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Identifying the opportunities AI in higher

education
and challenges of artificial
intelligence in higher education:
a qualitative study
Fateme Jafari and Ahmad Keykha Received 10 September 2023
Revised 16 November 2023
Department of Educational Administration and Planning, Accepted 18 November 2023
Faculty of Psychology and Education, The University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

Abstract
Purpose – This research was developed to identify artificial intelligence (AI) opportunities and challenges in
higher education.
Design/methodology/approach – This qualitative research was developed using the six-step thematic
analysis method (Braun and Clark, 2006). Participants in this study were AI PhD students from Tehran
University in 2022–2023. Purposive sampling was used to select the participants; a total of 15 AI PhD students,
who were experts in this field, were selected and interviews were conducted.
Findings – The authors considered the opportunities that AI creates for higher education in eight secondary
subthemes (for faculty members, for students, in the teaching and learning process, for assessment, the
development of educational structures, the development of research structures, the development of
management structures and the development of academic culture). Correspondingly, The authors identified
and categorized the challenges that AI creates for higher education.
Research limitations/implications – Concerning the intended research, several limitations are significant.
First, the statistical population was limited, and only people with characteristics such as being PhD students,
studying at Tehran University and being experts in AI could be considered the statistical population. Second,
caution should be exercised when generalizing the results due to the limited statistical population (PhD
students from Tehran University). Third, the problem of accessing some students due to their participation in
research grants, academic immigration, etc.
Originality/value – The innovation of the current research is that the authors identified the opportunities and
challenges that AI creates for higher education at different levels. The findings of this study also contribute to
the enrichment of existing knowledge in the field regarding the effects of AI on the future of higher education,
as researchers need more understanding of AI developments in the future of higher education.
Keywords Artificial intelligence, AI in higher education, The future of higher education, ChatGPT,
Educational revolution
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Artificial intelligence (AI) has a long history, approximately 70 years (Dhawan and Batra,
2020), and has become a crucial component of the fourth industrial revolution (Yau et al.,
2023). This transformative technology has permeated various aspects of human life,
including medicine, psychology, and education (Su et al., 2023). AI has become indispensable
for educational institutions and universities, shaping them into integral components of
societal development (Aldosari, 2020). Universities have evolved beyond their traditional
roles of preserving heritage and imparting knowledge and must now embrace technological
advancements, forging innovative teaching and learning methods (Mor
ın, 2018). This era is
marked by unprecedented uncertainty in higher education (HE). AI has proliferated across
society, rendering traditional knowledge and skills obsolete (Akour and Alenezi, 2022). The
future of higher education is closely related to the advancement of new technologies and Journal of Applied Research in
Higher Education
intelligent machines. The rise of AI presents both opportunities and challenges in higher © Emerald Publishing Limited
2050-7003
education, leading to changes in institutional governance (Jain and Jain, 2019). Some of the DOI 10.1108/JARHE-09-2023-0426
JARHE opportunities that AI offers include personalized learning, collaborative AI-assisted learning,
improved research quality, individualized feedback, adaptive learning, and automated
assessments. However, some challenges need to be addressed, such as privacy concerns, data
security, digital illiteracy, technology costs, implementation issues, equity concerns, and
infrastructure limitations (Rasul et al., 2023).
A significant advancement in AI for higher education is ChatGPT, which OpenAI
introduced on November 30, 2022 (Kalla and Smith, 2023). ChatGPT is a versatile tool that
offers human-like responses and multi-lingual capabilities, including colloquial and standard
language usage (Borji, 2023). Its adoption of this technology in education has generated both
hopes and concerns. Universities grapple with its potential opportunities and challenges. For
example, the Political Science Department at Sciences Po, Paris, became the first French
university to prohibit AI and ChatGPT due to fears of exam plagiarism. In 2023, American
students demonstrated proficiency using ChatGPT in exams, validating these concerns
(Weimann-Sandig, 2023).
With the rapid successive developments in AI in HE, it is impossible to predict its future
with certainty. Decision-makers must constantly monitor emerging challenges and
opportunities and plan and act accordingly. Prohibition is ineffective, as HE systems will
inevitably be affected by this technology, whether they like it or not. Technology growth is
unstoppable, and these developments have only accelerated. Therefore, we must adapt to the
current conditions. This study aims to identify AI opportunities and challenges in HE. To
achieve this goal, two questions have been designed.
(1) What are the most critical opportunities that AI provides for HE?
(2) What are the most critical challenges that AI provides for HE?

