MECH4411 Heat Transfer

Part 2 – Convective heat transfer

Lecture Note 3
Turbulent boundary layer heat transfer

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Objectives
1. Introduction to turbulent boundary layer

2. Eddy viscosity and mixing length

3. Turbulent heat transfer

4. Turbulent boundary layer thickness

5. Heat transfer in a tube

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Turbulent boundary layer heat transfer

A photo of turbulent flow region

(An Album of Fluid Motion, ed. M. van Dyke, 1982)

We can separate the turbulent boundary into 3 different layers:

Top turbulent layer: the main mechanism for momentum and

heat exchange is due to macroscopic lumps of fluid moving about
in the flow (i.e., eddy viscosity and eddy thermal conductivity).

Middle buffer layer: some turbulent action is experienced, but the

molecular viscous action and heat conduction are still important.

Bottom laminar sublayer: viscous action and heat transfer similar

to laminar flow. Velocity profile is linear.
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 Eddy viscosity ϵM
In turbulent flows, we need to deal with the eddy properties instead of the ordinary thermal conductivity and
viscosity. The eddy properties can be determined only from experimental data.

The instantaneous velocity in a turbulent flow has a significant fluctuation

(u′, v′) about the mean flow velocity (!u, v!):
u = u! + u′ " = v′
u′ "=0
where
v = v! + v′ u! + u′ v! + v′ = u! v! + u′v′
Insert and take average
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂2u ∂2u
ρ +u +v =− +μ +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x2 ∂y2
result in an extra term ∂u′v′
ρ
∂y

We can define an eddy viscosity ϵM such that

∂!u
τt = −ρu′v′ = ρϵM where τt is the turbulent shear stress.
∂y
The total shear stress is given by
τ ∂!u
= υ + ϵM
ρ ∂y 4
Mixing length ℓ
Here we introduce the Prandtl mixing length ℓ which is the distance traveled, on the average, by the turbulent
lumps of fluid in a direction normal to the mean flow (i.e., y-direction).
∂u ∂u
u y+ℓ ≈u y +ℓ u y − ℓ ≈u y −ℓ
∂y ∂y
Assume that the turbulent fluctuation u′ is proportional to the mean of the above two quantities,
∂u
u′ ≈ ℓ
∂y
The turbulent-shear stress can be written as,
!
∂u ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
τt = −ρu′v′ = ρℓ2 , τ t = ρϵM → ϵM = ℓ2
∂y ∂y ∂y
Prandtl hypothesizes that ℓ is proportional to distance from the wall, i.e., ℓ = Ky
Also, assume that near-wall region the shear stress is approximately constant
so that τt = τw, hence !
∂u
τw = ρK2y2
∂y
Integration with respect to y yields 1 τw
u= ln y + C
K ρ 5
Universal velocity profile
We now quantify the description of a turbulent boundary layer with a universal velocity profile:
We first consider the shear stress as the sum of a molecular and turbulent part:
τ ∂!u
= υ + ϵM
ρ ∂y
The universal velocity profile is obtained by introducing two nondimensional coordinates:
u τw /ρ
u+ = y =
+ y
τw /ρ υ

The equation for shear stress can be rewritten as:

dy+
du+ =
1+ εM /υ

In the laminar sublayer, εM ~ 0: 0 < y+ < 5, u+ = y+

In the buffer layer, εM ~ υ: 5 < y+ < 30, u+ = 2.5 ln y+ + 5.5

In the turbulent layer, εM ≫ υ: 30 < y+ < 400, u+ = 5.0 ln y+ − 5.5

The limits of each region are obtained by experimental velocity measurements.
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Turbulent heat transfer
Turbulent heat transfer is analogous to turbulent momentum transfer.

We define an eddy thermal diffusivity ϵH such that

q ∂T
= −ρcpϵH
A turb ∂y

The total heat transfer per unit area is

q ∂T
= −ρcp α + ϵH
A ∂y

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Turbulent heat transfer with fluid-friction analogy
In the turbulent-flow region, where εM ≫ υ and ϵH ≫ α, we define the turbulent Prandtl number as
εM
Prt =
ϵH

To account for the Prandtl number effect over the entire boundary layer a weighted average is needed, and it
turns out that use of Pr2/3 works very well and matches with the laminar heat-transfer–fluid-friction analogy.

