is not captured simply by the number of
different designs.
 Soft product variety - small differences between
products, e.g., between car models made on the
same production line, with many common parts
 Hard product variety - products differ substantially,
e.g., between a small car and a large truck, with
few common parts (if any)
 Manufacturing Capability

 A manufacturing plant consists of processes and

systems (and people) to transform a certain limited
range of materials into products of increased value.
 The three building blocks - materials, processes, and
systems - are the subject of modern manufacturing
 Manufacturing capability includes:
1. Technological processing capability
2. Physical product limitations
3. Production capacity
 1. Technological Processing
Capability
 The set of available manufacturing processes in the
plant (or company)
 Certain manufacturing processes are suited to certain
materials, so by specializing in certain processes, the
plant is also specializing in certain materials.
 Includes not only the physical processes, but also the
expertise of the plant personnel
 A machine shop cannot roll steel
 A steel mill cannot build cars
 2. Physical Product Limitations

 Given a plant with a certain set of processes, there are

size and weight limitations on the parts or products that
can be made in the plant
 Product size and weight affect:-
 Production equipment
 Material handling equipment
 Production, material handling equipment, and plant
size must be planned for products that lie within a
certain size and weight range
 3. Production Capacity

 Defined as the maximum quantity that a plant can

produce in a given time period (e.g., month or year)
under assumed operating conditions
 Operating conditions refer to number of shifts
per week, hours per shift, direct labor manning
levels in the plant, and so on
 Usually measured in terms of output units, e.g.,
tons of steel or number of cars produced
 Also called plant capacity
 Materials in Manufacturing

 Most engineering materials can be classified into one of

three basic categories:
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
 Their chemistries are different, and their mechanical and
physical properties are different
 In addition, there is a fourth category:
4. Composites
Classification of
engineering
materials

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 1. Metals/ to be modified

 Usually alloys, which are composed of two or more

elements, at least one of which is metallic.
 Two basic groups:-
1. Ferrous metals - based on iron, comprises about
75% of metal tonnage in the world:-
 Steel = Fe-C alloy (0.02 to 2.11% C)
 Cast iron = Fe-C alloy (2% to 4% C)
2. Nonferrous metals - all other metallic elements and
their alloys:- aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel,
silver, tin, titanium, etc.
 2. Ceramics

 Compounds containing metallic (or semi-metallic) and

nonmetallic elements.
 Typical non-metallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen,
and carbon
 For processing, ceramics divide into:-
1. Crystalline ceramics – includes traditional
ceramics, such as clay, and modern ceramics,
such as alumina (Al2O3)
2. Glasses – mostly based on silica (SiO2)
 3. Polymers

 Compound formed of repeating structural units called

mers, whose atoms share electrons to form very large
molecules. Three categories:-
1. Thermoplastic polymers - can be subjected to
multiple heating and cooling cycles without altering
molecular structure
2. Thermosetting polymers - molecules chemically
transform into a rigid structure – cannot reheat
3. Elastomers - shows significant elastic behavior
 4.In Addition: Composites

 Nonhomogeneous mixtures of the other three basic

types rather than a unique category

 Venn diagram of
three basic
material types
plus composites
 4. Composites

 Material consisting of two or more phases that are

processed separately and then bonded together to
achieve properties superior to its constituents
 Phase - homogeneous material, such as grains of
identical unit cell structure in a solid metal
 Usual structure consists of particles or fibers of
one phase mixed in a second phase
 Properties depend on components, physical
shapes of components, and the way they are
combined to form the final material
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
2.Manufacturing Processes
 WHY STUDY
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES?

 The designer and the drafter must have a working

knowledge of the various processes that could
produce a part in order to:-
 lower cost and
 reduce production time.
 Three Phases of The Manufacturing
Process

1. Product design.
2. Selection of materials.
3. Selection of production methods and
techniques
The information needed to produce a
part, most often comes in the form of a:

Working Drawing
Manufacturing Processes
 Two basic types:-
1. Processing operations - transform
a work material from one state of
completion to a more advanced
state
 Operations that change the geometry,
properties, or appearance of the starting
material
2. Assembly operations - join two or
more components to create a new
entity
Classification of manufacturing processes

2
Processing Operations
Alters a material‘s shape, physical
properties, or appearance in order to
add value
 Three categories of processing
operations:
I.Shaping operations - alter the
geometry of the starting work material

II.Property-enhancing operations -
improve physical properties without
changing shape