2. Literature review
2.1 Artificial intelligence in education
AI, a transformative force, has significantly impacted education (Pence, 2019; Zawacki-
Richters et al., 2019). Its growing presence in education was highlighted in the 2018 Horizon
Report as a significant development (Educause, 2018). AI encompasses a wide range of
techniques used to create intelligent machines that can understand their surroundings and
make decisions (Gimpel et al., 2023). Some typical applications of AI include machine learning
(ML) and deep learning (DL) (Salas-Pilco and Yang, 2022). Figure 1 illustrates these
techniques’ interconnectedness while highlighting their distinctions (Bozkurt et al., 2021).
AI: The concept of AI dates back to 1950, when Alan Turing proposed the idea that
machines might emulate human behavior (Turing, 1950). In 1956, a conference at Dartmouth
University formally introduced the term AI (Berente et al., 2021; McCarthy’s et al., 2006
definition characterizes AI as creating machines that mimic human intelligence (McCarthy
et al., 2006; Russell, 2010; Ahmad et al., 2021; Popenici and Kerr, 2017; Berente et al., 2021).
Broadly, AI can be described as the ability of computers to function like intelligent humans to
improve society (Dhawan and Batra, 2020).
ML: ML emerged soon after the inception of AI and was defined by Arthur Samuel as the
ability to learn without explicit programming, serving as a means to achieve AI
(UNESCO, 2023).
DL: DL, a subset of ML, employs artificial neural networks through layers of
interconnected nodes to simulate the human brain (Cheng et al., 2018).
Understanding AI involves categorizing it based on capabilities, leading to three
classifications (O’Carroll, 2020):
 AI in higher
education

Figure 1.
Time series of AL, ML,
and DL

(1) ANI (Artificial Narrow Intelligence): This is the AI achieved by humanity, referred to
as “weak AI.”
(2) AGI (Artificial General Intelligence): If achieved, it would interact with human
intelligence (UNESCO, 2023).
(3) ASI (Artificial Super Intelligence): The last tier surpasses human capabilities
(O’Carroll, 2020), offering significant investment potential.
AI adoption varies across different industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, finance,
e-commerce, and education. In the manufacturing sector, AI is used for tasks such as product
design, workforce planning, quality improvement, and more. In healthcare, it supports
medical staff, drug discovery, and disease detection. The financial technology sector also
utilizes AI for personal investment, loan processing, and banking operations organizations.
E-commerce benefits from AI for consumer behavior analysis, marketing, and virtual
assistants. However, despite its potential, the education sector has been slower to adopt AI
(Bughin et al., 2017). AI can potentially impact educational management and the teaching-
learning experience (Dhawan and Batra, 2020).
The future of AI is constantly evolving and is expected to have a significant impact on
various domains, promising transformative developments (see Figure 2). The field of AI is
rapidly evolving, and its future developments are poised to make a significant impact across
various domains, as highlighted by Ballant (2018).
Baker et al. (2019) categorize AI in education into three general approaches based on its
implementation (tools): inclusive-oriented, educator-oriented, and institution-oriented. The
inclusive-oriented approach focuses on learners and utilizes intelligent or adaptive
educational systems. These tools are designed to tailor materials to individual learner
characteristics, assess strengths and weaknesses, and provide automatic feedback. On the

Figure 2.
The future evolution of
artificial intelligence
JARHE other hand, the educator-oriented approach is centered on teachers and aims to reduce their
workload, provide learner-related information, and promote classroom innovation. Lastly, the
institution-oriented approach is beneficial for educational institutions as it provides decision-
making information (Baker et al., 2019).

2.2 Research background

In 2023, Rasul and colleagues conducted a study titled "ChatGPT in Higher Education:
Opportunities and Challenges and the Future Research Path.” ChatGPT is a valuable AI tool
for education. The study identified five opportunities: adaptive learning, personalized
feedback, research support, administrative support automation, and creative assessments.
The challenges identified in the study include ethics (knowledge gaps between students,
copyright issues, information validation, and potential for misuse), evaluating graduates’
abilities, using fake information in data processing, and assessing learners’ results. In another
2023 study by Su and colleagues, titled “Using AI in Early Childhood Education,” the authors
explored challenges and opportunities. They analyzed sixteen articles published between
2016 and 2022. The challenges identified in this study include teacher AI literacy and
curriculum design, while the opportunities focus on enhancing children’s AI literacy. Qin and
Wang (2022) presented “Opportunities, Challenges, and Solutions for Using Artificial
Intelligence in Education”. This article divided opportunities into three categories from users’
perspectives: learners, educators, and administrators. The opportunities identified in this
study include personalized learning, targeted training, and decision-making support. The
challenges discussed involve incomplete algorithms, data shortages, and technical
dependence, and the authors propose solutions to address these challenges.
In 2022, Celik et al. conducted a study entitled “Opportunities and Challenges of AI for
Teachers,” which categorized opportunities into three main areas: planning, implementation, and
evaluation. Concerning planning, opportunities such as providing background information and
making decisions regarding teaching content were identified. Implementation supports timely
monitoring and providing feedback, which can reduce teacher workload. Evaluation provides
better assessment, automatic evaluation, and feedback on exercise effectiveness. However, the
study also identified several challenges, including AI algorithms’ credibility, AI technical
limitations, AI technical infrastructure in schools, AI inefficiency for evaluation, teacher
knowledge and interest, AI slow feedback, and adaptive feedback with limited AI. Another study
by Akinwalere and Ivanov in 2022 about “AI in Higher Education” explored opportunities such
as smart campuses, use in research, teacher collaboration, personalized learning, global access,
and administrative activity automation. However, the study highlighted potential challenges,
including adverse consequences, comprehensiveness, accuracy, and implementation. Based on
these findings, the researchers made recommendations for using AI in HE.
Similarly, Owoc et al. (2019) conducted a study on “AI Technologies in Education,” which
identified opportunities such as automatic grading, interval repetition, feedback loops for
teachers, AI as an assistant in the classroom, and personalized learning. However, the study also
noted strategy, organizational maturity, data governance, and infrastructure challenges.
Dhawan and Batra’s 2020 study, “AI in Higher Education,” found opportunities for AI in
personal learning, skill development, lifelong communication, collaborative learning, security,
information sharing, and AI cooperation in research. Challenges encompass privacy, technology
costs, digital illiteracy, inexperience, technology’s raw nature, and implementation issues.