By experimental measurement, the local friction coefficient is given by

Cfx = 0.0592Rex−1/5 , 5 × 10 " < Rex< 107
Cfx = 0.0592 logRex −2.584, 107 < Rex < 109

The average-friction coefficient for a flat plate with a laminar boundary layer up to Recrit and turbulent thereafter
can be calculated from
"f = 0.074ReL−1/5 − A/ReL ,
C Rex < 107
"f = 0.455 logReL
C −2.584 − A/ReL , Rex < 109
The constant A depends on Recrit:
Recrit 3 × 10 " 5 × 10 " 106 3 × 10 #
A 1055 1742 3340 8940
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Turbulent heat transfer with fluid-friction analogy
Cfx
Applying the fluid-friction analogy Stx
Pr2/3 = , we obtain the local turbulent heat transfer as:
2
StxPr2/3 = 0.0296Rex−1/5 , 5 ×10 " < Rex < 107
StxPr2/3 = 0.185 logRex −2.584, 107 < Rex < 109
"f
C
"
The average heat transfer over the entire laminar-turbulent boundary layer is given by St Pr2/3 =
2
" Pr2/3 = 0.037ReL−1/5 − 871/ReL ,
St ReL < 107 , Recrit = 5 × 105

Nu
"=
Recall that St ,
ReLPr
!
hL
NuL = = Pr1/3 0.037ReL0.8 − 871 , 5 × 105 < ReL < 107, Recrit = 5 × 105
k
Similarly,
!
hL
NuL = = Pr1/3 0.228ReL logReL −2.584 − 871 , 107 < Rex < 109, Recrit = 5 × 105
k

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Alternative equation for turbulent heat transfer
If a transition Reynolds number different from 500,000 is chosen, an alternative equation is
μ∞ $/&
NuL = 0.036 Pr0.43 ReL0.8 − 9200
μw
0.7 < Pr < 380
2×105 < ReL < 5.5×106
μ∞
0.26 < < 3.5
μw

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Example 1: Turbulent Heat Transfer from Isothermal Flat Plate
Air at 20°C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at 35 m/s. The plate is 75 cm long and is maintained at 60°C.
Assuming unit depth in the z direction, calculate the heat transfer from the plate.
Solution
Tw + T∞ 20 + 60
The film temperature is Tf = = = 40°C = 313 K
2 2
At Tf = 313 K, the properties of air are given by table A-5 using linear interpolation:
υ = 17.01 × 10 −6 m2/s k = 0.02723 W/m , °C Pr = 0.705
T¥= 20°C, u¥= 35 m/s
The Reynolds number is 75cm
u L (35)(0.75) y
ReL = ∞υ = 17.01 × 10−6 = 1.54 × 10 # > 5 × 10 "
x Tw=60°C
Therefore, the boundary layer flow is turbulent. z
!
hL
NuL = = Pr1/3 0.037ReL0.8 − 871 = (0.705)1/3(0.037(1.54 × 10 # )0.8 − 871) = 2160
k
k (2160)(0.02723)
h! = NuL = = 78.4 W/m2 , °C
L 0.75
The average heat transfer over the plate is
!
q = hA(T w − T∞) = (78.4)(0.75)(60 − 20) = 2352 W
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Turbulent boundary layer thickness
We can determine the turbulent boundary layer by the integral boundary layer equation:
𝑑 ) 𝜕𝑢
𝜌 0 u∞ − 𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇 4
𝑑𝑥 ( 𝜕𝑦 *+(

Experimental data showed that the velocity profile in a turbulent boundary layer is given by
u y $/,
=
u∞ δ
The wall shear stress cannot be calculated as the equation yields an infinite value at y = 0. Instead, the wall
shear is given by the empirical relation:
ρu∞ 2 υ $/"
τw = Cf = 0.0296 ρu∞ 2 where Cf = 0.0592Rex−1/5, Rex < 107
2 u∞x
We apply the velocity profile and the wall shear to the integral boundary layer equation:
𝑑 ) y $/, y $/, υ $/"
0 1− 𝑑𝑦 = 0.0296
𝑑𝑥 ( δ δ u∞x

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Turbulent boundary layer thickness
Integrating the equation gives
𝑑δ 72 υ $/"
= 0.0296
𝑑𝑥 7 u∞x
We shall integrate this equation for two physical situations:
Case 1: The boundary layer is fully turbulent from the leading edge of the plate.
δ
= 0.381Rex−1/5 where δ = 0 at x = 0
x
Case 2: The boundary layer follows a laminar growth pattern up to Recrit = 5 × 10 " and a turbulent growth
thereafter:
υ
δlam = 0 at xcrit = 5 × 10 "
u∞
d 5
where δlam is calculated from the Blasius solution: =
𝑥 Rex$/!
δlam = 5.0 xcrit (5 × 10 " )−1/2
Integrating the ODE above gives
72 υ $/" 5 &/" &/"
δ − δlam = 0.0296 x − x-./0
7 u∞ 4
δ
= 0.381Rex−1/5 − 10256Rex−1 13
x
Example 2: Turbulent-Boundary-Layer Thickness
Calculate the turbulent-boundary-layer thickness at the end of the plate for example 1, assuming that it
develops (a) from the leading edge of the plate and (b) from the transition point at Recrit = 5 × 10" .