III.Surface processing operations - to

clean, treat, coat, or deposit material on
exterior surface of the work
 I.Shaping Processes – Four Categories

1. Solidification processes - starting material is a heated

liquid or semifluid
2. Particulate processing - starting material consists of
powders
3. Deformation processes - starting material is a ductile solid
(commonly metal)
4. Material removal processes - starting material is a ductile
or brittle solid
 1.Solidification Processes

 Starting material is heated sufficiently to transform it into a

liquid or highly plastic state
 (1) Casting process and (2) casting product
 2. Particulate Processing

 Starting materials are powders of metals or ceramics

(1) Starting materials are metal or ceramic powders,
which are (2) pressed and (3) sintered
 3.Deformation Processes

 Starting workpart is shaped by application of forces

that exceed the yield strength of the material
 Examples: (a) forging and (b) extrusion
 4.Material Removal Processes

 Excess material removed from the starting piece so what

remains is the desired geometry
 Examples: (a) turning, (b) drilling, and (c) milling

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Waste in Shaping Processes

 It is desirable to minimize waste in part shaping

 Material removal processes are wasteful in the unit
operations, but molding and particulate processing
operations waste little material
 Terminology for minimum waste processes:
 Net shape processes - little or no waste of the
starting material and no machining is required
 Near net shape processes - when minimum
machining is required
 II.Property-Enhancing Processes

 Processes that improve mechanical or physical

properties of work material.
 Examples:
 Heat treatment of metals and glasses
 Sintering of powdered metals and ceramics
 Part shape is not altered, except unintentionally
 Example: unintentional warping of a heat treated
part
 III. Surface Processing Operations

 Cleaning - chemical and mechanical processes to

remove dirt, oil, and other surface contaminants
 Surface treatments - mechanical working such as sand
blasting, and physical processes like diffusion
 Coating and thin film deposition - coating exterior
surface of the workpart
 Examples:
 Electroplating
 Painting
 Assembly Operations

 Two or more separate parts are joined to form a new

entity
Types of assembly operations:
1. Joining processes – create a permanent joint
 Welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding
2. Mechanical assembly – fastening by mechanical
methods
 Threaded fasteners (screws, bolts and nuts);
press fitting, expansion fits

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 ASSEMBLY OPERATIONS
 The second basic type of manufacturing operation is
assembly, in which two or more separate parts are joined
to form a new entity.
 Components of the new entity are connected either
permanently or semi permanently.
 Permanent joining processes include welding, brazing,
soldering, and adhesive bonding.
 Nonpermanent mechanical assembly methods are
available to fasten two (or more) parts together. The use of
screws, bolts, and other.
 Other mechanical assembly techniques form a more
permanent connection; these include rivets, press fitting,
and expansion fits.
 Production Machines and
Tooling

 Manufacturing operations are accomplished

using machinery and tooling (and people).
 Types of production machines:
 Machine tools - power-driven machines
used to operate cutting tools previously
operated manually
 Other production equipment:-
 Presses
 Forge hammers,
 Plastic injection molding machines
 What is a Manufacturing
System?

• In today's fast-paced and ever-changing world,

manufacturing plays a vital role in the economy.
• A manufacturing system is a collection of
machines, tools, and processes that are used to
produce goods or services.
• It typically includes the steps of raw materials
acquisition, processing, assembly, and distribution.
 A manufacturing system must have
three basic components: -

• Inputs – raw materials or parts that will be used in

the manufacturing process
• Processes – the methods and techniques used to
transform the inputs into the desired output
• Outputs – the products or services that are
created as a result of the manufacturing process
 The goal of any manufacturing system is to
produce outputs of the highest quality, at the
lowest cost, and in the shortest amount of time
possible. In order to achieve this, manufacturers
must constantly strive to improve their processes
and equipment.
 What is its Importance?

• Manufacturing systems are important because they provide

the means by which products are created. Without
manufacturing systems, it would be difficult to produce the
vast array of goods that we have come to rely on in our
everyday lives. From the simplest of products to the most
complex, manufacturing systems play a vital role in their
creation.
• Moreover, manufacturing systems are constantly evolving
and improving. As new technologies are developed, they are
often incorporated into manufacturing systems to improve
efficiency and quality. This ongoing process of improvement
ensures that the products we rely on are constantly getting
 What is its Function?