3. Methodology
It is clear that AI is already adding value to HE. AI provides HE institutions with a long list of
opportunities and challenges. In decision-makers’ opinion, they should constantly monitor
emerging challenges and opportunities and then plan and act accordingly. Therefore, this AI in higher
study was developed to identify AI opportunities and challenges in HE. education
3.1 Research design
This research is qualitative; qualitative research seeks to answer three types of questions
about a phenomenon: “how”, “why”, and “what” (Thorogood and Green, 2018). In these
studies, the data are words (textual data) (Hennink et al., 2020). Data collected in qualitative
research are collected through interviews, observations, or focus groups (Haven and Van
Grootel, 2019). Noticeably, two types of paradigms are used in these studies: interpretive and
positivist paradigms (Hennink et al., 2020).
This qualitative research was developed using the thematic analysis method. In particular,
Braun and Clarke (2006) utilized thematic analysis in this research. Thematic analysis is a
flexible, widely used qualitative analytical method. Thematic analysis is a method for
identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data (Braun and Clarke, 2006).

3.2 Population and sampling

The participants of this study were AI PhD students at Tehran University in 2022–2023. Purposive
sampling was used to select the participants; this is a kind of sampling that selects appropriate
participants with useful information (Kelly et al., 2010). Purposive sampling ensures that the
selected cases are suitable for research (Robinson, 2014). Therefore, students who had sufficient
knowledge of the subject were chosen. The rule of theoretical saturation was used to determine the
sample size. Therefore, after interviewing 15 participants, no new classes were added to the
previous classes. In Figure 3, the distribution diagram of the participants is shown based on gender.
Based on the demographic information collected from the participants, 13 (86%) of the
participants in the interview were male and 2 (14%) were female. The following diagram in
Figure 4 represents the distribution of participants by age.
Based on Figure 4 above, the most frequent age group of the interviewees was 30–39 years
old, which included nine interviewers. The next most frequent age groups were 20–29 and
40–49 years old, with frequencies of 5 and 1, respectively.

3.3 Data collection

The data collection tool was a semi-structured interview in which all respondents were asked
the same questions but were free to give their answers however they wanted. The average
duration of the interviews was between 30 and 50 min. These questions are listed as follows:

14%

86%

Figure 3.
Male Female Distribution of
participants by gender
Source(s): Authors’ own work
JARHE 10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Figure 4. 0
Characteristics of 20-29 30-39 40-49
participants (by age)
Source(s): Authors’ own work

Q1. What are the opportunities for using artificial intelligence in higher education for
faculty members?
Q2. What are the opportunities for using artificial intelligence in higher education for
students?
Q3. What are the challenges of using artificial intelligence in higher education for faculty
members?
Q4. What are the challenges of using artificial intelligence in higher education for
students?

3.4 Data analysis

This qualitative research was developed using the thematic analysis method. In particular,
Baron and Clarke (2006) utilized thematic analysis in this research. The data analysis process
included five steps described in Table 1 below.

3.5 Reliability and validity

Indeed, despite the fact that reliability and validity have traditionally been associated with
quantitative studies, they have also been applied to qualitative studies (Hansen and
Husmoen, 2016). Guaranteeing reliability and validity is essential for qualitative data due to
potential risks for participants (Gururajan et al., 2014).
To validate the data, the member-checking strategy was used (Birt et al., 2016). Therefore,
after data analysis, three to five participants were randomly selected, and the results of the
data analysis were reported to them and approved and reviewed. For ethical considerations,
the following measures were taken: (1) introducing oneself to the participants in the study and
explaining the research objectives; (2) obtaining informed consent from participants; (3)
giving the participants the right to decide whether to continue or withdraw from the study;
and (4) giving assurance to the participants regarding the confidentiality of their information
and not using their names and personal and private details in the study.