Solution u¥= 35 m/s

75cm
From example 1, we have
y
ReL = 1.54 × 10 # > 5 × 10 "
(a) For the case where the turbulent-boundary-layer develops from the leading edge x
z
δ
= 0.381Rex−1/5
x
δL = 0.381LReL−1/5 = 0.381(0.75) (1.54 × 10 # )−1/5 = 0.0165 m = 16.5 mm

(b) For the case where the turbulent-boundary-layer develops from the transition point
δ
= 0.381Rex−1/5 − 10256Rex−1
x
δL = L(0.381Rex−1/5 − 10256Rex−1)
= (0.75) [0.381 (1.54 × 10 # )−1/5 − 10256(1.54 × 10 # )−1
= 0.0115 m = 11.5 mm
The two values differ by around 40 percent. 14
Heat transfer in laminar tube flows
We assume that the heat flux at the wall is constant, so that the average fluid temperature linearly with x. The
governing equation for the heat transfer is given by
1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂T 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
r = with boundary conditions: 4 = 0 and 𝑘 4 = qw = const
ur ∂r ∂r α ∂x 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 1+1
1+( "

The velocity distribution in a tube flow is given by

r2
u = u0 1 − 2 , where u0 is the center line velocity, and r0 is the radius.
r0
Substitute the velocity profile yields
∂ ∂T 1 ∂T r2
r = u0 1 − 2 r
∂r ∂r α ∂r r0
Integration by two times
∂T 1 ∂T r2 r4 1 ∂T r2 r4
r = u0 − + C1 T= u0 − + C1 lnr + C2
∂r α ∂x 2 4r02 α ∂x 2 16r02
Apply the first BC, C1 = 0. Noting that the axial temperature gradient is a constant, so that the second BC is
satisfied. Assume at r = 0, T = Tc, so that C2 = Tc, hence
1 ∂T r2 r4 1 ∂T r2 r4
T= u0 − + Tc T − Tc = u0 −
α ∂x 2 16r02 α ∂x 2 16r02
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The Bulk Temperature
In tube flow, there is no easily discernible free-stream condition as in flows over a plate. Even the centerline
temperature is not easily expressed in terms of the inlet condition. Our interest is energy transfer, so an
energy-average fluid temperature across the tube is defined for applying Newton’s law of cooling.
The bulk temperature Tb is defined as
1"
∫( ρ2πrucpT dr
𝑇𝑏 = " 1
∫( 𝜌2πrucp dr
The bulk temperature is representative of the total energy of the flow at a particular location, and sometimes
being referred to as “mixing cup” temperature.
7 u0r02 ∂T 3 u0r02 ∂T
Tb = Tc + Tw = Tc +
96 α ∂x 16 α ∂x
The heat transfer coefficient is calculated from
∂T
∂T k
q = hA Tw − Tb = kA and h = ∂r 1+1"
∂r 1+1" Tw − Tb
∂T 1 ∂T r2 r4 u0r0 ∂T
The temperature gradient is 4 = u0 − 4 =
∂r 1+1 α ∂x 2 4r02 1+1 4α ∂x
" "
∂T
k hd0
Therefore, ∂r 1+1" 48 k 24 k or
h= = = Nud = = 4.364 16
Tw − Tb 11 r0 11 d0 k
Turbulent heat transfer in a tube
The developed velocity profile for turbulent flow in a tube has a laminar sublayer, or “film,” that occupies the space
near the surface, while the central core of the flow is turbulent.
To determine the heat transfer in turbulent flow, we assume that the heat
transfer and shear stress can be represented by
q dT τ du
= − α +ε𝐻 = υ + εM
ρcpA dy ρ dy
Assume that the heat and momentum are transported at the same rate, i.e., εH = εM and 𝛼 = 𝜐, we have
q
du = − dT (i.e., Pr = 1)
cpAτ

We further assume that the ratio of heat transfer flux to the shear stress is constant across the flow field. Thus
q q
= const = >
Aτ Aτ w

Integrate between wall conditions and mean bulk conditions give

2+2# 3%
q q q
4 0 du = − 0 dT 4 um = Tw − Tb = h Tw − Tb
cpAτ w 2+( 3$ cpAτ w A
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Turbulent heat transfer in a tube
∆p πd02 /4 ∆p d0 f L 1 2
The wall shear stress = = = ρum2 because ∆p = f ρ um
πd0L 4 L 8 d0 2
∆p/(ρg)
This is the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow f =
(L/d0)(um2/(2g))
This is different from the friction coefficient Cf before which is known as Fanning friction factor.
h 1 Nud h 1
This gives = f thus St = = = f
ρcpum 8 RedPr ρcpum 8
Nud
Since f = 0.316Red4$/& = 0.0395Red5/&
RedPr
Please be noted that we made the assumption of Pr = 1. Since we know the heat transfer and friction analogy
has a Pr dependence of Pr2/3. We modify it without derivation.
Nud = 0.0395Red5/& Pr$/5
In practice the following formula works better as revealed by experimental data.
Nud = 0.0395Red(.7 Pr(.&

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