• The manufacturing system is responsible for the

production of goods and materials. It is a complex system
that involves the coordination of resources, machines, and
workers in order to produce finished products. The
manufacturing system is an essential part of any economy
and plays a vital role in the production of consumer goods
and services.
• A well-functioning manufacturing system is important for a
variety of reasons, such as:-
 Ensure that products are of high quality and meet
customer expectations
 Improve efficiency and productivity, leading to lower costs
and increased profits
 What are the Characteristics of
a Manufacturing System?

 The characteristics of a manufacturing system include:-

 Efficiency – The manufacturing system must be designed
to produce products or services quickly and efficiently.
 Flexibility – It must be able to accommodate changes in
demand and produce different products or services as
needed.
 Quality – It must make products or services that meet the
required standards.
 Safety – It must be designed to protect workers from
injuries and hazards.
 Cost-effectiveness – The manufacturing system must be
designed to create products or services at a low cost.
 Production Systems

 People, equipment, and procedures used for the

materials and processes that constitute a firm's
manufacturing operations.
 A manufacturing firm must have systems and
procedures to efficiently accomplish its production
 Two categories of production systems: -
 Production facilities
 Manufacturing support systems
 People make the systems work
 Production Facilities

 Production facilities consist of the factory and the

production, material handling, and other
equipment in the factory.
 The equipment comes in direct physical contact
with the parts and/or assemblies as they are being
made. The facilities ‗‗touch‘‘ the product.
 Facilities also include the way the equipment is
arranged in the factory—the plant layout
 Production Facilities

 The equipment is usually organized into logical

groupings; which can be called manufacturing
systems.
 Examples:-
 Automated production line
 Machine cell consisting of three machine tools
 Etc…….
 Facilities vs Product Quantities

 A company designs its manufacturing systems and

organizes its factories to serve the particular mission of
each plant
 Certain types of production facilities are recognized as
most appropriate for a given type of manufacturing:
1. Low production – 1 to 100
2. Medium production – 100 to 10,000
3. High production – 10,000 to >1,000,000
!!!!!! See production system ased on numbers
quantities
 Manufacturing Support Systems

 A company must organize itself to design the processes

and equipment, plan and control production, and satisfy
product quality requirements
 Accomplished by manufacturing support systems
 The people and procedures by which a company
manages its production operations
 Typical departments:
 Manufacturing engineering,
 Production planning and
 control, Quality control
 Manufacturing Support Systems

 Manufacturing engineering. The manufacturing

engineering department is responsible for
planning the manufacturing processes—deciding
what processes should be used to make the parts
and assemble the products.
 This department is also involved in designing and
ordering the machine tools and other equipment
used by the operating departments to accomplish
processing and assembly.
 Manufacturing Support Systems

 Production planning and control. This department

is responsible for solving the logistics problem
in manufacturing— ordering materials and
purchased parts, scheduling production, and making
sure that the operating departments have the
necessary capacity to meet the production
schedules.
 Manufacturing Support Systems

 Quality control. Producing high-quality products

should be a top priority of any manufacturing firm in
today‘s competitive environment. It means designing
and A building products that conform to specifications
and satisfy or exceed customer expectations. Much of
this effort is the responsibility of the QC department.
 Manufacturing Economics

Manufacturing Cost Models

 Cycle time analysis is used to estimate the costs of

production, which include not only the cost of time but also
material and overhead.

 The cost of time consists of labor and equipment which are

applied to the average production time per piece as cost
rates (example : $/hr.)
 Manufacturing Economics

 Cost model for production cost per piece can be stated as

follows:- 𝐶𝑝𝑐 = 𝐶𝑚 + (𝐶𝑙 +𝐶𝑒𝑞 )𝑇𝑝 + 𝐶𝑡
Where, 𝐶𝑝𝑐 = Cost per piece ($/pc.)
𝐶𝑚 = Initial material cost ($/pc.)
𝐶𝑙 = Cost of labor ($/min.)
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = Cost of equipment ($/min.)
𝐶𝑡 = Cost of tooling in unit operations ($/pc.)
𝑇𝑝 = Average production time per piece (min/pc.)
 Manufacturing Economics

Overhead costs
 Factory overhead
Consists of the costs of running the factory excluding materials, direct labor,
and equipment.
 Corporate overhead
Consists of company expenses not related to the factory such as sales,
marketing, accounting, legal, research and development, office space,
utilities and health benefits.
 Manufacturing Economics