3.6 Ethics in research

In order to comply with research ethics, the participants were aware that the conversations
were being recorded during the session and that the recorded voices were only available to
the researcher and his colleagues in this study and would not be accessible by others in any
 Methodology in research data
AI in higher
Levels analysis Description education
Data • Implementing the text of • Immersing oneself with in the information
familiarization interviews to get it profundity and breadth of the
• Detailed study of the text of the content
interviews • Looking for patterns and meaning begins
• Identification of analytical
patterns in the text
Initial code • Considering the text analysis Generating of initial codes to organize the data,
generation unit of the interviews with full
(paragraph) and equal attention given to each data item
• Extraction of primary codes
Generating (initial) • Listing the extracted primary • Sorting of codes into initial themes
themes codes • Recognizing meaning of and connections
• Indexing of primary codes based between initial codes
on research questions
Theme review • Merge similar codes • Recognizing coherent patterns at the level
• Ensuring that the number of of the coded data
codes is sufficient • Looking into whole data set as a entire
Theme defining • Revision of the classes formed • Distinguishing the story of each of the
and naming based on commonalities and distinguished themes
differences • Fitting the broader story of the data set to
• Organize identified themes reply to the research questions
Report production Presenting the final report of the Presenting of a brief and curiously account of
findings the story told by the data, both within and
across themes Table 1.
Source(s): Authors’ own work Steps of data analysis

way. It was also ensured that the participants’ personal information, such as their names,
would not be used.
3.6.1 Findings. 3.6.1.1 Section 1: most important opportunities that artificial
intelligence provides for higher education. After extracting the key concepts through
repeated iterations, the key concepts were classified according to similarities and differences.
The result of this analysis is represented in appendix Table A1. Based on the table, two
primary subthemes have been obtained under the titles “Creating Opportunities at the
Classroom Level” and “Creating Opportunities at the University Level”. Secondary
subthemes related to creating opportunities at the classroom level include opportunities
created for faculty members (43 concepts), opportunities created for students (25 concepts),
opportunities created in the teaching-learning process (22 concepts), and opportunities
created for evaluation (36 concepts). Concerning the primary subtheme of creating
opportunities at the university level, four secondary subthemes under the titles of
development of educational structures (26 concepts), development of research structures
(23 concepts), development of management structures (27 concepts), and development of
university culture (5 concepts) were identified. In this research, a total of two primary
subthemes, eight secondary subthemes, and 207 concepts were obtained (Appendix).
3.6.1.2 Section 2: the most important challenges of AI in HE. Similar concepts were
grouped into higher (more abstract) categories based on their similarities and differences, as
in the previous section. Table A2 in Appendix shows that two primary subthemes were
obtained under the titles “Challenges at the Classroom Level” and “Challenges at the
University Level”. Secondary subthemes related to challenges at the classroom level include
challenges for faculty members (11 concepts), challenges for students (9 concepts), challenges
JARHE in the teaching-learning process (13 concepts), and challenges in evaluation (4 concepts).
Concerning the primary subtheme of challenges at the university level, four secondary
subthemes under the titles of challenges in educational structures (3 concepts), challenges in
research structures (5 concepts), challenges in management structures (8 concepts), and
challenges in academic culture (7 key concepts) were identified. In this research, a total of two
primary subthemes, eight secondary subthemes, and 60 concepts have been obtained
(Appendix).

4. Results and discussion

AI has become prevalent in all sectors, including higher education. It can be argued that AI is
currently one of the most influential drivers of change in the field of HE. This technology has the
potential to enhance education quality and accessibility, potentially leading to a transformation
in management, teaching, and learning methods. However, the successful integration of AI in
HE requires careful and innovative implementation. With its advanced algorithms, AI can
expand human intelligence limits, making it an integral part of the future of HE.
The research aims to explore the impact of AI on higher education (HE), focusing on
opportunities and challenges. These opportunities can be categorized into classroom-level and
university-level benefits. At the classroom level, opportunities encompass faculty members,
students, teaching, learning processes, and assessment. For faculty members, AI can provide
personalized exams and reduce their workload. As one participant noted, “We can design
individualized exams and save time.” “AI can also automate certain tasks, like polls, reducing
faculty workload. Continuous access to AI equates to a 24-h teacher.” AI improves class quality,
content relevance, and engagement. Among the studies that have mentioned the achievements
of AI for faculty members, we can mention Nagro (2021) and Alhwaiti (2023). The use of AI by
faculty members in HE enhances the development of educational goals, educational program
design, the implementation of curriculum goals, and the enhancement of curriculum processes
(Pedro et al., 2019). The potential of AI is evident in its ability to provide customized exams and
content, efficient task automation, and continuous support for faculty and students. This
research aims to delve into the transformative potential of AI in HE, shedding light on its
numerous opportunities for improvement, innovation, and personalization.
As a university professor, it is crucial to foster student opportunities. Interview Code 4
highlights the versatility of AI in various fields. For instance, in the realm of language, AI aids
in text assessment, identifying grammatical errors, and enhancing writing quality. It can also
generate concise topic summaries, tailoring responses to specific references, thereby saving
valuable time (Interview Code 4). Similarly, with the help of AI, students can have a digital
profile that can be used to assign personalized training, such as a private tutor, leading to
increased productivity inside and outside the classroom (Chassignol et al., 2018). AI’s impact
on education extends to note-taking; students can utilize tools for efficient note capture,
eliminating the need to juggle listening and writing in class (Interview Code 11). Among the
studies that have mentioned the achievements of AI for faculty members, we can mention
Rasul et al. (2023), Owoc et al. (2019), and Dhawan and Batra (2020). Furthermore, AI systems
enhance the teaching and learning process by providing high-quality educational content
through learner analysis and data mining (Cheng et al., 2018). In summary, AI empowers
students and educators alike, offering diverse benefits across the educational spectrum.
Creating opportunities for students, for example, interview code quote (4): “It is effective in
any field. For example, in relation to language, a person can write a text, and AI can score the way
of writing, catch grammatical mistakes, etc.”. An example quotation from the interview Code 4:
“For example, it can summarize a certain topic for you; AI will answer you in a specific way
according to a specific reference, which can help a lot and save time.” An example of the quotation
from the interview Code 11: “There are tools that help learners take notes during the education
process, and there is no need for students in the class to listen and take notes; they should just AI in higher
listen.” Among the studies that have mentioned the achievements of AI for students, we can education
mention Rasul et al. (2023), Owoc et al. (2019), and Dhawan and Batra (2020). With the help of AI,
students can have a digital profile that can be used to assign personalized training, such as a
private tutor, leading to increased productivity both inside and outside the classroom
(Chassignol et al., 2018). Creating opportunities in the teaching and learning process, for
example, interview code quote (5): “In the learning process, the learner seeks to learn something
and spends time, but if they search in search engines, they will easily find the most recent and
relevant ones.” AI systems provide high-quality educational content through learner analysis
and data mining, thus supporting the entire teaching and learning process (Cheng et al., 2018).
AI facilitates simulation-based learning in various fields, like medicine (e.g. brain surgery for
medical students) (Qin and Wang, 2022; Celik et al., 2022; Ullah and Arshad, 2022; Zhang, 2022).
“It revolutionizes assessment methods by rendering traditional methods obsolete, allowing AI-
driven exam and exercise solutions” (Interviewee 7). “Additionally, AI assists professors in
pinpointing students’ strengths and weaknesses by analyzing feedback and performance data”
(Interviewee 3). It also enhances fairness in exam corrections through AI-driven criteria
(Interviewee 11) and has transformed evaluation processes, leveraging reliable data for
multifaceted knowledge evaluation (Cope et al., 2021). AI has opened new educational horizons,
revolutionizing both teaching and assessment methodologies.
Regarding opportunities at the university level, four categories have been identified: the
development of the educational structure, the development of the research structure, the
development of the management structure, and the development of academic culture.
Similarly, the identified challenges can be analyzed in two general categories: challenges at
the classroom level and challenges at the university level.
Creating educational opportunities with AI integration into the metaverse or value-added
reality can create a strong learning environment (interview quote 12). AI simplifies education
(interview quote 5) and offers new content formats (interview quote 3). Implementing quality
assurance systems with AI can revolutionize education (interview quote 8). AI’s
achievements in educational development are evident in studies by Dhawan and Batra
(2020), Akinwalere and Ivanov (2022), and Celik et al. (2022). The development of AI has had a
significant impact on the teaching and learning process, leading to changes in teaching
methods and revolutionizing education (Xue and Wang, 2022). AI streamlines research with
automated background checks, summarization, and problem-solving (interview quotes 1, 12).
It interprets research findings (interview quote 14) and aids in analyzing research structures
(Rasul et al., 2023; Dhawan and Batra, 2020; Akinwalere and Ivanov, 2022). AI is highly
effective at analyzing and categorizing articles, saving time and effort for students, and
producing higher-quality work (Solangi et al., 2018). AI’s role in management structures
promotes efficient control and green university practices (interview quotes 4, 8). Its impact on
management is reflected in studies by Qin and Wang (2022) and Sharma et al. (2019). The use
of AI technology enables human-machine cooperative decision-making in HE institutions
(Liu et al., 2018). To develop an academic culture, cultural rules must be established for AI use,
respecting intellectual rights (interview quote 14). The cultural shift driven by AI is inevitable
(interview quote 8). As with past innovations, societal norms evolve (interview quote 14).
The challenges at the classroom level include those created for faculty members, for
students, for the teaching-learning process, and for evaluation. The challenges at the
university level also include developing educational structures, research structures,
management structures, and university culture.
Faculty challenges include outdated AI knowledge (Code 4), a lack of AI skills (Code 10),
and difficulties with AI (Code 11) (Su et al., 2023; Celik et al., 2022; Dhawan and Batra, 2020).
Despite the positive attitudes of faculty members towards the use of AI in education, their
level of preparedness to use this technology is only moderate. This is due to factors such as
JARHE lack of knowledge, limited resources, and ineffective use (Alnasib, 2023). Student issues
encompass AI-replacing thinking (Code 3), over-trust in AI-generated content (Code 7), and
unequal access (Code 2) (Akinwalere and Ivanov, 2022; Dhawan and Batra, 2020). In the
educational process, content is often presented electronically, resulting in a passive learning
experience for students. Additionally, there is a lack of understanding about the interaction
between humans and computers (Liu et al., 2022). Teaching and learning face AI accuracy
(Code 2) and human-AI differences (Code 5) issues (Su et al., 2023; Akinwalere and Ivanov,
2022). Numerous studies have shown that AI cannot replace the role of a teacher, and the way
AI technologies function is vastly different from human intelligence (Cope et al., 2021).
Evaluation challenges involve cheating (Code 4) and AI learning reliability (Code 2) (Celik
et al., 2022; Dhawan and Batra, 2020). The evaluation conducted by AI may not reflect
students’ knowledge and skills accurately (Swiecki et al., 2022).
The challenge of developing educational structures includes the need to review and verify
AI-generated content (7) and the potential for educational injustice when students lack access
to technology (12) (Rasul et al., 2023; Akinwalere and Ivanov, 2022). One of the challenges in
education is the rise of fraudulent activities and the resource limitations to detect them
(UNESCO, 2023). In research, distinguishing between AI and human work is a major
challenge (1), and AI can lead to research plagiarism (7). AI challenges in management
structures involve financial burdens (8) and the absence of anti-fraud laws (15) (Owoc et al.,
2019; Tao et al., 2019). The use of AI in research may lead to issues such as difficulties in
conducting literature searches, potentially excluding essential studies or including irrelevant
ones (Chubb et al., 2022). Developing academic culture is hindered by professors’ resistance to
AI (13) and concerns about its impact on national and cultural identity (8) (Mohammed, 2018).
Limited AI availability in some countries due to specific laws and concerns about equal
access due to speed and Internet costs pose challenges (UNESCO, 2023).