Equipment cost rate

• The cost of production equipment used in the factory is a
fixed cost, meaning that it remains constant for any level of
production output.
• It is a capital investment that is made in the hope that it will
pay for itself by producing a revenue stream that ultimately
exceeds its cost.
• Direct labor cost is a cost per time ($/min.) and material cost
is a cost per piece ($/pc.)
 Manufacturing Economics

Equipment cost rate

• The equipment cost rate is defined by the following
𝐼𝐶
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = (1 + 𝑅𝑂𝐻 )
60𝑁𝐻
Where
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = Equipment cost rate ($/min.)
𝐼𝐶 = Initial cost of the equipment ($)
𝑁 = Anticipated number of years of service
𝐻 = Annual number of hours of operation (hr./yr.)
𝑅𝑂𝐻 = Applicable overhead rate for the equipment (%).
 Examples

1 (A) A company invests $750,000 in a piece of production equipment. The cost

to install the equipment in the plant = $25,000. The anticipated life of the
machine = 12 years. The machine will be used eight hours per shift, five shifts
per week, 50 weeks per year. Applicable overhead rate = 18%. Assume
availability = 100%. Determine the equipment cost rate if (a) the plant
operates one shift per day and (b) the plant operates three shifts per day.
 Solution: (a) For a one-shift operation, hours of operation per year H =
50(1)(5)(8) = 2000 hr/yr. Using Eq. (1.8), Ceq = (750,000 + 25,000)(1.18)/(60
x 12 x 2000) = $0.635/min = $38.10/hr
 (b) For a three-shift operation, hours of operation per year H = 50(3)(5)(8) =
6000 hr/yr.
 Ceq = (750,000 + 25,000)(1.18)/(60 x 12 x 6000) = $0.212/min = $12.70/hr
 Note the significant advantage the company has if it runs three shifts per day
rather than one shift.
 Example 2

1 A stamping press produces sheet-metal stampings in batches. The press is operated by a worker
whose labor rate = $15.00/hr and applicable labor overhead rate = 42%. Cost rate of the press =
$22.50/hr and applicable equipment overhead rate = 20%. In one job of interest, batch size = 400
stampings, and the time to set up the die in the press takes 75 min. The die cost $40,000 and is
expected to last for 200,000 stampings. Each cycle in the operation, the starting blanks of sheet metal
are manually loaded into the press, which takes 42 sec. The actual press stroke takes only 8 sec. Cost
of the starting blanks = $0.43/pc. The press operates 250 days per year, 7.5 hours per day, but the
operator is paid for 8 hours per day. Assume availability = 100% and scrap rate = 0. Determine (a)
cycle time, (b) average production rate with and without setup time included, and (c) cost per
stamping produced.
 Solution: (a) Cycle time Tc = 42 + 8 = 50 sec = 0.833 min
 (b) Including setup time, Tp = 75/400 + 0.833 = 1.021 min
 Rp = 60/1.021 = 58.78 pc/hr
 Excluding setup time, Rc = 60/0.833 = 72.03 pc/hr
 (c) Equipment cost rate Ceq = 22.50(1.20)/60 = $0.45/min.
 Die cost per piece Ct = 40,000/200,000 = $0.20/pc
 Labor cost rate CL = 15.00(1.42)/60 = $0.355/min
 This labor cost should be adjusted for the fact that although the press operates 7.5 hr/day, the
operator is paid for 8 hr. CL = 0.355(8/7.5) = $0.379
 Finally, cost per stamping Cpc = 0.43 + (0.379 + 0.45)(1.021) + 0.20 = $1.48/pc
 Example 3

1 (A) During a particular 40-hour week of an automated production

operation, 336 acceptable (non-defective) parts and 22 defective parts
were produced. The operation cycle consists of a processing time of 5.73
min, and a part handling time of 0.38 min. Every 60 parts, a tool change is
performed, and this takes 7.2 min. The machine experienced several
breakdowns during the week. Determine (a) hourly production rate of
acceptable parts, (b) scrap rate, and (c) availability (proportion uptime) of
the machine during this week.
 Solution: (a) Production rate of acceptable parts Rp = 335/40 = 8.40 pc/hr
 (b) Total parts processed during the week Qo = 336 + 22 = 358 pc
 Scrap rate q = 22/358 = 0.0615 = 6.15%
 (c) Cycle time of the unit operation Tc = 5.73 + 0.38 + 7.2/60 = 6.23 min
 Total uptime during the week = 358(6.23) = 2230.34 min = 37.17 hr
 Proportion uptime A = 37.17/40 = 0.929 = 92.9%