5. Future research directions

We suggest that future researchers identify challenges and opportunities by using
hierarchical statistical methods from the perspective of experts. It is recommended that
future researchers do a comparative study of the identified challenges and opportunities of AI
in different countries according to their perception of their environment.

6. Research limitations
Concerning the intended research, several limitations are significant. First, the statistical
population was limited, and only people with characteristics such as being Ph.D. students,
studying at Tehran University, and being experts in the field of artificial intelligence could be
considered the statistical population. Second, caution should be exercised when generalizing
the results due to the limited statistical population (PhD students of Tehran University).
Third, the problem of accessing some students due to their participation in research grants,
academic immigration, etc.

7. Practical suggestions and policy recommendations

(1) Holding empowerment courses for faculty members and students in order to improve
computer capability and adaptability to prepare for the future
(2) Formulating laws at the level of higher education and universities in the field of using
new technologies such as Chat GPT for more effective monitoring and follow-up of
violations
 (3) Changing the assessment mechanisms of students and adapting and accepting new AI in higher
methods according to the unique structure of artificial intelligence education
(4) Developing universities’ hardware and software infrastructure and realizing smart
universities to prepare for the digital future
(5) Redefining the laws related to intellectual property laws and patents according to the
changes brought about by the evolution of artificial intelligence
(6) Making small changes to change the norms of the academic culture to accept
technological developments

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Primary subtheme Secondary subtheme Concepts

Creating opportunities at the Opportunities created for faculty Helping to investigate plagiarism more closely in students’ educational activities (1); Helping to investigate academic plagiarism in students’ research
classroom level members activities (1); Use as a teaching assistant (4:3:2:1); Helping to better transfer course concepts (4:3:11:1); Developing teaching resources (:4:1); Helping in
the realization of goals and lesson topics (1); Helping to organize educational activities in laboratory environments (1); Better identifying students’ Appendix
weaknesses and strengths (1:3); Analysis of students’ mental state in class(1); Reducing workload (1); updating tasks (1); Helping to correct handwriting
(2); Having a reminder role (2); Helping to monitor educational and laboratory activities (2); Helping to identify students’ errors (2); Helping to manage
time (13:11:2:9): Speed up performance (2); Helping to provide more targeted teaching materials (3); Identifying strengths and weaknesses at the
beginning of the semester (3); Assisting in the preparation of course content (3); Choosing up-to-date teaching styles (3); Compilation of the course
outline using ChatGPT (4); Updating and developing the course outline (4); Identifying strengths and weaknesses in the course outline (4); Disciplining
the course outline (4): helping to identify the latest topics related to the field of teaching (5); Developing search skills (5); Helping to change performance
towards improvement (5); Designing more practical examples in education (6); Creating creativity in teaching (6): Helping to choose useful educational
resources (6): Having a complementary role in presenting materials (6): Giving immediate feedback to the student after solving problem (7): Helping
ChatGPT in editing article (9): Helping ChatGPT in designing exercises and homework (:11:9): Using smart attendance system (:13:9): Better
management of classes with high student population (9:11)): Developing teaching aid tools (11): Providing creative ideas for teaching (11): Helping to
provide useful educational information (12); Reduce the presence of professors in the university (13); Assist in automatic monitoring of students’ work
(13); Using fraud detection systems in exercises (13)
Opportunities created for students Using for problem solving (9): Using as a tutor (2:1); Reducing workload of students (1); Helping students who are falling behind in academic subjects
compared to other students (1); Answering students’ questions outside the classroom environment (2:13:11); Providing more access to chatbots for
students (2); Helping with better time management (:11:4:2): Helping to increase the speed of performance (2); Educational personalization (9:7:3);
Helping to develop other skills by providing educational resources (4); Providing editorial and grammatical assistance in writing (4); Helping with
summarizing (4:7): Helping to complete homework (4); Assistance in finding resources (4); Helping to identify the field of interest (5); Helping to learn
software (5); Helping to choose the subject of thesis and essay (6): Helping to review different topics and chapters of a lesson (7): Designing personal
exercises (7): Helping to search for essays and theses (11): Helping to take better notes in lessons (11): Helping to better study articles (11): Helping to
summarize the contents more accurately (11): Helping students to make a better class presentation (such as PowerPoint design, etc.) (11): Helping to
conduct more targeted and faster searches (:13)
Opportunities created in the teaching and Developing interactions between students and professors (1); Practical learning (1); Preparing a database of students’ status (1:5:1); Analysis of factors
learning process affecting students’ performance (1); Paying attention to individual learning styles and differences (1:3:5); Helping teachers to know themselves better in
the teaching process (3); More accurate recognition of students’ skills (3); Using advanced visual expressions in the classroom (5); The role of facilitator
in learning (5); Helping to learn unknown concepts faster (5); helping to synthesize information for more sustainable learning (5); Helping to learn
concepts more deeply (6): Making the classroom environment more attractive (6); Dynamizing the classroom environment (6): Helping students focus
(11): Helping to create a better atmosphere for questions and answers in the classroom (1:3:3); Using ChatGPT in teaching processes (6:2:1:4); Helping to
create a learning simulation environment (6:1:4); Using smart systems to film the classroom to improve the learning process (9): more interactive
learning (15); Emergence of new learning methods (15); Personalized learning (15)
Opportunities created for evaluation Grouping and collectively evaluating of students (5); More accurately measuring student performance (5); Assisting in assessment to grade students (5);
Helping to design new questions for training (6); More accurately assessing of class assignments (7): Diversifying test questions (7): Helping to conduct
tests better (9:11): Using in correcting tests (13:1:9): Forming a database for frequently repeated questions (9): Designing online exam monitoring
systems (9:11): Rapidly evaluating and grading of tests (9): Making the student evaluation process fairer (2:10:11): Designing test questions according to
each student’s ability (9:3) 5:1); Saving test time (1); Saving time on question design (11:9:1); Helping to better distinguish between excellent and poor
performance (1); Evaluation of students based on specific individual conditions (1); Better analysis of the causes of students’ academic failure (1); Setting
questions with different degrees of difficulty (2:5); More realistically evaluating of students’ performance (3); Receiving continuous evaluation from
students (3:7); Analyzing students’ academic progress based on time trends (3): Using ChatGPT in designing test questions (3:6); More detailed design of
test questions (7:3); Helping to prevent cheating during testing (3); Helping to conduct cognitive assessment of students (3); Better evaluation in practical
lessons (3); Improving the quality of test questions (4); Developing simulated tests (4); Helping to conduct a more accurate comparative assessment
among students (4); Ranking tests performed (13); Preparing a test question bank and randomly selecting questions (13); Designing questions based on
the degree of difficulty (13); Improving examination methods (13); improving methods of correcting exam papers (13)

(continued )
education
AI in higher

opportunities for HE
The most important AI
Table A1.
 JARHE

Table A1.
Primary subtheme Secondary subtheme Concepts

Creating opportunities at the Development of educational structures Improving the quality of education (6:1); Improving educational efficiency (1); Defining new educational rules (1); providing more and better educational
university level accountability (2); Providing new educational content (3); Diversifying educational content (3); Updating educational content (3:6); Providing free access
to a large amount of educational resources (4); Reducing the amount and percentage of errors in carrying out educational activities (4); Simplifying the
education process (5); Improving the style and patterns of education (5): Transforming the flow of education (6): Accelerating coordination between
educational activities (9): Having a huge source of data for better education (10): Helping to ensure a more accurate quality of education (8); Producing
educational content compatible with artificial intelligence (12); Using value-added reality in education (12); Using virtual reality in education (12); Using
metaverse space in education (12); Visualizing and illustrating in education (12); Creating educational equality in access for all educational groups (12);
Providing fast and timely educational support (12); Increasing the speed of educational efficiency (6:4); Optimizing the training process (1); Using
gamification in the education process (1); Facilitating the process of producing educational content (15)
Development of research structures Using big data in research (1); Helping to collect more data in research (1); Defining new research rules (1); Using Reinforcement Learning in research (1);
Problematizing in research (1); Helping to choose and understand research topics (3): Helping to conduct more practical research (4): Providing
background before reaching the final results of the research (e.g. the result of combining two materials) (4); Accelerating the research process (8:13);
concluding research contracts (8); Preparing huge research databases (12); Using as a research assistant (1); Using in research literature review and idea
creation (5:4:1); Applying to critique the research background (1); Helping to identify gaps in the research field under study (1); Helping to prioritize and
prepare the timeline of research activities (1); Impacting intellectual property laws in the research field (1); Helping in the field of research execution and
implementation (1); Guiding in the research process (2); Improving the research speed (1:2); Simplifying the research process (1); Publishing more recent
research (8); Better conducting interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research (13)
Development of management structures Adjusting the optimal punishment and reward system according to the new conditions (1); Better identification of the weaknesses and strengths of
human resources (1); Developing curriculum plan in the field of artificial intelligence for all disciplines (8); Developing educational advertisements using
artificial intelligence (8); Revising university policies (8); Developing university-industry communication policies (8); Increasing the awareness of
university administrators (8); Updating the university’s management system (8); Reforming regulatory mechanisms (8); Amending university rules and
regulations (8); Helping to create a green university (preserving environmental resources) (8:13); Helping to use resources optimally (8); Development of
university revenue source (8); Developing targeted policies in the cultivation of specialized human resources (8); Recruiting expert human resources
from other countries (8); Developing remote work activities (8); Developing international communication (8); Creating multinational job positions (8);
Helping to develop the internationalization of the university (:15:8); Encouraging effective activities based on artificial intelligence (8); Creating new
laws in the field of intellectual property (12); Using as an assistant in management (8); Developing new job competencies for students (8); Creating new
job skills in students (8); Revising old fields of study and updating of new fields of study (8); Accelerating administrative processes (13); Designing new
laws in line with artificial intelligence technologies (15)
Development of academic culture Culturally accepting the university (8); Modifying the process of resisting change in academics (8); Changing the academics values (12); Creating new
values in the university (12); Teaching the culture of using technology (15)
Note(s): The number in front of each concept indicates the number of the participant in the interview
Source(s): Authors’ own work
Primary subtheme Secondary subtheme Concept
AI in higher
education
Challenges at the Challenges for faculty The unpreparedness of professors in accepting new
classroom level members education systems (2:4); Low skill of professors in
working with artificial intelligence (10:6:2:4); Creating
unrealistic competition between professors (3);
Increasing the gap between the professors who use this
tool and those who do not (4): The outdated knowledge
of some faculty members (4); Inadequacy with the
presentation of some courses (6): Reduction of working
group and team spirit (7): Making extensive changes in
the form of class management (7): Assigning the
responsibility of education to the artificial intelligence
system (relieving the burden of the responsibility of
education) (9): Low knowledge of some professors in
using new technologies (13); One-dimensionality skills
of some professors (13)
Challenges for students Students’ low skill in working with artificial
intelligence (2:15); Weakening students’ writing skills
in education (3): Weakening students’ writing skills in
research (3): Creating unrealistic competition between
students (3); The student’s sense of independence from
the teacher in the educational process (3); Reducing the
spirit of student responsibility (4): Increasing the gap
between students who use this tool and those who do
not (4): Creating excessive trust in the content produced
by artificial intelligence in students (7): Reducing the
spirit of working in groups and teams (7)
Challenges in the teaching Diminishing the role of teachers in the teaching process
and learning process (1); Unreliability of ChatGPT responses (2): lack of
supervision of ChatGPT responses and performance
(2): Lack of human emotions in robots in human
communication in the classroom (4:2); Loss of the social
and communicative nature of education (2); Reduction
of social and emotional relationships between
professors and students (2:10); Out of reach and control
of learning processes (4); The presence of bugs in the
performance of artificial intelligence tools in the
learning process (6): The lack of up-to-date information
of some artificial intelligence tools in the learning
process (6): Misdirection in the answers of ChatGPT (6):
The loss of the concept of learning due to doing
Exercises by ChatGPT (11): Loss of learning value (11):
Doing homework and student projects without
learning by artificial intelligence (2:1)
Challenges in Evaluation The difficulty of recognizing the originality of work for
evaluation (2:1); Lack of trust in some results (:6:4); The
possibility of deceiving artificial intelligence tools for
assessment (4): Abuse in responding to projects and Table A2.
class assignments in assessment (9) Challenges of artificial
intelligence for higher
(continued ) education
JARHE Primary subtheme Secondary subtheme Concept

Challenges at the Challenges in educational Increasing educational injustice among different

university level structures groups (12); The difficulty of recognizing educational
products by humans or artificial intelligence (2:1); The
need for continuous review and verification of content
produced by artificial intelligence (7)
Challenges in research The difficulty of recognizing research products by
structures humans or artificial intelligence (3:2:1); Academic
plagiarism in researches (7:4:1): Changing instances of
academic plagiarism (1); Lack of clear laws in the field
of pursuing the resulting crimes (1); Reducing
interactions in research processes (3)
Challenges in management Loss of some management functions (8);
structures Expensiveness (8); The lack of up-to-date
administrative systems in universities (13); The low
level of facilities in some universities (13);
Incompatibility of the current laws of universities with
artificial intelligence (13); Difficulty of regulatory
processes (14); Insufficient specialized training for
human resources (15); Lack of a comprehensive
punishment system for violations (15)
Challenges in academic Resistance to changing professors in accepting new
culture technologies (6:10:13:11:4:2); Negative attitude of some
academics towards artificial intelligence (4); Becoming
bolder due to the generational difference between
students and professors in the use of new technologies
(2); Loss of cultural identity (8); Loss of national identity
(8); Using negative personal views (such as racism) in
the design and development of artificial intelligence
tools (4); Existence of an inappropriate culture of use
(14)
Table A2. Source(s): Authors’ own work

Corresponding author
Ahmad Keykha can be contacted at: [email protected]

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